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Microplastics and other harmful substances released from disposable paper cups into hot water
Abstract
Disposable paper cups are popular for consuming beverages. These paper cups have an interior that is laminated with a hydrophobic film made of mostly plastic (polyethylene) and sometimes of copolymers. The objective of this study was to evaluate the degradation of these films as a result of exposure to hot water (85–90 °C). Due to deterioration of the films, ions like fluoride, chloride, sulfate, and nitrate were released into the water contained in the paper cups. Microplastic particles leaching into the liquid were identified and quantified. Fluorescence microscopy indicated the release of approximately 25,000 micron-sized microplastic particles into one cup of hot water in 15 min (100 ml) while scanning electron micrographs indicate 102 + 21.1 × 10⁶ sub-micron-sized particles/ml into the same volume of liquid. Toxic heavy metals like Pb, Cr, and Cd were detected in the films which can be transferred into hot water. Elemental analysis shows a decrease in the percentage of elements like C, H, and N (by weight) due to exposure to hot water. Ingestion of microplastics, ions, and heavy metals regularly while consuming our daily dose of hot beverages like tea and coffee can expose us to potential health risks in the future.
... Moreover, most hot instant food and drinks are served with lightweight plastic cups and boxes. Interestingly, plastic containers and packages begin to degrade slowly in the presence of UV irradiation and heat hence the storage conditions matter (Ouyang et al., 2021;Ranjan et al., 2021). Also, plastic materials are largely used in food industries. ...
... Further, the utilization of take-out plastic food containers which are made of polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), PE, and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) for bringing hot food and beverages is another threat to the microplastic addition to food (Du et al., 2020;Zhou et al., 2023). One study has found that in 15 min one cup can release approximately 25000 micron-sized microplastics and 10.2 billion submicron-sized microplastics into the hot liquid in the cup when exposed to hot water with 85-90 • C temperature (Ranjan et al., 2021). Disposable plastic materials; plastic packaging, cups, transparent boxes, and expandable boxes can release 1.07 ± 0.507, 1.44 ± 0.147, 2.24 ± 0.719, and 1.57 ± 0.599 micro and submicron particles/mL in hot water (100 • C) after 60 min agitation (Liu et al., 2022a). ...
... Since oligomers migrated from nylon tea bag has a greater tendency to recrystallize during the sample drying process, all resultant particles might not be micro or nanoplastics (Busse et al., 2020). However, the high tendency to release microplastics from plastic containers when they expose to hot food and beverages cannot be disregarded (Ranjan et al., 2021). ...
Microplastics has become a global concern due to their ubiquitous presence which poses unavoidable human exposure risks. Geographical distribution and yearly trends of research on microplastics, food, and beverages do not exist. Thus, no overall account is available regarding the presence of microplastics and plastics-associated contaminants in food and beverages. Hence, this attempt is to review the geographical distribution of studies through a brief bibliometric analysis and the plastics-associated contaminants including plasticizers and microplastics in food and beverages. Estimated microplastic consumption has been listed for the pool of publications reviewed here. Further, this review discusses the ingestion potency of micropollutants associated with microplastics, possible health impacts, and existing challenges. Global trend in research exponentially increased after 2018 and China is leading. Studies on microplastics were limited to a few beverages and food; milk, beer, tea, refreshing drinks, salt, sugar, honey, etc., whereas seafood and drinking water have been extensively studied. Publications on plastic-additives were reported in two ways; migration of plastic-additives from packaging by leaching and the presence of plastic-additives in food and beverages. Bisphenol A and Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate were the most frequently reported both in food and beverages. Exposure of packaging material to high temperatures predominantly involves plastic-additive contamination in food and beverages. Microplastic-bound micropollutants can also be ingested through food and beverages; however, a lack of knowledge exists. The complex matrix of food or beverages and the absence of standard procedures for analysis of microplastics and micropollutants exist as challenges. More investigations on the presence of microplastics and plastic-additives in food and beverage are urgent needs to a better assessment of potential human exposure and human health risk.
... Beverages, such as beer, honey, and drinking water were also reported to contain microplastics [24,25,[27][28][29][30][31] with various suspected origins. In particular, for bottled water, many of the identified pMP were found to be chemically identical to the food packaging material [28,29,[31][32][33][34]. Emerging studies additionally reported the release of plastic particulates from a variety of food contact materials and especially food packaging [35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42]. ...
... From various publications reporting the release of pMP and pNP from food packaging, it appears that there is still an absence of any common or systematic analytical strategies, and authors have explored different approaches for particle detection and characterization. In some cases, chemically specific methods, such as Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) microscopy and pyrolysis gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, have been used, while others report non-specific methods, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), nanoparticle tracking analysis, fluorescent microscopy, or quartz crystal microbalance [35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42]. Recently, a call for more knowledge and experimental data generated under realistic scenarios was conducted, with a particular focus on the assessment of the amount of pMP and pNP [14], and the additional request to improve study comparisons by developing and validating certified reference materials that can mimic pMP and pNP in the environment [14,47]. ...
... The identification and quantification of the micro-and nanoplastics released from food contact materials and food packaging is still considered a challenge despite the increasing number of literature reports on the topic [36][37][38][39][40][41][42]. ...
Micro- and nanoplastic (pMP and pNP, respectively) release is an emerging issue since these particles constitute a ubiquitous and growing pollutant, which not only threatens the environment but may have potential consequences for human health. In particular, there is concern about the release of secondary pMP and pNP from the degradation of plastic consumer products. The phenomenon is well-documented in relation to plastic waste in the environment but, more recently, reports of pMP generated even during the normal use of plastic food contact materials, such as water bottles, tea bags, and containers, have been published. So far, a validated and harmonized strategy to tackle the issue is not available. In this study, we demonstrate that plastic breakdown to pMP and pNP can occur during the normal use of polyethylene (PE) rice cooking bags and ice-cube bags as well as of nylon teabags. A multi-instrumental approach based on Raman microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and particular attention on the importance of sample preparation were applied to evaluate the chemical nature of the released material and their morphology. In addition, a simple method based on Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy is proposed for pNP mass quantification, resulting in the release of 1.13 ± 0.07 mg of nylon 6 from each teabag. However, temperature was shown to have a strong impact on the morphology and aggregation status of the released materials, posing to scientists and legislators a challenging question: are they micro- or nanoplastics or something else altogether?
... Food contact materials (FCMs) employed in food supply chains are a vital packaging effort worldwide to offer consumers safe and nutritious food, which can be made of paper, plastics, glass, rubber and metals (Simoneau, 2008). Materials based on disposable papers including plates, bags, boxes, napkins and containers have been applied in food packaging for a long period because of their great benefit of low impact on the environment and reuse compared to their plastic counterparts (Ranjan et al., 2021). Furthermore, paper recycling shows considerable merit since cellulosic fibers can be repeatedly used during paper production (Fengler & Gruber, 2020). ...
... As one of the most commonly used paper-based FCM, polyethylene (PE) coating papers and boards have been widely used in various fields such as water, coffee and tea containers due to the good handling and excellent water and oil resistance performance (Nicolau et al., 2022). However, the hydrophobic plastic coating used on paper cup surfaces causes a high safety concern because hot water (85-90 ℃) would result in the leakage of micro-plastic particles and heavy metals such as Pb, Cr, and Cd, accompanied by the declined performance (Ranjan et al., 2021). Therefore, the replacement of plastic coating with emulsion leading to the so-called water-borne coating paper has exhibited great potential due to its degradable, repulpable and recycled behaviors in the framework directive T/CPA 001-2021 (Zhu, et al., 2019). ...
Because of great knowledge gaps between toxicological data and chemical constituents for substances involved, water-borne coating paper and board have emerged as a sort of particular concern for the safety of consumers. Herein, we describe a step-by-step method including extraction, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) fractionation, tentative identification of related substances and risk assessment of chosen tentatively identified substances based on (Quantitative) Structure-Activity Relationships ((Q)SARs) matrix. Three water-borne coating samples possessing different compositions were investigated. Polyacrylates were first determined as the possible compositions of coating samples based on Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis. 7 out of 23 elemental compositions determined by inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) were demonstrated for peaks over a specific migration limit evidencing the likely heavy metal contamination from water-borne coatings. Of 359 tentatively identified substances , 85 and 38 substances were assigned to Hazard IV and Risk IV, respectively, disclosing the particular concern for consumer safety, which may originate from decomposition products and impurities from industrial processing. Overall, understanding the identity of contaminant will allow it easier to find the possible source, and to study which part of the water-borne coating paper-producing process that could be amended to mitigate the risk.
