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HONEYBEE PESTS AND DISEASES IN NEPAL: A REVIEW

June 2020
Sustainability in Food and Agriculture 1(2):76-79

DOI:10.26480/sfna.02.2020.76.79

Authors:

Rakshya Aryal

Agriculture and Forestry University

Ananta Dhakal

Agriculture and Forestry University

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Sustainability in Food and Agriculture (SFNA)1(2) (2020) 76-79

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Cite The Article: Rakshya Aryal, Ananta Dhakal(2020).Honeybee Pests And Diseases In Nepal; A Review.

Sustainability In Food And Agriculture, 1(2): 76-79

Sustainability in Food and Agriculture (SFNA)

DOI: http://doi.org/10.26480/sfna.02.2020.76.79

REVIEW ARTICLE

HONEYBEE PESTS AND DISEASES IN NEPAL: A REVIEW

Rakshya Aryal*, Ananta Dhakal

Faculty of Agriculture, Agriculture and Forestry University Rampur Chitwan Nepal.

*Corresponding Author Email: rakoaryal123@gmail.com

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and

reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

ARTICLE DETAILS

ABSTRACT

Article History:

Received 26 April 2020

Accepted 27 May 2020

Available online 02 June 2020

Apiculture has been in practice since ancient times in Nepal and is one of the most potential countries for

beekeeping. Despite having diverse bee species mostly, Apis mellifera occupies prominent position in

beekeeping. Beekeeping in Nepal also faces the problem of several disease and pests that attack adults and

brood bees. This condition lays a fundamental practice among all to identify the major disease and pest

commonly occurring. This helps in applying the best possible control measures for profitable and prosperous

beekeeping in Nepal.

KEYWORDS

Apiculture, Control, Diverse, Identify, Problem

1. INTRODUCTION

Bees are one of the insects in the world that can produce something that is

beneficial to all of us. Apiculture is the scientific method of rearing honey

bee. The Latin word ‘Apis’ refers to bee. So, apiculture/beekeeping is the

rearing and maintenance of honey bees for the purpose of honey, wax, bee

venom propolis, royal jelly production (National Organic Standards Board,

2010). Since the ancient times beekeeping has been in practice in Nepal

and is one of the major source of livelihood to many farmers in Tropical

and Subtropical belts of Nepal (Aryal et al., 2015). In context of Nepal

about 37% of the land of is filled with forest area with diverse flora and

fauna. This situation imparts increasing potential to beekeeping in Nepal

(Federation of Beekeeping Nepal, 2015). About 55,000 hives are owned by

about 5,700 commercial beekeepers in Nepal (Beekeepers’ Association,

2016). Apis laboriosa, A. dorsata, A. cerana, A. florae are native bee species

among all, but Apis mellifera was introduced in 1994 and has occupied a

prominent position on commercial bee keeping. Despite all above species

diversity two of them are famous among beekeepers, i.e. Apis cerana

and Apis mellifera.

However, Beekeeping in Nepal encounters many problems of disease and

pests as that the Beekeepers worldwide are facing. Some of the diseases

are so devastating while some can be controlled to some extent.

Beekeepers need to recognize those pests and diseases so that the extent

of damage can be known, and proven control measures can be applied. The

broods are attacked by American foulbrood, European Foulbrood, Chalk

brood, Stone brood, Sac brood disease while adults are attacked by

Nosema disease and the predators like Mites, wax moths, ant's, birds, bear,

lizard, frogs etc., attack the bees.

2. PESTS OF HONEY BEES

2.1 Wax moths

Wax Moths are considered as one of the destructive and devastating pest

of honey bee worldwide (Kwadha et al., 2019). (Achroia grisella)Lesser

and (Galleria mellonella) Greater wax moths are the two types of wax

moths found (Marc, 2014). Both species feed on bees wax, mainly

unprocessed wax, and even pollen of mainly already diseased colonies

(Bee Aware, 2014). The greater wax moth is worldwide in distribution and

its occurrences have been noted from the very early days of Aristotle

(TNAU Agritech Portal, 2014). In Nepal it is seen causing severe damage in

the plains regions such as Chitwan, Dang and lower altitudes but is rare in

high altitudes. But it is more common and severe from July to October and

November to December although it is most observed throughout the year.

