Evaluation of Indigenous Technology for Cast Aluminium Cookware Production in Nigeria: A Case Study of User Health Risks from Cookware Made in Saki

Abstract

Today, the artisanal production of aluminium cookware, which relies solely on secondary (recycled) aluminium, has become a crucial activity of socioeconomic significance in Nigeria and other parts of Africa. Despite this development, the impacts of the products lifecycle have gained little or no attention in scientific study. In this study, we considered assessing the potential human health risks of the artisanal cast aluminium cookware produced in Saki, Southwestern Nigeria. Water quality tests and microstructural characterisation were done with two cookware samples produced under different smelting conditions. From the preliminary tests, the water analysis result indicates that with an instant use, the migrations of aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and other metallic ions into the water sample boiled with the cookware were not beyond the acceptable limit set by the World Health Organisation (WHO) for water quality standards. From the SEM-EDX results, no toxic or heavy metallic element like lead was found. Additionally, typical elements which are expected to be found in aluminium alloys were present in the composition of the cookware. This indicates that despite the indigenous method of producing the cookware, contaminants that could be detrimental to the health of users were well-controlled. While further experimental testing is proposed, the study observed the need to gradually refine the overall production processes for indigenous aluminium cookware while leveraging scientific knowledge for advancing local craft techniques in a high technological era.

Full text

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EVALUATION OF INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGY FOR
CAST ALUMINIUM COOKWARE PRODUCTION IN
NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF USER HEALTH RISKS
FROM COOKWARE MADE IN SAKI
1Oluwafemi Samuel Adelabu & 2Angus Donald Campbell
1,2Industrial Design Department, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
1Industrial Design Department, Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria
1osadelabu@uj.ac.za & 2acampbell@uj.ac.za
Abstract
Today, the artisanal production of aluminium cookware, which relies solely on secondary (recycled) aluminium, has
become a crucial activity of socio-economic signicance in Nigeria and other parts of Africa. Despite this development,
the impacts of the products lifecycle have gained little or no attention in scientic study. In this study, we considered
assessing the potential human health risks of the artisanal cast aluminium cookware produced in Saki, Southwestern
Nigeria. Water quality tests and microstructural characterisation were done with two cookware samples produced
under different smelting conditions. From the preliminary tests, the water analysis result indicates that with an instant
use, the migrations of aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and other metallic ions into the water sample boiled
with the cookware were not beyond the acceptable limit set by the World Health Organisation (WHO) for water quality
standards. From the SEM-EDX results, no toxic or heavy metallic element like lead was found. Additionally, typical
elements which are expected to be found in aluminium alloys were present in the composition of the cookware. This
indicates that despite the indigenous method of producing the cookware, contaminants that could be detrimental to
the health of users were well-controlled. While further experimental testing is proposed, the study observed the need
to gradually rene the overall production processes for indigenous aluminium cookware while leveraging scientic
knowledge for advancing local craft techniques in a high technological era.
Keywords: Appropriate strategy, Cast aluminium cookware, Low-cost indigenous technology, Microstructure and
chemical analysis, User health risks.
INTRODUCTION
Following a gradual disappearance of the traditional pottery vessels which were commonly used for culinary purposes
in the pre-colonial era in West Africa, cast aluminium cookware has emerged to replace them as essential houseware
after the mid-20th century. Although metallurgical technologies such as iron blacksmithing or bronze casting using lost-
wax casting are older metalworking traditions (Kriger 2000; Nevadomsky 2005), the practice of artisanal aluminium
metalwork with sand-casting is relatively recent and has been less explored. Osborn (2009) documented the evolution
and diffusion of artisanal production of cast aluminium cookware in West Africa based on the sand-casting method.
According to the study, the practice of artisanal aluminium casting began towards the end of World War II as goods
made with aluminium became more publicly available (Osborn 2009:377). The common thread of the historical
narrative indicates that the original casters were constituted of Senegalese men or men from elsewhere in West Africa
who learnt the craft in Senegal and then migrated. Their newly acquired technical skills created a new market for
locally produced cast aluminium products and formed a new sector within the informal economy. The casting of objects
with aluminium gradually gained prominence in the region drawing on the intrinsic value of the metal and its unique
characteristics: resistance to corrosion, good heat conduction, a high ratio of strength relative to weight, durability and
ability to withstand harsh weather conditions (Davis 1993:6–7, 2001:351–52). Of further value to the artisans was the
ease of innitely re-using the metal and its low melting point (660oC). It is now known that secondary production from
recycled scrap metal such as aluminium requires up to 90% less energy than primary production (US Energy Information
Administration (EIA) 2014). With relatively less energy demand, the availability and circulation of scrap aluminium, as
well as fairly basic technological know-how which is disseminated through the apprenticeship system, the craft and trade
of aluminium sand-casting has grown and diffused into communities all over West Africa, including Nigeria. In the case
of Nigeria, the sand casting method was adopted from neighbouring West African countries by local artisans as a low-cost
technology in the production of aluminium cookware for many households, thus serving as an important socio-economic
driver within the informal sector. Such activities can easily be dened as important supporters of human development
through appropriate technology (Campbell 2013; Smillie 2000:90–103), but it is important that they not only benet the
local community producing the cookware, but also those using it.
Today, the impacts of product life cycle on human and environmental health (Curran 2018; Santangelo 2011; Socolof
and Geibig, 2006) has become a salient issue that also needs to be addressed within the artisanal aluminium industry.
With growing public concern on the safe use of aluminium cookware and an expanding amount of research showing
aluminium as a potential source of toxic contaminations in food, the artisanal aluminium cookware industry is faced
with a unique opportunity for technological innovation or face technological discontinuity. The risk of contamination
posed by some locally produced cast metal pots in four selected locations in Nigeria was investigated by Lar, Caleb, and
Gusikit (2014:37). However, the areas covered excluded aluminium cookware produced from Saki, the town identied
for this study. Saki is an agrarian town located at 8°40′N (latitude) 3°24′E (longitude) in the northern part of Oyo state in
Southwestern Nigeria (Figure 1). The town is well-known for its long-standing status in the artisanal production of cast
aluminium cookware and a major distribution hub of aluminium cookware across the Southwestern region of Nigeria and
beyond.
Base map outline by Uwe Dedering at German Wikipedia / CC BY (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0)