... Thus, a single paper cup consists of approximately 5-10% (w/w) plastic film, and the plastic used to line the interior is mostly PE and sometimes alternative copolymers are used (Arumugam et al., 2018;Mitchell et al., 2014;Rogovina et al., 2013). Ranjan et al., (2021) studied the release of microplastics from a paper cup to boiling water by pouring boiling water into a 100 mL plastic cup and letting it sit for 15 minutes. This study demonstrated that the plastic lining of these paper cups starts to break down when they are exposed to hot liquids, and tiny plastic particles are expelled (Ranjan et al., 2021). ...
... Ranjan et al., (2021) studied the release of microplastics from a paper cup to boiling water by pouring boiling water into a 100 mL plastic cup and letting it sit for 15 minutes. This study demonstrated that the plastic lining of these paper cups starts to break down when they are exposed to hot liquids, and tiny plastic particles are expelled (Ranjan et al., 2021). ...
The use of plastic items has increased significantly with the growth of the plastics industry during the past century. As a result of their light weight, durability, processing ease, and low cost, plastic items find numerous uses in daily life. Although plastics are collected after use, a significant quantity of plastic is still discharged into the environment. Most of these wastes stay in nature for a very long period nearly unaltered, and it is expected that it will take millennia for them to fully mineralize. Humans are exposed to microplastics through consumption with food and beverages, inhaling free microplastics from the atmosphere, or dermally through water and cosmetics. In this chapter, the journey of microplastics from raw material to food and finally to the human body is explained and their biodegradation potential is mentioned in detail.
... The results showed that the filter bag changed to varying degrees during the soaking process. Small substances adhering to the filter bags were easily released into the soaking solution, and the larger fiber plastics also changed due to thermal shock [46]. The MPs adhering to the surface of the tea filter bags were removed by multiple pre-washes, which reduced the amount of MPs entering the tea soup ( Figure S4 and Table S2). ...
... Overall, the Raman imaging-based MP mapping method is The results showed that the filter bag changed to varying degrees during the soaking process. Small substances adhering to the filter bags were easily released into the soaking solution, and the larger fiber plastics also changed due to thermal shock [46]. The MPs adhering to the surface of the tea filter bags were removed by multiple pre-washes, which reduced the amount of MPs entering the tea soup ( Figure S4 and Table S2). ...
Microplastic (MP) contamination is a public issue for the environment and for human health. Plastic-based food filter bags, including polyethylene terephthalate, polypropylene, nylon 6 (NY6), and polyethylene, are widely used for soft drink sub-packaging, increasing the risk of MPs in foods and the environment. Three types of commercially available filter bags, including non-woven and woven bags, were collected, and MPs released after soaking were mapped using Raman imaging combined with chemometrics. Compared with peak area imaging at a single characteristic peak, Raman imaging combined with direct classical least squares calculation was more efficient and reliable for identifying MP features. Up to 94% of the bags released MPs after soaking, and there was no significant correlation with soaking conditions. Most MPs were tiny fragments and particles, and a few were fibrous MPs 620–840 μm in size. Woven NY6 filter bags had the lowest risk of releasing MPs. Source exploration revealed that most MPs originated from fragments and particles adsorbed on the surface of bags and strings. The results of this study are applicable to filter bag risk assessment and provide scientific guidance for regulating MPs in food.
... Given the release of MPs in service, plastic food containers may become a direct exposure source of MPs to consumers due to the inevitably migration from packages to food stuffs. The most recent studies have exhibited that MPs are released from household plastic containers under daily use conditions (Hernandez et al., 2019;Li et al., 2020;Ranjan et al., 2021;Hee et al., 2022). Schymanski et al. identified the MP content in bottled water as consisting of polyester (PET) and polypropylene (PP), which were the plastic materials of the bottle body and cap (Schymanski et al., 2018). ...
... Ranjan et al. investigated the MPs released from PE paper cups with fluorescence microscopy and reported a 25.9-764.8 μm size range (Ranjan et al., 2021). Whereas MPs smaller than 20 μm dominate the released particles in the current study, and few particles larger than 50 μm are observed. ...
Global concern over microplastics (MPs) is increasing because of the potential threat these substances pose to ecosystem and human health. Disposable cups, frequently used as containers of beverages, are typically made of plastic or plastic-coated paper. The release of MPs from disposable cups during use may provide a direct exposure pathway for humans. In this study, the MP release capacities of 90 batches of commercial disposable cups, including polyethylene (PE)-coated paper cups, polypropylene (PP) cups, and polystyrene (PS) cups, were investigated under daily use conditions, and the properties of released MP particles are characterized with Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The MPs release into containing beverages is detected for each of the tested cups in this study. The released MPs particles are in irregular shapes and dominantly smaller than 20 μm. The quantities of released MPs are in the range of 675–5984, 781–4951, and 838–5215 particles/L for PE-coated paper cups, PP cups and PS cups, respectively, when containing pure water at 95 °C for 20 min. No significant difference in the quantity of MP released is observed among the three types of the cups in the experimental conditions. High temperature is found to promote the release of MPs from disposable cups. The MP release is notable when the cups are used for a second time, although at a slightly lower level than the first use. Acidic carbonated beverages obviously enhance MP release from PE-coated cups over that of ultrapure water.
... Various methods were proposed to date to assess microplastic and nanoplastic pollution, like fluorescent microscopy after staining with lipophilic dyes (Ranjan et al., 2021); thermal desorption-proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (Materić et al., 2020), inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (Bolea-Fernandez et al., 2020;Jiménez-Lamana et al., 2020), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (Hernandez et al., 2019), micro-FTIR and micro-Raman spectroscopy (Oßmann, 2021); nanoparticle tracking analysis (Lambert and Wagner, 2015;Ekvall et al., 2019), TEM (Gigault et al., 2016), and SEM (Ranjan et al., 2021). However, most of these methods are non-specific to plastic particles or rather laborious, and thus, the development of new, more selective, techniques is desirable. ...
... Various methods were proposed to date to assess microplastic and nanoplastic pollution, like fluorescent microscopy after staining with lipophilic dyes (Ranjan et al., 2021); thermal desorption-proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (Materić et al., 2020), inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (Bolea-Fernandez et al., 2020;Jiménez-Lamana et al., 2020), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (Hernandez et al., 2019), micro-FTIR and micro-Raman spectroscopy (Oßmann, 2021); nanoparticle tracking analysis (Lambert and Wagner, 2015;Ekvall et al., 2019), TEM (Gigault et al., 2016), and SEM (Ranjan et al., 2021). However, most of these methods are non-specific to plastic particles or rather laborious, and thus, the development of new, more selective, techniques is desirable. ...
The high worldwide consumption of cheap plastic goods has already resulted in a serious environmental plastic pollution, exacerbated by piling of disposed personal protective equipment because of the recent outbreak of COVID-19. The aim of this study was to assess the feasibility of dark-field hyperspectral microscopy in the 400–1000 wavelength range for detection of nanoplastics derived from weathered polypropylene masks. A surgical mask was separated to layers and exposed to UV radiation (254 nm) for 192 h. Oxidative degradation of the polypropylene was evidenced by ATR FT-IR analysis. UV treatment for 192 h resulted in generation of differently shaped micro- and nano-sized particles, visualized by dark-field microscopy. The presence of nanoparticles was confirmed by AFM studies. The hyperspectral profiles (400–1000 nm) were collected after every 48 h of the UV treatment. The distinct hyperspectral features faded after prolonged UV exposure, but the assignment of some particles to either blue or white layers of mask could still be made based on spectral characteristics.
... sterilization, periodic fluctuations and water temperature. The high temperature could also enhance the MPs release from the plastic cups (Ranjan et al., 2021) and teabags (Hernandez et al., 2019). In 15 min, the hot water (85-90 • C, 100 mL) could result in 2.5 × 10 4 items of MPs and (102.3 ± 21.1)× 10 6 items of sub-MPs released from paper cups (Ranjan et al., 2021), while higher temperature (≥ 90 • C) could release ~1.16 × 10 10 items of MPs and 3.1 × 10 9 items of NPs from one tea bag into the cup (Hernandez et al., 2019). ...