Combs of all the species of Apis are attacked. The caterpillars feed on the

propolis, pollen and wax in the combs and live in silken tunnels made by

them. When they penetrate the combs, the wax particles are displaced and

fall into the hive. This is the first symptom of attack. At later stages black

fecal materials are seen in the comb. Weaker bee colonies and colonies

with cracks and that are not covered completely are damaged. Due to this

some bees drift away from the colony (MG, 2019). Achroia grisella are

abundant on higher altitudes (TNAU Agritech Portal, 2014).

2.1.1 Control

The insect can be controlled by careful and periodic examination of all the

cracks and crevices of the hive and discarding of all wax debris. The hives

that are extra and are not filled by the bees must be removed and stored

after fumigation with ethylene bromide. In the storerooms the spare hives

should be stored in tightly closed containers.

2.2 Ants

Ants are manageable and controllable predators of honey bees and are

considered not that serious ones. Some ant species that attack honey bees

are:

•Black ant Camponotus compressus,

•Red ant, Dorylus labiams

•Monomorium spp.

They mostly attack weak colonies for the honey, pollen and the brood.

Strong colonies recover the ant's damage, but in weak colonies may

completely be destroyed (TNAU Agritech Portal, 2014).

ISSN: 2716-6716 (Online)

CODEN: SFAUBO

Sustainability in Food and Agriculture (SFNA)1(2) (2020) 76-79

Cite The Article: Rakshya Aryal, Ananta Dhakal (2020).Honeybee Pests And Diseases In Nepal; A Review.

Sustainability In Food And Agriculture, 1(2): 76-79

2.2.1 Control

By providing water bowls (ant traps) around the bases of the stand or oil

bands over the stands, ants can be kept away. Methyl parathion or carbaryl

or 0.1% chlorpyriphos solutions are the chemical control measures.

2.3 Wasps

The yellow-banded hornet, Vespa cincta F., is a large and invasive

predatory pest. Due to its aggressive and effective predation of the

European honey bees and wild bees, hornets have been seen as a

significant problem for beekeepers. It is a social insect that constructs

papery nests in hollow spaces. It captures bees on the hive entrance and

kills them for feeding their young ones.

It captures bee in the field also. By reducing the width of the alighting

board of the hive, the wasps can be prevented from sitting near the

entrance (Bee Aware, 2014). As a result they have a direct impact on honey

bee colonies. Hive health is affected so, adversely as the bees have to spend

much time on defense to avoid attack of hornets and have limited time for

foraging activities. This leads to very less pollen and honey collection and

reserves making the colonies susceptible to attack.

2.3.1 Control

Wasp nests should be destroyed by burning them. They even can be

controlled by reducing hive entrance.

2.4 Small Hive beetles

(Athina tumida) is a small hive beetle that is about one-third size of bee is

the minor pest of honey bee. They lay eggs on the comb that hatch into

small larvae. They consume pollen, comb and larvae in their larval stage.

With the rapid development adults start feeding on eggs of the honey bee

(Gulati and Kaushik, 2004).

2.4.1 Control

Cleanliness of hive and regular examination is one of the better options.

Hive entrance size reduction also checks the entry of beetles in hives

(Gulati and Kaushik, 2004).

2.5 Birds

The bird species that capture bees and devour them are:

•Dicrucus sp. King Crow and

•Merops spp. bee cavers

2.6 Tracheal Mites

Acarapis woodi, the tracheal mite, causes Acarine disease of adults. They

reside inside the tracheae and air sacs of adult bees. The adult mites first

attack and infest the prothoracic and complete their life cycle there

(Sammataro et al., 2000). Piercing type mouthparts are the basic features

of these mites that are ingested through wall of trachea (Fouks and

Wagoner, 2019). These mites survive feeding the blood hemolymph. The

K shaped winged situation arises on bee that creates difficulty for bees to

fly. As bees are unable to fly they can be observed crawling nearby the

hives (Fouks and Wagoner, 2019). They are responsible for signiﬁcant

colony losses throughout the world. When more in number they are found

to diminish brood area, cause smaller bee populations, winter clusters

become loose, increases honey consumption, and lowers honey yields

(Sammataro et al., 2000).

2.6.1 Control

Menthol crystals are found to be effective against them. Also rearing of

resistant bees is even a better solution.

2.7 Varroa mites

Varroa jacobson, commonly known as varrora mite is one of the major

pests of honey bees in many parts of the world (Calderón et al., 2012).