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Artisanal cast aluminium production
Casting is a type of metalworking that involves pouring molten aluminium into a mould to duplicate a desired pattern.
Among the existing methods of casting, sand casting is reported as the most versatile method for producing aluminium
products (Runge 2018:206). As described by Runge (2018:206), the process usually begins with a pattern that is
a replica of the nished casting. The pattern is pressed into a ne sand mixture to form the mould into which the
aluminium is poured. The ow chart in Figure 2 illustrates a production process for the artisanal aluminium casting
system. Compared to other methods of casting such as die and permanent mould casting, sand casting is a slow process
but it’s considered more economical and probably the easiest for intricate designs, small quantities or a very large
casting (Runge 2018:206). Sand is used as it can easily be packed to any shape and with other desirable properties such
as high permeability and resistance to high temperatures (CustomPartNet 2008; Wang 2014:10).
In Nigeria, sand-casting or sand-cast moulding has become a widely used method of forming aluminium into products
by artisans who, through a labour-intensive process, recycle scrap aluminium into a range of functional household
products (see Figure 3). Notable among these products is the cast aluminium cookware in different ranges of size and
shape. These cooking pots have become ubiquitous for both urban and rural dwellers and used in the kitchens by the
middle-class and elite despite the presence of alternative products in the market. Particularly, the big-sized spherical
cast aluminium pots are widely used by cooks preparing food for a large number of people in various public spaces
including food stalls, eateries, and food processing outlets.
Aluminium cookware products and health issues
Several health effects have been associated with the impact of exposure to heavy metals especially through aspiration
and oral intake (Flora, Gupta, and Tiwari 2012; Taylor, Kordas, Golding and Emond 2017). Manufacturing industries
including mineral processing and recycling activities have been identied as a major source of exposure of heavy
metals in the environment ( Sepúlveda, Schluep, Renaud, Streicher, Kuehr and Hagelüken 2010; Street, Mathee, Tanda,
Hauzenberger, Naidoo and Goessler 2020). Recycling of scrap metal into artisanal cookware is widespread in poorly
resourced countries. The aim of the study was to determine the risk of metal exposure from the use of artisanal cookware
available in South Africa. Twenty cookware samples were purchased from local manufacturers and informal traders
across South Africa. Aluminum and silicon concentrations were determined using XRF and the total content of 18
elements (Ag, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, V and Zn.