... The high temperature could also enhance the MPs release from the plastic cups (Ranjan et al., 2021) and teabags (Hernandez et al., 2019). In 15 min, the hot water (85-90 • C, 100 mL) could result in 2.5 × 10 4 items of MPs and (102.3 ± 21.1)× 10 6 items of sub-MPs released from paper cups (Ranjan et al., 2021), while higher temperature (≥ 90 • C) could release ~1.16 × 10 10 items of MPs and 3.1 × 10 9 items of NPs from one tea bag into the cup (Hernandez et al., 2019). Due to the unclear rate of recurrence, the annual intake via these ways is still limited. ...
Microplastics (MPs; <5 mm) in the biosphere draws public concern about their potential health impacts. Humans are potentially exposed to MPs via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Ingestion and inhalation are the two major exposure pathways. An adult may consume approximately 5.1×10³ items from table salts and up to 4.1×10⁴ items via drinking water annually. Meanwhile, MP inhalation intake ranges from 0.9×10⁴ to 7.9×10⁴ items per year. The intake of MPs would be further distributed in different tissues and organs of humans depending on their sizes. The excretion has been discussed with the possible clearance ways (e.g., urine and feces). The review summarized the absorption, distribution, metabolic toxicity and excretion of MPs together with the attached chemicals. Moreover, the potential implications on humans are also discussed from in vitro and in vivo studies, and connecting the relationship between the physicochemical properties and the potential risks. This review will contribute to a better understanding of MPs as culprits and/or vectors linking to potential human health hazards, which will help outline the promising areas for further revealing the possible toxicity pathways.
... Ranjan et al. reported that three coffees in disposable paper cups are enough to make us ingest about 75 thousand microplastic particles. The commonly used paper cups have a thin layer of plastic which, in contact with the hot liquid, researchers observed about 25,000 micron-sized microplastic particles [69]. The daily use of plastic feeding bottles and plastic water bottles is the potential release of microplastics (MPs), which threaten the health of infants and children. ...
Technological advancement has tremendously accelerated the promotion of microplastics in our environment. In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the production and use of plastics in the form of facemasks, face shields and PPE kits across the globe has intensified and becomes a new environmental challenge. As scientific knowledge is limited concerning the source, exposure, toxicity, and bioavailability of microplastics in the surroundings, this review has been aimed to provide comprehensive information about microplastics present in the environment with special emphasis on their deposition and related increasing menace in India, during and after the COVID 19 period. We have focussed on the 5 key research needs, involving (1) the occurrence and abundance of microplastics (2) sources, fate, and occurence of microplastics in different media (water, air and soil), (3) toxicological implications of microplastics on human beings, (4) scenario of microplastics disposal during COVID-19 pandemic and (5) major challenges and future directions to curtail them. We suggest that addressing these knowledge gaps will lay the groundwork to counteract such environmental issues which are important to prevent them from exacerbating. Combating microplastic contamination can be achieved through an intensive and combined effort of all, including the stakeholders, researchers, educators, media and policymakers. We can join the effort to manage plastic in the environment by refusing, reducing, reusing and recycling the plastic products, to prolong every item’s life cycle as far as possible. A start would be a focus on limiting the use of single-use plastic products, especially if alternatives are readily available.
... A similar phenomenon is also observed in other plastic food packaging (i.e. plastic-coated paper cups, tea bags, and disposable plastic boxes) from recent studies (Hernandez et al. 2019;Ranjan et al. 2021;Hee et al. 2022;. Thus, to assess the contribution of heat treatment, the thermal properties of these food containers shall be investigated. ...
Plastic take-out food containers may release microplastics (MPs) into food and pose a potential risk to food safety and human health. Here, after being subjected to hot water treatment, MPs released from three types of plastic food containers (polypropylene, PP; polyethylene, PE; expanded polystyrene, EPS) were identified by micro-Raman spectroscopy. The results showed that the size of released MPs ranged from 0.8–38 μm and over 96% MPs were smaller than 10 μm. Various MPs concentrations were found from the three types of containers, that is, 1.90 × 10⁴, 1.01 × 10⁵, and 2.82 × 10⁶ particles/L on average from PP, PE, and EPS, respectively. Moreover, based on thermal and morphology analysis, we discovered that both relaxations of the polymer chains in the rubbery state and defects caused by processing techniques might contribute to the release of MPs. Thus, such release can be reduced by increasing the thermal stability of the materials and mitigating the defects generated during production.
... Numerous environmental investigations have confirmed that MPs exist in aquatic environments (Desforges et al., 2014;Imhof et al., 2017;Ivleva et al., 2017;Kanhai et al., 2017;Lusher et al., 2015), mountain areas , and even in the air (Dris et al., 2016). Moreover, MPs were not only found in our food products, such as sea salt, honey, bottled water, and beer (Kosuth et al., 2018;Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2013;Peng et al., 2020;Schymanski et al., 2018), but also in the leach of food containers under hot conditions, such as tea bags (Hernandez et al., 2019) and disposable paper cups (Ranjan et al., 2021). This evidence indicates that we may have a high potential for exposure to these emerging chemicals in daily life. ...
Although microplastics (MPs) have become a global issue, the biodistribution and toxicities of MPs were still unclear. In this study, c57BL/6 mice were treated with submicron-sized MPs labeled with Nile red fluorescence by oral gavage three times a week for four consecutive weeks. Flow cytometry and microscopy technique were used to examine the concentration and distribution of MPs in various tissues and biofluids. The oxidative stress and inflammation were assessed via liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. Submicron-sized MP signals were found in the intestines, liver, spleen, kidney, lungs, blood, and urine of mice after MP exposure. Increased oxidative stress in mouse urine and elevated inflammatory cytokines in mouse kidney were also recorded. In conclusion, flow cytometry is a useful tool for examining the number concentrations of MPs. Increased oxidative stress and inflammation after MP treatment indicates that the toxicity of MP warrants further investigation.
... At present, most CDs emit blue or yellow fluorescence, which is susceptible to background fluorescence interference and has low detection sensitivity. The interference of spontaneous fluorescence in Mingcui Zhang zhangmc@mail.ahnu.edu.cn 1 environment [13][14][15]. Moreover, PAEs can enter the circulatory system and produce residues in the body, which will present a serious threat to human health [16][17][18]. ...
Carbon dots as new nanomaterials, have been widely used in rapid detection because of their nondestructive, real-time detection characteristics. Improving the sensitivity and selectivity of the method in complex real samples is new challenge and requirement for sensing technology. Here, we report an ultrasensitive fluorescence immunoassay (FIA) for trace diethyl phthalate (DEP) using red carbon dots@SiO2 (R-CDs@SiO2) as tags. SiO2 as a nanocarrier can effectively improve the bio-functionalization and utilization rate of carbon dots. Moreover, several R-CDs embedded in SiO2 nanospheres can magnify the fluorescence signal and improve sensitivity. R-CDs@SiO2 conjugate anti-DEP antibody (Ab) as fluorescent immunosensor, which can specifically recognize DEP. Under optimization conditions, the detection limit (LOD) of this FIA was calculated as 0.0011 ng/mL. In addition, the recoveries of this established FIA ranged from 96.8 to 108.5%, showing satisfactory accuracy. Compared with GC-MS/MS (LOD µg/mL), the sensitivity of the FIA was significantly improved. As a result, the FIA developed using R-CDs@SiO2 as tags has a high potential for determining trace DEP.
... This packaging also releases XPS microplastics which are trapped between the meat and difficult to remove (Kedzierski et al., 2020). Some other studies also reported the MPs contamination from food packaging including plastic packaging (Sobhani et al., 2020;Dessì et al., 2021), plastic containers (Du et al., 2020;Fadare et al., 2020), disposable plastic cups (Fadare et al., 2020), disposable paper cups (Ranjan et al., 2021), MPs release from plastic teabags into tea (Hernandez et al., 2019), polypropylene feeding bottles (Li et al., 2020a). ...