These mites are ectoparasites that feed on the early stage of larva and

prepupa. Due to this nature the mites are regarded as problematic and are

very difficult to control. The adult mites are broader in their shape and lay

the eggs after the drone cell is sealed. The emerging drones are deformed

adults that may lack wings or legs and are unable to mate with queen.

These drones are generally seen on the entrance of hives, with uneasy

posture and feel difficulty to reach to hive (Sammataro et al., 2000).

2.7.1 Control

Spraying sulfur on the frames or fumigating inside hive is the control

measure. These mites can even be managed a cloth or cotton balls

saturated with formic acid. (65%) (MG, 2019).

2.8 Tropilaelaps mites

Tropilaelaps mites are also honey bee parasites that feed externally. They

generally feed on young broods. These mites invasion leads to reduced

brood number and colony collapse too (Pettis et al., 2017). Four species

of Tropilaelaps that are recognized are:

➢ Tropilaelaps clareae (Delfinado and Baker),

➢ T. mercedesae (Anderson and Morgan),

➢ T. thaii (Anderson and Morgan ) and

➢ T. koenigerium (Anderson and Morgan) (Collectively referred to

as Tropilaelaps).

Tropilaelaps mites have been attacking A. mellifera as it was introduced

into Asia. Apis dorsata F. is thought to be the original host

of Tropilaelaps. These mites are proven to be problematic to A. mellifera.

Due to their rapid reproduction rate, Varrora mites are rarely seen in

colonies where these mites are present.

2.8.1 Control

These mites can be controlled by using Apistan, Formic acid, spraying of

botanicals like lemongrass oil.

2.9 Other enemies

➢ Toads, Lizards and frogs capture bees at hive entrances.

➢ Cockroaches enter weak colonies which impart a foul smell to the hive.

➢ Bears damage the hives and eat upon honey, pollen, brood and the bees.

➢ Termites damage wooden parts of the hive

➢ Acherontia styx ('death's head' moth,) enters hive and consumes honey.

3. DISEASES OF HONEY BEES

Several diseases affect the honeybee worldwide and in Nepal. Some of the

diseases of economic importance are:

3.1 Nosema Disease

This disease is a protozoan disease whose causative agent is Nosema apis.

The protozoon produces spores that cause contamination of food. When

these spores are ingested they germinate inside the gut (Wikipedia, 2009).

The pathogen then penetrates cells of the stomach lining and continues to

grow and multiply rapidly, using the cell contents as its food supply.

Uncountable spores are generated in short period which is the major

factor to tranmitt further infection. The healthy cells become infected by

the spores transmission (Agriculture Victoria, 2019). The bees are unable

to fly and void loose excreta on the combs, frames and ground in front of

the hive. During cold weather the flight is mostly affected.

3.1.1 Control

Microbial supplements (bifidobacteria and lactobacilli) and fumigation are

found to be effective on control of this disease (Burnham, 2019).

3.2 European foul-brood disease

This disease is caused by Streptococcus pluton (previously known as

Melissococcus pluton). This disease is now causes larvae death along with

the presence of bacteria along with secondary infection. After introduction

of A. mellifera this disease spread worldwide (Rie, et al., 2012). EFBD

affects the larvae of all castes (Agri learner, 2020). The bacterium

contaminates the food and when young broods/ larvae ingest them the

bacteria enter into the gut and reproduces there. The larvae dies after the

infection and the cells are not capped by the workers. In some cases the

infected larvae dies only when the cell are sealed. The worker bees then

after tries t clean the cells and this leads to formation of sunken and

perforated capping (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2011). The

infested larvae turn watery, yellow then brown and lastly dark-colored.

There after the larvae dies which is coiled shape and a distinct unwanted

foul odor is emitted (TNAU Agritech Portal, 2014).

3.2.1 Control

The use of antibiotic Terramycin @100mg in a liter of sugar syrup is most

effective in treating the disease which is fed at every seventh-day interval.

Fumigation with ethylene oxide is also one of the control measures (Ohio

State Beekeepers Association, 2020). Quarantine is also crucial to prevent

the entry of any of the bee diseases on the hive.

3.3 American Foul Brood

American Foul Brood is a bacterial disease. By name it is a brood disease

that is widespread worldwide. Its causative agent is Paenibacillus larvae

Sustainability in Food and Agriculture (SFNA)1(2) (2020) 76-79

Cite The Article: Rakshya Aryal, Ananta Dhakal (2020).Honeybee Pests And Diseases In Nepal; A Review.