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As opposed to iron, magnesium, zinc and some other mineral nutrients, aluminium is a metal that is not essentially
needed for humans (Stahl, Falk, Taschan, Boschek and Brunn 2018:2077). However, due to its ubiquity as the
most abundant metallic element on earth, human internal exposure and intake through food, water, food additives,
pharmaceuticals, food packaging and utensils are inevitable (Ogimoto, Suzuki, Haneishi, Kikuchi, Takanashi, Tomioka,
Uematsu and Monma 2016:185; Stahl et al. 2018:2078; Stahl, Taschan, and Brunn 2011:1). Apart from food and food
ingredients being a major source of aluminium exposure, studies have suggested that an additional source of aluminium
intake is through food processing and preparation; this has lead to a growing concern about toxic contamination of food
from contact materials such as aluminium cookware (Ankar-Brewoo, Darko, Abaidoo, Dalsgaard, Johnson, Ellis and
Brimer 2020; Jitaru, Ingenbleek, Marchond, Laurent, Adegboye, Hossou, Koné, Oyedele, Kisito, Dembélé, Eyangoh,
Verger, Bizec, Leblanc, and Guérin 2019; Neelam, Bamji, and Kaladhar 2000; Rajwanshi, Singh, Gupta and Dass
1997; Street et al. 2020; Veríssimo, Oliveira, and Gomes 2006; Weidenhamer, Fitzpatrick, Biro, Kobunski, Hudson,
Corbin and Gottesfeld 2017). The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (2019:1) and Krewski, Yokel, Nieboer,
Borchelt, Cohen, Harry, Kacew, Lindsay, Mahfouz, and Rondeau (2007) have revealed that a high intake of aluminium
compounds can cause neurotoxic developmental disorders, bone diseases and as well as the dysfunction of body organs
such as the liver and kidney.
The informal sector dealing with recycling of metals has also been identied as one of the potential sources of metal
poisoning in developing nations. For instance Lo, Dooyema, Neri, Durant, Jefferies, Medina-Marino, Ravello,
Thoroughman, Davis, Dankoli, Samson, Ibrahim, Okechukwu, Umar-Tsafe, Dama, and Brown (2012) investigated an
incidence of lead poisoning among children tied to gold ore processing at a village in Zamfara state, Nigeria. Moreover,
the artisanal recycling of scrap metal such as aluminium is seen as part of unregulated activities in the informal sector
that poses a risk for human health (Street, 2020). The production of aluminium cookware using scrap metals has been
investigated in a few African countries where the products are predominantly available. Weidenhamer Weidenhamer,
Kobunski, Kuepouo, Corbin and Gottesfeld et al. (2014) and Weidenhamer et al. (2017)are two studies which
investigated the release of metals from artisanal cookware. These studies took samples of cast aluminium pots from
Cameroon and 10 other developing countries and revealed that artisanal cookware can be a potential source of multi-
metal exposure and lead contamination as high as 260μg per serving. A study by Swaddiwudhipong, Tontiwattanasap,
Khunyotying, and Sanreun (2013) in Thailand showed that some children who are used to eating from inexpensive pots
with no certication had signicantly higher blood Pb levels than those who ate food from cookware having quality
certication. Other notable studies that have considered the health risk of contaminations from cookware in developing
countries include Lar et al (2014), Zhou, Rui, Wang, Wu, Fang, Li and Li (2017), Ankar-Brewoo et al. (2020) and
Street et al. (2020).
Under normal conditions, the Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Food Contact Materials
(2008:1) agreed that the contribution of aluminium migration from food contact containers only constitutes a small
fraction of total dietary uptake. This is deemed to be much lower than the intake which is considered safe following
an updated assessment of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, JECFA (2006). While there is
a growing amount of evidence of the release of heavy metals from artisanal cast-ware, more studies are required to
establish the extent to which this situation is true in places where the locally made metal cookware is widely produced.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Our study adopted an experimental method using two cookware samples and two commonly used additive materials
obtained from one of the local foundry workshops in the study area (Figure 4a-d). The artisan in charge was asked
to produce one sample using zinc-carbon battery ‘powder’ (identied as sample S), a common additive in the casting
process, and another sample was produced without it (identied as sample A). The artisans claimed that the powdery
additive is used to facilitate dirt separation in the process of melting the aluminium scraps.
The two samples were taken to the Water Quality Laboratory and Monitoring Network at the Federal Ministry of Water
Resources in Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria for water quality analysis. The parameters analysed are shown in Table 2 and
3 below. In addition to this, the presence and concentration of elements in the two cookware samples were evaluated
using a Zeiss Sigma Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-SEM)® equipped with both back-scattered and
Oxford energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) detectors. The SEM-EDX analysis was used to identify the elements present in
the cookware to conrm whether there are any contaminants, as listed by the World Health Organisation (WHO), other
than those expected in the core material.
Water Quality Testing
The cookware samples were washed and used to boil a water sample of known parameters. The water samples from
the cookware were allowed to cool after boiling, collected and tested again to see the changes in the parameters of the
raw water sample. To determine the level of contamination in the case of using the cookware for boiling water, changes
in the parameters were compared to the recommended values for drinking-water quality by the WHO (2005). Table 1
shows the instrumentation and methods adopted in testing for the listed parameters of the water samples (Rump and
Krist 1993).
Table 1: Methods used for testing water quality parameters
Parameters Instrumentaon/ Method
Appearance/Colour Visual observaon
Odour Physical observaon
Temperature Use of a thermometer
pH Use of a pH meter
Turbidity Use of a Turbidity meter
Conducvity Use of a Conducvity meter
Total Dissolved Solids Derived from the result of conducvity
Calcium Hardness CaCO3, Magnesium
Hardness CaCO3, Total Hardness EDTA Titrimetric method
Iron (Fe),
Aluminium(Al),
Manganese (Mn)
Use of Spectrophotometer and DR/890 Colorimeter
Calcium (Ca2+),
Magnesium (Mg2+)
Derived from the result of Calcium and Magnesium Hardness
Bicarbonate (HCO3)Titraon