While versatile application of plastics has generated huge benefits in our life, the ‘plastic end-of-life’ comes with downsides of emerging concern is plastic particles within all parts of environments. Plastics are highly resistant to degradation and sustain in the environment for a prolonged period resulting in easy access of microplastics into human food chain. Microplastic exposure to humans is caused by foods of both animal and plant origin, food additives, drinks, and plastic food packaging. Living organisms can accumulate microplastics in cells and tissues which results in threats of chronic biological effects and potential health hazards for humans including body gastrointestinal disorders, immunity, respiratory problem, cancer, infertility, and alteration in chromosomes. Because of the threat of microplastics on human health, it is essential to ensure food safety as well as control plastic use with strict regulation of proper management. This study aims to enlighten future research into the core component of microplastics, their exposure to human food, prevention to human food chain, and biological reactions in human body. Finally, it is recommended to consider the presence of microplastics in different foods, as most of the existing research mainly focused on sea foods. And it is important to study the mechanism of toxicity with pathways in the human body based on the different types, shapes, and sizes of plastic particles.
... The magnification 1000 × was selected for counting the microplastics, and by this magnification, the particles with the size larger than 1 µm were distinguished and counted efficiently. For the classification of MPs according to their particle sizes, the MP sizes were classified as micron-sized (10-1000 μm) and submicron-sized (1-10 μm) (Ranjan et al., 2021). ...
Bottled water is becoming more popular worldwide and possible contamination’s need to be analyzed. Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants and have recently been regarded as an important contaminant in bottled water due to oral intake and possible threats to human health. In the present study, MP amounts in 23 popular Iranian brands of bottled water were determined by filtration and counting under scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The effects of mechanical stress, environmental factors, and freezing on MP release also were investigated. The average amounts of MPs in water samples were 1496.7 ± 1452.2 particles/L (199.8 to 6626.7 particles/L). The amounts of MPs in different brands was significantly different (p < 0.05). As much as 91.3% of detected particles had the size between 1 and 10 μm. The most likely polymers determined by FTIR spectroscopy was polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The freezing of water in the bottles did not show any significant effect on the MPs release, but mechanical stress to the bottles increased MP amounts in the water significantly. Environmental factors including sunlight exposure and the age of bottles showed the most degradative effects on the structure of polymers in the body of PET bottles and release of MPs. Regardless of their type, source and commercial brands, bottled water is contaminated with hundreds to thousands MPs/L. The main portion (above 90%) of these MPs are < 5 μm particles with considerable effects on human health.
... Li et al., 2020). Like plastic cups, tea bags exposed to high temperatures are also responsible for releasing MPs (Hernandez et al., 2019;Ranjan et al., 2021). Recent studies show that the presence of MPs in the soil makes many plants and vegetables vulnerable once MPs penetrate their roots (Sun et al., 2020;Taylor et al., 2020). ...
Introduction: In recent years there has been a considerable increase in the use of plastic products for different purposes. Many of the plastics generated are dumped into the environment inappropriately. Therefore, it is possible to find plastic waste in different ecosystems, with the marine environment being one of the most impacted. The objective of this review is to identify the impacts of microplastics on the environment and their impact on human health. Methodology: This work corresponds to a narrative literature review, using articles published from 2017 to 2022. The search for articles was carried out in the following databases: Sciencedirect, Scholar Google and Springer-Verlag, using the descriptors: microplastics, plastic pollution and environmental impact. Result: Plastics discarded in the environment go through different processes, such as environmental and biological stresses synergistically which allow these plastics to be broken down into particles smaller than 5 mm called microplastics. The current scenario of microplastic pollution is in evidence and has been causing concern to researchers around the world, since these pollutants are complex contaminants and have significant toxic effects. Current research proves that prolonged exposure to these particles jeopardizes the survival of marine life and induces serious damage to human health, since they can cause damage to the cell and its genetic material, in addition to providing a surface for the transport of microorganisms. And other chemical compounds. Conclusion: Studies show that microplastics pose potential risks to the marine environment and threaten human health, requiring urgent action to recover and avoid environmental impacts.
... Using electron microscopy, it was stated that a single brewed tea bag releases about 11.6 billion MPs into the water (Hernandez et al. 2019). The same effect was observed after the consumption of hot drinks, such as tea and coffee, from disposable cups (Ranjan, Joseph, and Goel 2021). ...
Plastic waste pollution is one of the biggest problems in the world today. The amount of plastic in the environment continues to increase, and human exposure to microplastic (MP) has become a reality. This subject has attracted the attention of the whole world. The MP problem has also been noticed by the scientific community. The term microplastic is mostly used to define synthetic material with a high polymer content that can have a size range from 0.1 to 5000 µm. This paper aims to characterize the routes of exposure to MP, define its pollution sources, and identify food types contaminated with plastics. This review addresses the current state of knowledge on this type of particles, with particular emphasis on their influence on human health. Adverse effects of MP depend on routes and sources of exposure. The most common route of exposure is believed to be the gastrointestinal tract. Sources of MP include fish, shellfish, water as well as tea, beer, wine, energy drinks, soft drinks, milk, salt, sugar, honey, poultry meat, fruits, and vegetables. Studies have shown that particles of PET, PE, PP, PS, PVC, PA, and PC are the most frequently found in food.
... Most studies suggested that autoclaving and high temperatures enhance the release of MPs from plastic materials (Hernandez et al., 2019;Ranjan et al., 2020). From Fig. 2c, it can be seen that the masks disinfected by autoclaving lost the most weight, followed by steam and alcohol treatments. ...
During the COVID-19 pandemic, disposable surgical masks were generally disinfected and reused due to mask shortages. Herein, the role of disinfected masks as a source of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) was investigated. The amount of MPs and NPs released from masks disinfected by UV ranged from 1054 ± 106 to 2472 ± 70 and from 2.55 ± 0.22 × 10⁹ to 6.72 ± 0.27 × 10⁹ particles/piece, respectively, comparable to that of the undisinfected masks, and the MPs were changed to small-sized particles. The amount of MPs and NPs released after alcohol and steam treatment were respectively lower and higher than those from undisinfected masks, and MPs were shifted to small-sized particles. The amount of MPs and NPs released in water after autoclaving was lower than for undisinfected masks. In all, the amount of fibers released after disinfection decreased greatly, and certain disinfection processes were found to increase the amount of small-sized NPs released from masks into aqueous environments.
... The routine and widespread exposure of humans to micro-and nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) is well established (Conti et al., 2020;Koelmans et al., 2019); however, the interaction of these particles with tissues and cells in humans has been poorly understood. An extensive and growing body of literature is available on various pathways of human exposure to plastic particulates, including human consumer products (Karbalaei et al., 2018), bottled, tap water and beverages (Kosuth et al., 2018), seafood (Lusher et al., 2017), plastic-lined coffee cup (Ranjan et al., 2021), milk and honey (Diaz-Basantes et al., 2020), salts (Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2014), tea-bag drinks (Afrin et al., 2022), fruits (Hernández-Arenas et al., 2021), and vegetables . Besides, there is a track record for inhalation of house dust and drinking from bottled water, as well as wearing a plastic face mask as the topmost sources of micro(nano)-plastics exposure (Senathirajah et al., 2021;Zhang et al., 2020). ...
Constant exposure to plastics particulates has raised concerns against human health, particularly when it comes to birth outcomes. The present study explores the first appraisal of plastic particles in fresh human placenta and its association with foetal growth in neonates. Specifically, 43 pregnant women from general population were selected and their placentas were analyzed by digital microscopy and Raman microspectroscopy for microplastics (MPs <5 mm). We used regression analysis to estimate associations between MPs count in placenta and neonatal anthropometric measurements. MPs were found in all (13 out of 13) intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) pregnancies and their average abundance ranged from 2 to 38 particles per placenta, but were less than limit of detection (LOD) in normal pregnancies except three out of 30 subjects. This study is one of very few that detected MPs in human placenta in which particles <10 μm were the most abundant in both IUGR and normal pregnancies, accounting for up to 64%. Fragments clearly prevailed at normal pregnancies and fragments together with fibers predominated at IUGR placentas. Despite four different polymers forming the MPs being identified, the majority of MPs comprised of PE (polyethylene) and PS (polystyrene). Inverse associations between MPs exposure and birth outcomes were observed in terms of birth weight (r = - 0.82, p < 0.001), length (r = - 0.56, p < 0.001), head circumference (r = - 0.50, p = 0.001), and 1-min Apgar score (r = - 0.75, p < 0.001) among those with IUGR, compared to those that were nominated as normal pregnancies. While it seems plastic particles may affect placental-foetal interrelationship, the pattern of associations between their content in placenta and birth outcomes, however, shows evidence of a nonlinear or nonmonotonic dose response possibly through perturbation of gas and nutrients exchange which is worth future investigation.