Sustainability In Food And Agriculture, 1(2): 76-79

which is rod shaped flagellated and motile bacteria, resistant to

desiccation and heat (Wikipedia, 2009). This disease also infests young

brood/ larvae of all castes. The main source of infection is contamination

of food with spores of the bacteria and their ingestion. The ingested spores

then multiply in huge number when they reach hemolymph penetrating

the gut wall (MG, 2019).

Youngest larvae are the most susceptible among all broods. The nurse bee

removes and rejects the diseased larvae. Those larvae which are not thus

removed die at the prepupal or pupal stage after they have spun their

cocoons. The diseased cell capping becomes dark in color and moist which

later becomes concave when the larvae shrink (Bee Research Laboratory,

2016). They putrefy emitting unwanted fishy odor. Now the adult bees

repair the damaged cells. The infection mostly is spread by the nurse bees

engaged in cleaning the cells. Larvae that get nourished on those

previously infected cells are also prone to infection. The chance of colony

of recovery during honey flow period is high but is very less during dearth

period (Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, 2015).

3.3.1 Control

There is no best control measure rather than the complete destruction of

honey bee hives. In some cases 0.1% sodium hypochlorite is even used for

hive decontamination (Agriculture and Food division , 2016).

3.4 Sac-brood disease (SBV)

Sac-brood is a viral disease mainly attacking Apis mellifera. The causative

agent is Morator aetotulas, that renders the larvae to form pupae and the

appearance become sac like that names the disease Sac brood (Food and

Agriculture Organization, 2011).

3.4.1 Control

Keeping colonies strong and ensuring the availability of food is to be done

as the disease mostly develops on the stress condition.

3.5 Thai sac brood disease (TSBV)

The causative agent of the Thai sac brood disease is Thai Sac-brood virus

which was reported about 50 years ago. Apis cerena indica is found to be

the major host of this virus. The dead brood is found in a pre-pupal but

sealed stage. When they are about to form pupae the symptoms appear.

The pupae turn into sac-like structures at the posterior end filled with

ecdysial fluid (Bailey, 1968). Later, the larvae change their color from

yellowish to brownish to black color. The larvae then after dies and no

distinct foul odor are emitted. This disease has been problematic for many

beekeepers in Nepal.

3.5.1 Control

Isolation of diseased colony is the best proven control measure for it

(Bizencyclopedia, 2019).

Diseased colonies combs should not be used for any other purpose and

dequeening the colony for a few days followed by requeening with a

healthy queen from a strong colony is an effective measure (TNAU

Agritech Portal, 2014).

3.6 Chalk brood disease

Chalk brood disease is a fungal disease whose causative agent is

Ascosphaera apis. The disease seems more problemetic in workers and

drone but in some cases queens can also be seen infected. The damage

symptom is produced as it attacks the gut of larvae (Mumoki et al., 2014).

The disease is more prevalent at commencement of spring when colonies

multiply and are volumized. The effect of infestation start to decrease

when the temperature and disappears with higher summer temperature

(Burlew, 2020). The spores germinate when ingested and mycelia grow

through the body penetrating the epidermis and covering the pre-pupa in

a short time-span. The diseased larvae are mummified.

3.6.1 Control

Maintaining good and strong colony and stimulating good hygienic

behavior are the best manage-mental practices that can be applied.

3.7 Stone brood

It is one of the infectious diseases, which is caused byfungus of same genus

but different species; Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, and

Aspergillus niger (Stamets, 2014). Aspergillus flavus is considered as the

main pathogen causing the stone brood disease. A. flavus spores might be

present within a beehive without showing damage symptoms. The brood

of honey bee colonies is mummified. The disease is spread outside the hive

by drifting, robbing or swarming honey bees. The major routes of

transmission are; swarming, robbing and drifting of bees. This is even

transmitted with Aspergillus spp. spores contaminated beekeeping

equipments (Sarwar and Gupta, 2016).

The spores when ingested the follow the process of hatching in the gut and

forms a collar like ring shaped structure nearby head. The mycelium of

fungus grows out from the outer skin, i.e. integument and the false outer

layer is generated. The rapid spore production covers the whole body of

fungus. The dead larvae become hard and crushing them becomes very

difficult, this names the disease stone brood (Muhammad, 2016). Worker

bees have some sort of genetic trait, i.e. hygienic behavior that removes

the dead and diseased broods. The recovery rate of hive from the damage

depends upon their hygienic behavior, colony strength and the degree of

infection (BCS Bees, 2019).