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Water Quality Analysis
Table 2: Analysis of the aesthetic/physical parameters of water from pot samples
S/N Parameters Raw water
sample
Water from Sam-
ple A
Water from
Sample S
WHO stan-
dards
Appearance/Colour Clear Clear Clear -
Odour Odourless Odourless Odourless -
Temperature (0C) 28.5 28.2 28.2 12 – 25
pH 5.82 6.43 6.42 6.5 – 8.5
Turbidity (NTU) 0.00 3.00 4.00 -
Conducvity (µs/cm) 86.0 156 139 400
Table 3: Analysis of the chemical parameters of water from pot samples
S/N Parameters (in mg/L) Raw water
sample
Water from Sam-
ple A
Water from Sam-
ple S
WHO stan-
dards
Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS)
57.6 105 93.1 500
Total Hardness 34.0 44.0 48.0 300
Iron (Fe) 0.03 0.09 0.13 0.3
Aluminium(Al) 0.30 0.29 0.42 0.2
Manganese (Mn) 0.007 0.005 0.007 0.1 – 0.5
Calcium (Ca2+)8.02 8.82 9.62 100
Magnesium (Mg2+)3.42 5.37 5.86 50
Bicarbonate (HCO3)10.0 10.0 16.0 125 - 350
As can be seen in Tables 2 and 3, the results from the water analysis indicate the release of mineral elements and
ions from the cookware samples. This agrees with studies that have shown that the use of aluminium utensils in food
processing or preparation can result in migration of the aluminium to the food materials (Stahl, Falk, Rohrbeck,
Georgii, Herzog, Wiegand, Hotz, Boschek, Zorn, and Brunn 2017a, 2017b, 2017c). In this study, the rate of
contamination was higher for cookware sample S across almost all the parameters except for the measure of Total
Disolved Solids (TDS) in sample A where the factors responsible were not established due to the limited range of
tests conducted for the combined total of organic and inorganic substances present in the water sample. Nevertheless,
from the analysis of water obtained from boiling in the two cookware samples, the level of migration of metals and
metallic ions into the raw water can be considered to be minimal in that their parameter values did not exceed the limit
set by the WHO for water quality standards. It was also observed that the transfer limit of 5.00 mg/L for aluminium as
recommended by the Council of Europe (EDQM 2013) is not exceeded even with initial raw water sample containing
0.30mg/L of aluminium. Ca, Na, K, Cl, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cr, I, Co, Mo and Se are mostly essential dietary minerals for
human health, although not always available at the same time in drinking water (Olivares and Uauy 2005:43). Despite
being indispensable, they also require regulation in dietary intake to avoid deciencies and toxicosis.
A delimited factor for the water test experiment was that the study did not consider the effects of contaminations from
the pots under alkaline and acidic food conditions. Water tends to be relatively pH neutral and aluminium does not react
with either cold or hot water (except with steam). Aluminium reacts with oxygen in the air to form a durable outer layer
of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) which tends to inhibit further reaction (Landas 2019; Petrovic and Thomas 2008:3). Further
testing is necessary to evaluate the leaching effect that can be caused by cooking acidic foods such as grains, meat,
eggs and alkaline foods such as fruits, vegetables, legumes. Fekete, Deconinck, Bolle and Loco (2012:1322) suggested
that aluminium migration from aluminium containers could depend on some factors such as temperature, contact time,
pH (2.2–7), and salt concentration of extractants. Moreover, some heavy elements such as Pb, Cd, Hg, As, Li and Sn
that are cited as potentially toxic for human nutrition and well-being (WHO/FAO/IAEA 1996; WHO International
Programme of Chemical Safety 1996) were not tested for in the water samples. A microstructural test further revealed
the chemical composition of the cookware material and elements that were not accounted for in the water quality test.
Characterisation
Back-scattered electron imaging
Figure 5 shows the back-scattered electron images of the as-cast aluminium cooking ware. It can be seen that two
phases- light and dark, are predominant. The dark phase represents the primary α-Al matrix while the light phase
represents a secondary phase which is thought to be precipitates. These precipitates enhance the mechanical properties
and thermal resistance of aluminium alloys. Similar phases were found in the wrought alloy in Figure 6a, but the
precipitates preferentially settled at the grain boundaries. Figure 6b shows the microstructure of the black powder taken
from the zinc-carbon battery, bright spots which were thought to be contaminants are shown. The EDX analyses of
some of these spots as well as that of the aluminium samples are presented below.