... Based on these data, people who consume the take-out food per day may ingest 203 microplastic fragments through containers in a week. Besides, undesirable effusion or migration of MPs were also detected in extensively used disposable paper cups, microwavable plastic containers and even baby feeding bottles (He et al. 2021;Li, Shi, et al. 2020;Ranjan, Joseph, and Goel 2021). Above evidences suggest that the way food is consumed also influences the extent of MNPs pollution. ...
Micro(nano)plastics (MNPs) in human food system have been broadly recognized by researchers and have drawn an increasing public attention to their potential health risks, particularly the risk to the intestinal system regarding the long-term exposure to MNPs through food consumption. This study aims to review the environmental properties (formation and composition) of MNPs and MNPs pollution in human food system following the order of food production, food processing and food consumption. The current analytic and identical technologies utilized by researchers are also summarized in this review. in fact, parts of commonly consumed food raw materials, processed food and the way to take in food all become the possible sources for human MNPs ingestion. in addition, the available literatures investigating MNPs-induced intestinal adverse effect are discussed from in vitro models and in vivo mammalian experiments, respectively. Particle translocation, cytotoxicity, damaged gut barrier, intestinal inflammation as well as microbial alteration are mostly reported. Moreover, the practical remediation strategies for MNPs pollution are also illustrated in the last section. This review is expected to provide a research insight for foodborne MNPs and arouse more public awareness of MNPs pollution in food and potential risk for human intestinal health.
... Mechanical stress to HDPE bottle screw caps, i.e., opening and closing a drinking water bottle, has been observed to release MP and identified as potential ingestion source through transfer via oral exposure (Weisser et al., 2021;Winkler et al., 2019). Thermal stress from heat has also been confirmed to release MPs/NPs from food packaging, e.g., when brewing a teabags (consisting of nylon and PET) (Cella et al., 2022;Hernandez et al., 2019), cooking rice in PE cooking bags (Cella et al., 2022) or hot liquids in paper cups coated with PE films (Ranjan et al., 2021) and other plastic materials holding hot liquids (Liu et al., 2022;Schwabl, 2020). Also, thermal stress through freezing had been verified to release MP/NP, as recently observed for ice-cube bags (Cella et al., 2022). ...
Since nanoplastics are currently considered potentially hazardous to the environment and human health, reliability of studies on nanoplastic exposure becomes crucial. However, analytical challenges limit our understanding of their formation and detection, thus hampering their biological interactions assessment. Here we provide a combined approach to quantitatively and qualitatively detect the release of nanoplastics in water matrix and, in particular, to measure direct exposure of consumers by simulated use of drinking water plastic bottles. We measured that the polyethylene sealing of the bottles released particles with a size distribution ranging from few hundreds nanometers up to about one micron and estimated a mass release in the order of few tenths of nanograms per opening/closing cycle. We observe that mechanical stress alters the physical-chemical characteristics of the generated secondary nanoplastics and degrades the material properties compared to the original bulk source, thus complicating their spectroscopic chemical identification. Our findings demonstrate that understanding material degradation processes is therefore crucial for identifying and quantifying nanoplastics in real samples. Moreover, methods allowing quantitative studies on the release of nanoplastic as a source of exposure are considered essential for proper assessment of their potential health hazards and to promote improvements in consumer products plastic packaging design.
... Microplastics are used to enhance and improve performance in the field of chemical materials, including medicine, cosmetics, and fabrics [6][7][8]. They are also produced by the breakdown of waste plastics [9,10]. It is important to reduce the number of microplastic particles diffusing into the environment. ...
Microplastics are increasingly suspected of having serious negative effects on ecological systems and living organisms. These effects are different based on the materials of the microplastics, leading to the importance of the determination of the materials. For material determination, spectral fingerprints based on FT-IR and Raman microspectroscopy are previously and commonly used, though they require patience and special skills. In this study, we have developed a novel technique for microscopic observation of single microplastic particles stained with fluorescent dyes to enable fluorescence-based determination of materials of these particles as a first screening of material determination. Commercially available and popular microplastic particles and fluorescent dyes were used. Fluorescence microscopy was carried out to observe the degree of fluorescent intensity for various combinations of microplastics and dyes based on the difference in fluorescent intensity of microplastics before and after staining with the dyes. We have found a dependence of the fluorescent intensity on the combination of the microplastics and the dye. Fluorescein gave the highest increase in intensity for PS (polystyrene), showing a statistically significant difference between fluorescent intensity for PS and that for PP (polypropylene) or PE (polyethylene). The use of Fluorescein thus enables specific detection of PS. On the other hand, Nile Red gave the highest increase in fluorescence for PP, indicating that the combination of Nile Red and PP gives a significantly greater interaction than with other combinations. The use of Nile Red thus enables the specific detection of PP. These results indicate the possibility of the material determination of microplastics by using fluorescent dyes. This is the first demonstration of the differential determination of the materials of single-particle microplastics based on a material-specific increase in fluorescent intensity by staining microplastics with fluorescent dyes.
... Found in the rain, air, earth, snow, salt, tap and bottled water, fish, birds, beer, tea, honey, carrots, lettuces, broccoli, potato, apples, and pears (Hernandez et al., 2019;Oliveri Conti et al., 2020;Pastorino et al., 2021;Ranjan et al., 2021;Shruti et al., 2021;Zhang et al., 2020;Zuccarello et al., 2019), plastic particles considerably accumulate in subsequent links of the food chain and penetrate living organisms (Chae et al., 2018;Kik et al., 2020), including human (Jiang et al., 2020;Schwabl et al., 2019;Zhang et al., 2021). Polystyrene is one of the most versatile plastic-type proving that PS is also one of the main components of plastic pollution (Hwang et al., 2020;Kik et al., 2020). ...
Commercially manufactured or generated through environmental degradation, microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) considerably contribute to environmental pollution. There is a knowledge gap in how exposure to MPs/NPs changes cellular function and affects animal and human health. Here, we demonstrate that after oral uptake, fluorescent polystyrene (PS) nanoparticles pass through the mouse digestive system, accumulate and aggregate in different organs, and induce functional changes in cells and organs. Using cochlear explant as a novel in vitro system, we confirmed the consequences of PS-MP/NP interaction with inner ear cells by detecting aggregates and hetero-aggregates of PS particles in hair cells. The testes of treated males accumulated MPs/NPs in the interstitial compartment surrounding the seminiferous tubules, which was associated with a statistically significant decrease in testosterone levels. Male mice showed increased secretion of interleukins (IL-12p35 and IL-23) by splenocytes while cyto- and genotoxicity tests indicated impaired cell viability and increased DNA damage in spleen tissue. Males also showed a broad range of anxiogenic responses to PS nanoparticles while hippocampal samples from treated females showed an increased expression of Bax and Nlrp3 genes, indicating a pro-apoptotic/proinflammatory effect of PS treatment. Taken together, induced PS effects are also gender-dependent, and therefore, strongly motivate future research to mitigate the deleterious effects of nanosized plastic particles.
... Microplastics are abundant and generated in high numbers anywhere macroscopic plastics are present [14,15]. For example, 25,000 microplastic particles are released from one disposable plastic cup into one cup of hot water in 15 min [16]. Microplastics are prone to accumulate in the environment and pose a significant risk to ecosystems globally [17][18][19][20][21]. ...