3.7.1 Control

No specific treatments are available so the best management is the way for

prevention of it. Sterilization of hive tools and management of good

location for honey bees is one of the better practices that can be followed.

4. CONCLUSION

Beekeeping in Nepal got to a rising phase after the introduction of exotic

honey bee, (Apis mellifera). Along with further advancement and

commercialization attack of disease and pest is a real issue. So the need to

identify all the disease pest and predators is major concern. This is

essential to apply the proven control measures for the control of those

disease and pests. The timely identification of those pest and diseases

leads to better income, profit and prosperity.

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Mar 2021
MOL BIOTECHNOL

The research aimed to investigate the diagnostic value of Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) in the early aseptic loosening of hip prosthesis and whether IL-1Ra can be expressed in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. In this study, the IL-1Ra gene was firstly connected to the lentiviral vector LV5, and the lentiviral vector LV5-home-IL1Ra was obtained by recombination. Then the recombinant LV5-home-IL1Ra was co-transfected with the virus-assisted plasmid into 293 T cells and packaged to produce lentivirus. Bone marrow-derived stem cells (BMSCs) were infected with packaged lentiviruses. The relative expression of IL-1Ra mRNA in BMSCs was detected by fluorescence quantitative PCR. The expression of IL-1Ra protein in BMSCs was detected by western blot transfer electrophoresis. Peripheral venous blood samples from 108 patients and healthy subjects underwent total hip replacement were collected to detect the levels of plasma biomarkers procollagen type I carboxy-terminal propeptide (PICP), N-telopeptide cross-links of type I collagen (NTX), osteoprotegerin (OPG), TNGα, receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL), and IL-1β. The recombinant lentivirus vector IL-1Ra was successfully constructed by 2% agarose gel electrophoresis. Lentivirus-mediated IL-1Ra gene could efficiently transfection bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, and the cell growth density reached about 80% at 72 h after infection. The transfection rate was about 90%, and the fluorescence was enhanced. The relative mRNA and protein expression levels of IL-1Ra in the BMSCs-IL-1Ra group were significantly higher than those in the BMSCs group and the BMSCs-con group (P < 0.01). The late loosening group of IL-1β was significantly higher than the stable prosthesis group and the healthy group (P < 0.05). The ROC curve showed that IL-1 background had strong diagnostic sensitivity and specificity, which was similar to the X-ray score of osteolysis and had the most significant diagnostic significance. Lentivirus-transfected exogenous IL-1Ra can be expressed stably in mouse bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, and IL-1β, an antagonist of IL-1Ra, plays an important role in the early aseptic loosening of hip prosthesis.

ANNALS OF FOREST RESEARCH

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies are subjected to several insects that influence adult bees and larvae. Thus, this study aimed to describe the recognition of the some more common pests in five locations (A, B, C, D, and E) in Al-Qadisiyah province, Iraq. Several samples of insects (Galleria mellonella, Vespa orientalis, and Monomorium pharaonis) were collected from the period of 01/06/2020 to 01/06/2021 to identify the insects. The results showed that the most sites in Al-Qadisiyah province were infested with Oriental hornet and ant more than Greater wax moth. Significant differences of infection with the Oriental hornet compared with other insects was observed in the two Locations C and E in Al-Qadisiyah province. The study indicated that Vespa orientalis was the most common insects of the honey bee in Al-Qadisiyah with a recommendation not to depend on the visual inspection to identify the infection of pests.

Expression of angiogenesis-related proteins in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells induced by osteoprotegerin during osteogenic differentiation in rats