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Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy
Figure 7 shows the results of the EDX area analyses for the as-cast aluminium cookware and the wrought aluminium
alloy that was added as an additive during processing. Also, EDX spot analysis was carried out on the bright spots seen
on the black powder from the zinc-carbon battery (Figure 8). In all cases, the spectra show that none of the detrimental
elements listed by the WHO were present. This indicates that despite the low-cost technology adopted in producing the
cookware, the Al cookware does not contain any potentially toxic contaminants.

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CONCLUSION
The study has attempted to assess the human health risks of artisanal aluminium cookware produced in Saki,
Southwestern Nigeria. The preliminary tests conducted have indicated no signicant release of mineral elements from
the cookware in case of contact with boiled water. However, further study is necessary to see if there is a signicant
effect when cooking alkaline or acidic food. The EDX results did not reveal any of the heavy toxic metals declared
toxic by the WHO. Although results from previous related studies in Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa (Ankar-Brewoo
et al. 2020; Lar et al. 2014; Street et al. 2020) have indicated locally made aluminium cookware as sources of human
health risks due to high level of contamination by heavy metals, the ndings from this case study have limited evidence
to support their results. In the future, further characterisation and testing will be undertaken to ascertain the safe use of
aluminium cookware. The authors have no conicting interest in the results of the study, but we do believe that it shows
that high-tech science can be used to evaluate the work of informal artisanal production systems, and thus far, in this
case, support local small-scale industrial growth through safe and sustainable practices.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the University of Johannesburg’s Global Excellence and Stature (GES) 4.0 Funding
for Postdoctoral Research, for providing the support necessary to undertake the research. Special thanks to Dr. Micheal
Oluwatosin Bodunrin for providing technical support with the SEM-EDX experimentation and Miss Deborah Adelakun
for assisting in the eld work.
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