Despite widespread awareness that enormous consumption of plastics is not sustainable, the global production and use of plastics continue to grow. This generates vast amounts of plastic waste and microplastics, ending up e.g., in the marine environment. There are serious challenges in detecting and measuring microplastics, especially in highly diluted natural samples. Here, a new alternative microplastic detection method based on plasmon-enhanced fluorescence (PEF) was developed and tested using fluorescence microscopy. In particular, gold nanopillar-based substrates, displaying (i) high electromagnetic field enhancement, and (ii) surface superhydrophobicity and high adhesion properties, were utilized to enhance the fluorescence emission signal from microplastics in water samples. The fluorescence microscopy imaging revealed remarkable fluorescence enhancement by the PEF substrates on the microplastic particles and fibers with different sizes of both conventional, low-density polyethylene, and biodegradable poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate). The limit of detection and quantification by this method was estimated to be as low as 0.35 and 1.2 femtograms, respectively. The observed fluorescence enhancement of the gold nanopillar substrates for the microplastics was ca. 70 times greater than the case of having the microplastics on a glass substrate. Additionally, 3D FEM simulations were performed to further investigate the system's electromagnetic field distribution near the nanostructures. This new method makes undyed microplastics visible in fluorescence microscopy, even particles and fibres too small to be imaged with conventional light microscopy. This can be a great tool for microplastics research, helping us to detect, study, understand microplastic dynamics in water based systems.
... It is known that some hot beverage disposable paper cups are lined with plastic. These plastic lining may contain toxic metals such as Pb and Cd, which can be a potential health risk to consumers (Ranjan et al. 2021). ...
Plastics are increasingly being used in consumer products due to its versatility in many applications. However, these plastics may contain inorganic elements that may be harmful to humans. To determine any potential health risk of plastics, it was important to characterize elemental composition of plastics and assess usage patterns. To investigate plastic usage in a typical Jamaican household and to characterize the inorganic elements in consumer plastics using XRF analyzer. About 200 questionnaires were distributed to households to determine the types and quantity of plastics. A total of 130 plastic samples from 7 categories were collected and measured for inorganic elements using handheld XRF. Household plastics were mainly used for storage and personal hygiene products. On average, 10% of plastics were recycled, while 30% were burned. Inorganic elements present in plastic samples were Cl > Ti > Ba > Fe > Zn > Sb > Cr > Br > Cu > V > Pb > As. Elemental concentrations varied based on the category of plastics. Green plastics had the highest concentrations of each type of elements. This study provided useful information on characterizing the different types of elements present in common household plastics. Results from the survey were used to assess participants’ attitude and behaviors towards plastics usage and disposal. It was important to obtain a profile of plastics waste from a typical household. This will allow for more targeted strategies to reduce plastics pollution.
... More notably, a wide range of organisms at all trophic levels, including some consumed by humans, such as crabs, oysters, mussels, and fish, have been found to ingest microplastics unintentionally or mistakenly for food (Smith et al., 2018;Thiele et al., 2021). Furthermore, extensive research has also revealed the microplastic abundance in atmospheric fallout, stormwater, street dust, and several human-consuming food products and disposable food packaging containers (e.g., Shruti et al., 2020;Shruti et al., 2021;Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020a;Huang et al., 2020;Ranjan et al., 2021). ...
The analysis of microplastics in various environmental matrices is becoming more prevalent in almost every region of the world. Microplastics are underreported depending on how they are extracted and analyzed, and their magnitude and impacts are unknown or unstudied. This paper aims to synthesize a concrete assessment of the important factors that underpin microplastics data underreporting. Our analysis revealed that there is considerable evidence to highlight data underreporting on microplastic abundance and characteristics, which stems from a combination of partial evaluation, economic constraints, recovery efficiency of microplastic extraction, filter pore size used for microplastic separation, and the detection limit of the quantification and characterization method. The majority of unreported data fell into the category of significantly smaller-sized microplastic particles (1–300 μm), which are known to be more harmful to the environment and human health. Recommendations toward the improvement of methodologies for improving microplastic data, as well as the critical areas that will drive standardization ahead, are addressed.
The consumption of disposable materials is booming with the rapid development of urbanization and industri-alization, which may inevitably cause the release of toxic and harmful substances during use of them in daily life. This study was to estimate element levels such as Beryllium (Be), Vanadium (V), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Antimony (Sb), Barium (Ba), Lead (Pb), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), and Selenium (Se) in leachate and subsequently assess the health risk of exposure to those disposable products such as paper and plastic food containers. We found that a large amount of metals was released from disposable food containers in hot water, and the order of metal concentration is Zn > Ba > Fe > Mn > Ni > Cu > Sb > Cr > Se > Be > Pb > Co > V > Cd. Additionally, the hazard quotient (HQ) of metals in young adults were less than 1, and were decreased in the order of Sb > Fe > Cu > Be > Ni > Cr > Pb > Zn > Se > Cd > Ba > Mn > V > Co. Furthermore, the excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) results of Ni and Be indicated that chronic exposure to Ni and Be may have a non-negligible carcinogenic risk. These findings suggest that potential health risk of metals may exist for the individuals to use disposable food containers under high temperature environment.
Microplastics from food packaging material have risen in number and dispersion in the aquatic system, the terrestrial environment, and the atmosphere in recent decades. Microplastics are of particular concern due to their long-term durability in the environment, their great potential for releasing plastic monomers and additives/chemicals, and their vector-capacity for adsorbing or collecting other pollutants. Consumption of foods containing migrating monomers can lead to accumulation in the body and the build-up of monomers in the body can trigger cancer. The book chapter focuses the commercial plastic food packaging materials and describes their release mechanisms of microplastics from packaging into foods. To prevent the potential risk of microplastics migrated into food products, the factors influencing microplastic to the food products, e.g., high temperatures, ultraviolet and bacteria, have been discussed. Additionally, as many evidences shows that the microplastic components are toxic and carcinogenic, the potential threats and negative effects on human health have also been highlighted. Moreover, future trends is summarized to reduce the microplastic migration by enhancing public awareness as well as improving waste management.
Because plastics are a multifunctional, resistant, easy-to-process, and affordable material, they play a central role in our daily life. However, their extensive use has become tainted by the continuous rise of plastic pollution worldwide, which generates, after slow photo, chemical, physical, and biological degradation, massive amounts of small-sized microplastics. Their ubiquitous nature in the environment but also in foodstuff and consumer packaged goods has revealed a potential threat to human health. In this chapter, a focus is given on the human gastrointestinal tract, as portal of entry but also first barrier and target for microplastics. We summarize the current state of knowledge on human oral exposure to microplastics and the characteristics of ingested forms (origin, occurrence, size, shape, polymer type, surface properties). Then, we highlight the physicochemical transformations of microplastics during digestion. Afterwards, we detail their potential impact on gut homeostasis disruption, including gut microbiota, mucus and epithelial barriers, considering in vitro and in vivo studies (rodents). Finally, this chapter points out future research directions about microplastics in the field of human intestinal health. Special emphasis is given to the critical need of developing robust in vitro gut models to adequately simulate human digestive physiology for better gut health risk assessment and management of microplastics.
Microplastics (MPs) have been found in many packaged food products such as salt, tea bags, milk, and fish. In a previous study by this group, MPs were found to leach into hot water from the plastic lining of disposable paper cups. No studies were found in the literature quantifying health risks or lifetime intake of MPs. At present, it is not possible to quantify health risks due to MPs because dose-response and toxicity assessments are not available. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to assess the intake of MPs and associated contaminants like fluoride that are released into these hot beverages. MPs in the previous study were quantified in terms of particle counts only and a simple method was adopted in the present study to convert the microplastics count into its respective mass. Chronic daily intake (CDI) and lifetime intake (LTI) of MPs through the ingestion pathway were calculated. CDI and Hazard Quotient (HQ) due to fluoride ingestion were also estimated following USEPA guidelines. Monte Carlo (MC) simulations were used to account for the variability in input variables such as concentration of MPs, body weight, averaging time, exposure duration, exposure frequency and ingestion rate to evaluate the impact on CDI and LTI values. The CDI was used to estimate the LTI of MPs and HQ for fluoride ingestion. MC simulations with 100,000 iterations resulted in an average CDI of 0.03 ± 0.025 mg of microplastic per kg of body weight per day and 7.04 ± 8.8 μg fluoride per kg body weight per day. This study takes us one step closer to estimating the human health risk due to the ingestion of microplastics and other contaminants through food items.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are ubiquitous in the natural environment that are generated by chemical or biochemical processes. Plastic rainwater facilities, as an important part of modern rainwater systems, are inevitably deteriorated by ROS. As a consequence, microplastics will be released. However, information on how ROS affect the ageing characteristics of plastic rainwater facilities and the subsequent microplastic release behavior is still insufficient. To address this knowledge gap, Fenton reagents were used to simulate the reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced ageing process of three typical plastic rainwater components (rainwater pipe, made of polyvinyl chloride; modular storage tank, made of polypropylene; inspection well, made of high-density polyethylene) and the subsequent microplastic release behavior. After 6 days of Fenton ageing, an increase in sharpness, holes, and fractures on the rainwater facilities' surface was observed by scanning electron microscope (SEM). The functional group changes on the rainwater facilities' surface were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR) and two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2D-COS) and compared with the results of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). During the ageing process, oxygen-containing functional groups were generated and the carbon chains were broken, which promoted peeling and the release of microplastics. The amount of released microplastics (ranging from 158 to 6617 items/g facility) varied with the type of rainwater facilities, and the order was modular storage tank > inspection well > rainwater pipe. The release amount increased with ageing time, and a significant linear relationship was observed (r2 > 0.91). The particle size of the released microplastics ranged from 2 to 1362 μm, among which 10-30 μm particles accounted for the largest proportion (62.7 %). The release amount increased exponentially with decreasing particle size (r2 > 0.71). This study indicates that large amounts of microplastics could be released from plastic rainwater components during ROS-induced ageing.