Article

Sep 2021
INT IMMUNOPHARMACOL

This study aimed to discuss the expression of angiogenesis-related proteins in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) induced by osteoprotegerin (OGP) during osteogenic differentiation in rats, and to analyze the effect of fracture healing inflammatory factor TNF-ɑ on the osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs of rats. BMSCs isolated and cultured from the third generation rats were taken as the research object. According to the addition amount of OGP, BMSCs were divided into control group, OGP (10⁻⁷ mol/L) group, OGP (10⁻⁸ mol/L) group, and OGP (10⁻⁹ mol/L) group. The cell growth and morphological characteristics of each group were observed by inverted phase contrast microscope, the cell proliferation rate was measured by MTT method, angiogenesis-related markers (platelet growth factor (VEGF), cingulate protein 5 (Fbln5), and angiogenin-like protein 4 (Angptl4)) were quantitatively detected by Western blot, and the effect of TNF-ɑ on osteogenic differentiation was detected by CCK. Compared with the control group, MTT results showed that the value-added rate of cells in the OGP (10⁻⁸ mol/L) group reached the maximum at 9 days (P < 0.05). The ALP activity in osteoblasts in the OGP (10⁻⁸ mol/L) group reached the maximum at 9 days (P < 0.01). The OGP (10⁻⁸ mol/L) group had the highest expression of vascular regeneration proteins (VEGF, Fbln5, and Angptl4) (P < 0.05). CCK analysis showed that the TNF-ɑ (1.0 ng/mL) group showed a significant increase in absorbance compared with the control group on 6 days (P < 0.05), and the OD value of the TNF-ɑ (10 ng/mL) group decreased at all time points (P < 0.05). Overall, 10⁻⁸ mol/L OGP can induce the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of MSCs, and promote the expression of angiogenesis-related proteins (VEGF, Fbln5, and Angptl4) during osteogenic differentiation. Besides, 1.0 ng/mL of TNF-ɑ can also promote osteogenesis differentiation of BMSCs in the short term.

Pollinator parasites and the evolution of floral traits

Article

Full-text available

May 2019

The main selective force driving floral evolution and diversity is plant–pollinator interactions. Pollinators use floral signals and indirect cues to assess flower reward, and the ensuing flower choice has major implications for plant fitness. While many pollinator behaviors have been described, the impact of parasites on pollinator foraging decisions and plant–pollinator interactions have been largely overlooked. Growing evidence of the transmission of parasites through the shared‐use of flowers by pollinators demonstrate the importance of behavioral immunity (altered behaviors that enhance parasite resistance) to pollinator health. During foraging bouts, pollinators can protect themselves against parasites through self‐medication, disease avoidance, and grooming. Recent studies have documented immune behaviors in foraging pollinators, as well as the impacts of such behaviors on flower visitation. Because pollinator parasites can affect flower choice and pollen dispersal, they may ultimately impact flower fitness. Here, we discuss how pollinator immune behaviors and floral traits may affect the presence and transmission of pollinator parasites, as well as how pollinator parasites, through these immune behaviors, can impact plant–pollinator interactions. We further discuss how pollinator immune behaviors can impact plant fitness, and how floral traits may adapt to optimize plant fitness in response to pollinator parasites. We propose future research directions to assess the role of pollinator parasites in plant–pollinator interactions and evolution, and we propose better integration of the role of pollinator parasites into research related to pollinator optimal foraging theory, floral diversity and agricultural practices.

Scientific Advances in Controlling Nosema ceranae (Microsporidia) Infections in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera)

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2019

Andre J. Burnham

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are agriculturally important pollinators that have been recently at risk to severe colony losses. A variety of parasites and pathogens have been linked to colony decline, including the microsporidian parasite Nosema ceranae. While fumagillin has been used to control nosemosis in managed honey bee colonies for decades, research shows that this antibiotic poses a toxic threat and that its efficacy against N. ceranae is uncertain. There is certainly a demand for a new veterinary medication to treat honey bee colonies infected with N. ceranae. In this review, recent scientific advances in controlling N. ceranae infections in honey bees are summarized.

Fungal diseases of honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) that induce considerable losses to colonies and protocol for treatment

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2016

Honeybee diseases cause considerable expenses to beekeepers for cost of maintaining apiary's inspection, colonies damaged or destroyed and drugs fed to prevent bee's infections. Therefore, current article compiled discusses and provides detailed protocol for various fungal diseases control methods to assist beekeepers and scientists entering this area of research. Two ascomycetes fungi of genera Ascosphaera and Aspergillus within Eurotiomycetes are known to cause chalkbrood (larvae turn grey or pale yellow, die and finally black) and stonebrood (larvae become black covered with powdery fungal spores and difficult to crush) diseases in honey bees. Beekeepers should remove infected larva from the colony and if this happens soon enough, beehives may survive. Selection of bees with pronounced hygienic behavior holds the most promise for control of these diseases. Appropriate management of colonies for diseases prevention must avoid accumulation of spores inside hive, periodically renew brood combs and eliminate combs severely contaminated with mummies. Best ways to prevent bee diseases is to apply Terramycin or Sulfazole and other available therapeutic medicines to bee's food during spring and fall seasons. These treatments can help to save life of huge amount of bees annually.

Chemical and cultural control of Tropilaelaps mercedesae mites in honeybee (Apis mellifera) colonies in Northern Thailand

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2017
PLOS ONE

At least two parasitic mites have moved from Asian species of honeybees to infest Apis mellifera. Of these two, Varroa destructor is more widespread globally while Tropilaelaps mercedesae has remained largely in Asia. Tropilaelaps mites are most problematic when A. mellifera is managed outside its native range in contact with Asian species of Apis. In areas where this occurs, beekeepers of A. mellifera treat aggressively for Tropilaelaps and Varroa is either outcompeted or is controlled as a result of the aggressive treatment regime used against Tropilaelaps. Many mite control products used worldwide may in fact control both mites but environmental conditions differ globally and thus a control product that works well in one area may be less or ineffective in other areas. This is especially true of volatile compounds. In the current research we tested several commercial products known to control Varroa and powdered sulfur for efficacy against Tropilaelaps. Additionally, we tested the cultural control method of making a hive division to reduce Tropilaelaps growth in both the parent and offspring colony. Making a split or nucleus colony significantly reduced mite population in both the parent and nucleus colony when compared to un-manipulated control colonies. The formic acid product, Mite-Away Quick Strips®, was the only commercial product that significantly reduced mite population 8 weeks after initiation of treatment without side effects. Sulfur also reduced mite populations but both sulfur and Hopguard® significantly impacted colony growth by reducing adult bee populations. Apivar® (amitraz) strips had no effect on mite or adult bee populations under the conditions tested.

An overview of Beekeeping Economy and Its Constraints in Nepal

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2015

Beekeeping has been in practice from an ancient time in Nepal. It is one of the high valued and income-generating activities for the people in Nepal. Diverse climatic conditions of Nepal harbor five species of honeybee out of which Apis laboriosa, A. dorsata, A. cerena, A. florae are native, whereas Apis mellifera was introduced and is being reared commercially. Three sub-species of A. cerana, viz. A. cerana indica, A. cerana Himalaya and A. cerana cerana are distributed in different regions of Nepal. A. cerena is cultivated in traditional log hive as well as in modern bee hive. However, most of the annual honey production comes from wild honeybees. Number of hives recorded during 2012/13 was 169,000 with 1625 metric tons of honey production. Hive productivity is low due to problems associated with apiculture; low quality management of bees, colony migration and absconding, pesticide intoxication, product quality control, inadequate data on bee floral identification and inadequate bee research program, are major concerns for beekeeping in Nepal. Though attempts have been made to address few issues such as pest and disease management, behavioral study of wild honey bees, pollination and floral diversity, but most of the problems are unattended because research on beekeeping is scattered and not well organized. Ample opportunities are available to promote apiculture for pollination and hive product. This paper reviews on honeybee diversity, honey production, problems in apiculture, and areas for future study in Nepal.

An Inventory of Documented Diseases of African Honeybees

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2014
AFR ENTOMOL

Current trends in global honeybee population changes have been linked to drastic declines in honeybee populations caused by complex interactions between pathogens, arthropod pests such as Varroa, pesticides, honeybee stress and habitat loss. Although substantial information exists for this sudden decline in honeybee populations in Europe and North America, in Africa the effect of this threat continues to draw debate. Despite recent reports showing the presence of V. destructor mites across the continent, knowledge on pathogens associated with bees and this mite in various parts of the continent is scanty. This review provides a comprehensive update on the documented diversity and geographic distribution of honeybee pathogens and points to the need of further information on these constraints of honeybee health.

Diversity of Melissococcus plutonius from Honeybee Larvae in Japan and Experimental Reproduction of European Foulbrood with Cultured Atypical Isolates