The problem of environmental pollution with plastic is becoming more and more acute every year. Due to the low rate of decomposition of plastic, its particles get into food and harm the human body. This chapter focuses on the potential risks and toxicological effects of both nano and microplastics on human health. The main places of distribution of various toxicants along with the food chain have been established. The effects of some examples of the main sources of micro/nanoplastics on the human body are also emphasised. The processes of entry and accumulation of micro/nanoplastics are described, and the mechanism of accumulation that occurs inside the body is briefly explained. Potential toxic effects reported from studies on various organisms are highlighted as well.
Numerous studies have shown that exposure to micro- or nano-plastics led to the cell viability and function of macrophages in the intestine tissue might be one possible mechanism. This study investigated the cytotoxicity and pro-inflammatory effect of 80nm polystyrene-nano-plastic (PS-NP) and 3 μm PS-micro-plastic (PS-MP) on mouse macrophages RAW264.7 cells. Our results showed that exposure to PS-NP or PS-MP induced apoptosis of cells at 5 or 10 μg/mL, respectively. Besides, PS-NP enhanced the secretion of inflammatory cytokines (Tumor necrosis factor-α, Interleukin-6 and Interleukin-10) with the lowest effective concentration (LOEC) of 1, 0.01, and 0.01 μg/mL, respectively. PS-MP enhanced secretion of TNF-α and IL-10 with the LOEC of 1 and 0.01 μg/mL, respectively. We further studied the possible mechanisms of the effects of PS-NP or PS-MP on RAW264.7 cells. We found they might cause cytotoxicity and inflammatory effects by producing reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide in the cells. Accordingly, our results demonstrated that PS-NP and PS-MP had cytotoxicity and pro-inflammatory effect on macrophages, which might further lead to intestinal inflammation. Moreover, we revealed that the PS-NP had more potent adverse impacts on macrophages than PS-MP.
Since microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have started emerging as ubiquitous contaminants in the environment, a variety of analytical techniques has been developed and tested for the detection and characterization of polymer particles at a micro- and nano-scale. Yet, no unique method stands out for its ability to yield all the relevant information required to properly address MP and NP contamination in the environment, and even less so in food material.
In this review, several approaches to sample preparation and isolation of MPs from food matrices are reported, well-established and promising emerging analytical techniques for the detection and characterization of MPs and NPs are described and discussed.
The information reported in this review shows that even the most widely used methods are still under development and MP/NP analysis is still far away from method validation and standardization. The establishment of rigorous best practices to yield reliable data and build a comprehensive knowledge of MP and NP occurrence in food is essential for the implementation of strategies and policies to address MP/NP pollution. Therefore, an outlook of the field towards harmonization and quality improvement of MP/NP analysis is included in this review.
The widespread use of disposable plastic boxes is exacerbating the dangers of microplastics (MPs); however, little is known about the fragmentation behavior of MPs during aging. In this study, the dynamic evolution on the release of micro(nano)plastics and photoaging properties of two disposable plastic boxes (polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene (PS)) were investigated under light irradiation and mechanical abrasion. Results showed that the weight of PP and PS was decreased by 53 % and 100 %, respectively after 60 d of ultraviolet irradiation (UV60). Moreover, a large number of fragmented particles were produced from the combined light irradiation and abrasion, with 0.142 ± 0.006 and 0.141 ± 0.013 million micro(nano)plastics/mL particles from PP and PS boxes, respectively, and the nanometer range (<100 nm) accounted for 70.8 % and 46.8 %. The correlation model of the average size or alteration time versus carbonyl index (CI) was developed, which indicated that the fragmentation behavior was mainly related to the photooxidation, though mechanical abrasion also played a certain enhancing role. Additionally, PS was susceptible to the fragmentation and photooxidation compared to PP possibly since the phenyl ring of PS was more vulnerable to UV attack than the methyl of PP. The findings of this study clarify the dynamic fragmentation process of micro(nano)plastics of disposable plastic boxes and provide useful information to access environmental fate of MPs more holistically.
Non-degradable polymers cause serious environmental pollution problem, such as the widely-used while unrecyclable coatings which significantly affect the overall degradation performance of products. It is imperative and attractive to develop biodegradable functional coatings. Herein, we proposed a novel strategy to successfully prepare biodegradable, thermoplastic and hydrophobic coatings with high transparence and biosafety by weakening the interchain interactions between cellulose chain. The natural cellulose and cinnamic acid were as raw materials. Via reducing the degree of polymerization (DP) of cellulose and regulating the degree of substitution (DS) of cinnamate moiety, the obtained cellulose cinnamate (CC) exhibited not only the thermal flow behavior but also good biodegradability, which solves the conflict between the thermoplasticity and biodegradability in cellulose-based materials. The glass transition temperature (Tg) and thermal flow temperature (Tf) of the CC could be adjusted in a range of 150-200 °C and 180-210 °C, respectively. The CC with DS < 1.2 and DP ≤ 100 degraded more than 60% after an enzyme treatment for 7 days, and degraded more than 80% after a composting treatment for 42 days. Furthermore, CC had no toxicity to human epidermal cells even at a high concentration (0.5 mg mL⁻¹). In addition, CC could be easily fabricated into multifunctional coating with high hydrophobicity, thermal adhesion and high transparence. Therefore, after combining with cellophane and paperboard, CC coating with low DP and DS could be used to prepare fully-biodegradable heat-sealing packaging, art paper, paper cups, paper straws and food packaging boxes.
The major health risks of dual exposure to two hazardous factors of plastics and radioactive contamination are obscure. In the present study, we systematically evaluated the combinational toxic effects of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), one of the most influential plastic ingredients, mainly from electronic wastes, and γ-irradiation in zebrafish for the first time. TBBPA (0.25 μg/mL for embryos and larvae, 300 μg/L for adults) contamination aggravated the radiation (6 Gy for embryos and larvae, 20 Gy for adults)-induced early dysplasia and aberrant angiogenesis of embryos, further impaired the locomotor vitality of irradiated larvae, and worsened the radioactive multiorganic histologic injury, neurobehavioural disturbances and dysgenesis of zebrafish adults as well as the inter-generational neurotoxicity in offspring. TBBPA exaggerated the radiative toxic effects not only by enhancing the inflammatory and apoptotic response but also by further unbalancing the endocrine system and disrupting the underlying gene expression profiles. In conclusion, TBBPA exacerbates radiation-induced injury in zebrafish, including embryos, larvae, adults and even the next generation. Our findings provide new insights into the toxicology of TBBPA and γ-irradiation, shedding light on the severity of cocontamination of MP components and radioactive substances and thereby inspiring novel remediation and rehabilitation strategies for radiation-injured aqueous organisms and radiotherapy patients.