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2012
PLOS ONE

European foulbrood (EFB) is an important infectious disease of honeybee larvae, but its pathogenic mechanisms are still poorly understood. The causative agent, Melissococcus plutonius, is a fastidious organism, and microaerophilic to anaerobic conditions and the addition of potassium phosphate to culture media are required for growth. Although M. plutonius is believed to be remarkably homologous, in addition to M. plutonius isolates with typical cultural characteristics, M. plutonius-like organisms, with characteristics seemingly different from those of typical M. plutonius, have often been isolated from diseased larvae with clinical signs of EFB in Japan. Cultural and biochemical characterization of 14 M. plutonius and 19 M. plutonius-like strain/isolates revealed that, unlike typical M. plutonius strain/isolates, M. plutonius-like isolates were not fastidious, and the addition of potassium phosphate was not required for normal growth. Moreover, only M. plutonius-like isolates, but not typical M. plutonius strain/isolates, grew anaerobically on sodium phosphate-supplemented medium and aerobically on some potassium salt-supplemented media, were positive for β-glucosidase activity, hydrolyzed esculin, and produced acid from L-arabinose, D-cellobiose, and salicin. Despite the phenotypic differences, 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis and DNA-DNA hybridization demonstrated that M. plutonius-like organisms were taxonomically identical to M. plutonius. However, by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis, these typical and atypical (M. plutonius-like) isolates were separately grouped into two genetically distinct clusters. Although M. plutonius is known to lose virulence quickly when cultured artificially, experimental infection of representative isolates showed that atypical M. plutonius maintained the ability to cause EFB in honeybee larvae even after cultured in vitro in laboratory media. Because the rapid decrease of virulence in cultured M. plutonius was a major impediment to elucidation of the pathogenesis of EFB, atypical M. plutonius discovered in this study will be a breakthrough in EFB research.

Parasitic Mites of Honey Bees: Life History, Implications, and Impact

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2000

The hive of the honey bee is a suitable habitat for diverse mites (Acari), including nonparasitic, omnivorous, and pollen-feeding species, and parasites. The biology and damage of the three main pest species Acarapis woodi, Varroa jacobsoni, and Tropilaelaps clareae is reviewed, along with detection and control methods. The hypothesis that Acarapis woodi is a recently evolved species is rejected. Mite-associated bee pathologies (mostly viral) also cause increasing losses to apiaries. Future studies on bee mites are beset by three main problems: (a) The recent discovery of several new honey bee species and new bee-parasitizing mite species (along with the probability that several species are masquerading under the name Varroa jacobsoni) may bring about new bee-mite associations and increase damage to beekeeping; (b) methods for studying bee pathologies caused by viruses are still largely lacking; (c) few bee- and consumer-friendly methods for controlling bee mites in large apiaries are available.

Decanal as a major component of larval aggregation pheromone of the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella

Article

Feb 2019

Larvae of the greater wax moth (GWM), Galleria mellonella, a destructive pest of the honeybee (Apis mellifera), have been observed to display aggregation behaviours. However, the underlying mechanism by which these larvae come together remains unknown. We hypothesized that the GWM larvae detect, orient towards and utilize conspecific larval chemical cues to aggregate in groups. We used dual‐choice olfactometer assays to investigate the involvement of conspecific larval odours in their aggregation amongst 3–5th instar and 8th instar larvae. The assays revealed that only 8th instar larvae were significantly attracted to their odours and those emanating from newly spun cocoons. Coupled gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC‐MS) of larval head space odours analysis revealed the presence of four compounds: nonanal, decanal, tridecane and tetradecane in pupal and mature larval odour extracts. However, using synthetic compounds, behavioural assays showed that only decanal induced significant attraction, therefore, suggesting its role as a major component of the larval aggregation pheromone of GWM. Our findings reveal the involvement of volatile organic compounds in the aggregation behaviour of mature wax moth larvae and thereby offer prospects for the development of an odour‐baited in‐hive trapping management tool for wax moth larva.

Enemies of honeybees and their management – a review

Article

Jan 2004

Beekeeping remains one of the profitable areas among agriculturists, which has not been exploited to its full potential. Among several limiting factors, honeybee enemies constitute a major factor. Wax moths and wasps cause heavy losses to beekeepers throughout the world, therefore, got maximum attention by researchers. In addition to these pests, bee lice, hive " .. beetles, mites, ants, birds, rodents and mammals occasionally attain the status of serious pests in a particular situation. In the present article work done on various aspects of bee enemies viz., seasonal activity, life history, nature of damage and control measures is reviewed. Poor management in beekeeping weakens the bee colony-making colony susceptible to pest and predator attack. Although, honeybees have a strong defense mechanism involving 'the sting' against most of the enemies but sometimes they need assistance from beekeeper to defend. Enemies of honeybees are those animals, which cause disturbances and nuisance in functioning of the colony and range widely in size from microscopic mites to large mammals such as bears. These can be broadly classified into two categories: pests and predators of honeybees. Predators are those animals which seize/ capture other live animals for food. Rest of the enemies which are not predaceous but nevertheless cause some harm or disturbances in honey bee colonies are considered as pests which can cause heavy damage to bee life as part of their seasonal activity.