The development of the rapid preparation of highly stable metal-organic framework (MOF)-based devices provides the possibility of meeting the increasing demands of MOF in industrial applications. However, MOFs experience poor processability and stable high-valence-metal(IV)-based MOFs favor forming either thermodynamically stable metal hydroxides or oxides during their growth and nucleation, which hinders their practical applications. Herein, we present a versatile deep eutectic solvent (DES)-assisted hot pressing method to in situ rapidly prepare six distinct zirconium-based MOF nanocrystals on fibers (denoted as Zr-MOFilters) within 20 min. A small amount of DES promotes MOF precursor contact and accelerates Zr-MOF growth. Temperature and pressure facilitate the formation of Zr-MOFs onto desired substrates. In situ1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectra and time-dependent Fourier-transform infrared spectra were conducted to elucidate the growth of Zr-MOF nanocrystals. As a proof-of-concept, the abilities of Zr-MOFilters for Cr2O
2−7
and micro(nano) plastics removal have been demonstrated. This strategy paves the way for the rapid fabrication of highly stable MOF-based devices and brings MOFs a step closer to practical application.
Take-out food has become increasingly prevalent due to the fast pace of people's life. However, few study has been done on microplastics in take-out food. Contacting with disposable plastic containers, take-out food may be contaminated with microplastics. In the present study, abundance and characteristics of microplastics in total of 146 take-out food samples including solid food samples and beverage samples (bubble tea and coffee) were determined and identified. The mean abundance of microplastics in take-out food was 639 items kg⁻¹, with the highest value in rice and the lowest value in coffee. Fragments shape, transparent color and sizes ≤500 μm were the main characteristics of microplastics in those food, and polyethylene was the main polymer type. Our results indicated that microplastics in take-out food was influenced by food categories and cooking methods, as well as food packaging materials. Approximately 170–638 items of microplastics may be consumed by people who order take-out food 1–2 times weekly.
Microplastics (MPs) pollution has become a serious global environment problem. It is therefore of practical significance to investigate the MP pollution caused by using plastic materials on a daily basis. In this study, different protective mobile phone cases (PMPCs) were selected as a representative plastic commodity that are in contact with the human body for long periods to explore the generation and transportation of MPs during 3 months of actual use. The average abundances were 1122 particles cm⁻² on the PMPC and 314 particles cm⁻² on the palm, respectively. There were four main kinds of MPs produced during the use of different PMPCs, which indicated that waste plastics may be recycled and used as raw materials, resulting in a complex PMPC composition. The median sizes of MPs on the surfaces of PMPCs and palms were 28 and 32 μm, respectively, which were smaller than the sizes reported in other studies. The combined effect of ultraviolet ageing and friction was the main reason for MP generation during daily PMPC use. Based on the results of a fitted regression equation and Monte Carlo simulation, the sharply generation of MPs may occur when PMPC was used for approximately 33 days.
By simulating plastic exposure patterns in modern society, the impact of daily exposure to plastic products on mammals was explored. In this study, Institute for Cancer Research (ICR) mice were used to establish drinking water exposure models of three popular kinds of plastic products, including non-woven tea bags, food-grade plastic bags and disposable paper cups. Feces and urine of mice were collected for gut microbiome, metabolomics analysis. Our results showed that the diversity and composition of gut microbiota changed at genus level compared to control group. Lactobacillus, Parabacteroides, Escherichia-shigella and Staphylococcus decreased while Lachnospiraceae increased treated with non-woven tea bags. Escherichia-shigella and Alistipes increased while Parabacteroides decreased treated with food grade plastic bags. Muribaculaceae decreased in the gut microbiota of mice treated with disposable paper cups. Metabolomics has seen changes in the number of metabolites and enrichment of metabolic pathways related to inflammatory responses and immune function. Inflammatory responses were found in histological and biochemical examination. In summary, this study demonstrated that long-term oral exposure to leachate form boiled-water treated plastic products might have effects on gut microbiome and metabolome, which further provided new insights about potential adverse effects for human beings.
Microplastics (MPs) are a new kind of environmental pollutant that has attracted extensive attention in recent years. MPs can be ingested by multiple organisms and mainly accumulate in the intestine. However, there is still little known about the toxic effects of MPs on humans. Here, we chose the male adult mice as the research model, which were exposed to 2 µm polyvinyl chloride (PVC) MPs at a concentration of 100 mg/kg for consecutive 60 days, to study the toxicity of PVC-MPs. The changes in gut histology, enzymatic biomarkers, the intestinal microbiome, and metabolomic responses were monitored in mice. The results displayed that the PVC-MPs reduced intestinal mucus secretion and increased intestinal permeability. Moreover, PVC-MPs exposure decreased mRNA expression levels of colonic mucus secretion-related genes, indicating dysfunction of intestinal mucus secretion after exposure to PVC-MPs. With regard to the gut microbiota, high throughput sequencing of the full-length 16S rRNA gene sequencing indicated 15 and 17 kinds of gut microbes changed markedly after PVC-MPs exposure at the genus and species level, respectively. Furthermore, marked alterations in the gut microbiome and fecal metabolic profiles were observed, most of which were related to intestinal injury and barrier dysfunction. These results show that exposure to PVC-MPs leads to intestinal injury and changes gut microbiome composition and metabolome profiles, thus the health risk of PVC-MPs to animals needs more concern. This study helps to provide a new idea about the health risk of PVC-MPs to humans.
Microplastics are extremely complex, and as the food chain comes full circle, it is dreaded that these could have a deleterious influence on humans. Although the risk of plastics to humans is not yet established, their occurrence in food and water destined for human consumption has been reported. The prevalence of micro-sized plastics in the ecosystem and living organisms, their trophic transfer along the food web, and the discernment of food species as competent indicators have become research priorities. The scale of the issue is massive, but what are the main culprits and causes, and could there be a solution in sight for this global problem? Despite the massive amount of research in the field, a collation of available data and pertinent hazard evaluation remains difficult. In order to identify the knowledge gaps and exposure pathways, several traits related to food chain assessment are presented with the goal of properly evaluating and managing this emerging risk. We apprehend three possible noxious consequences of small plastic particles, firstly, due to the plastic particles themselves; secondly, due to the extrication of tenacious organic pollutants adsorbed onto the plastics; and thirdly, due to the leaching of components such as monomers and additives from the plastics. The exigency for the standardization of protocols to bring about consistency in data collection and analysis, involving solutions, stakeholder costs, and benefits, are discussed. Harmonized methods will enable meticulous assessment of the impacts and threats that microplastics pose to the biota and increase the comparability between studies. We emphasize the contribution of the "honest broker" in science, providing an overarching analysis to devise the most viable solutions to microplastic pollution for private and public leadership to utilize.
Akumulacija mikroplastike (MP) u okolišu i kontaminacija prehrambenih proizvoda ovim zagađivačem postala je globalna prijetnja i okolišu i zdravlju ljudi. Trenutačno, zabrinutost vezana uz prisustvo MP u okolišu uključuje ulogu MP kao izvora i finalnog depoa za otrovne kemikalije i patogene mikroorganizme uz bioakumulaciju i potencijalni ulazak u prehrambeni lanac. Najveći dio potrošnje plastike odnosi se na proizvodnju ambalažnih materijala, uključujući i one koji se primjenjuju u prehrambenoj industriji, a ljudi često pohranjuju, prenose, pripremaju i konzumiraju hranu u plastičnim posudama. Ovaj rad daje pregled spoznaja o pojavnosti MP u prehrambenom lancu i naglašava njenu ulogu kao vektora raznih onečiščujućih tvari i mikroorganizama. Nadalje jedan od ciljeva rada je ukazati na mogući utjecaj oslobađanja MP iz plastičnih ambalažnih materijala u hranu i piće te na potencijalne negativne posljedice po ljudsko zdravlje. Temeljem pregleda recentnih znanstvenih studija proizlazi kako se istraživanja utjecaja MP na prehrambeni lanac, a posebno utjecaja na zdravlje ljudi, trebaju još više intenzivirati i produbiti. Smjernice za ublažavanje njenih potencijalnih negativnih utjecaja uključuju analizu rizika i uvođenje prehrambenih preporuka za visokorizične namirnice s većim udjelom ovog značajnog zagađivača hrane te primjenu alternativnih ambalažnih materijala u pakiranju hrane i pića.
In recent years, the presence of microplastics (MP) and nanoplastics (NP) has been assessed in several environmental matrices, including the marine environment and agricultural soil, suggesting those pollutants are likely to enter the food web. However, there is still a severe lack of information about the occurrence of plastic particles in our food, partially due to the multidimensionality of the data necessary to fully describe MP contamination and the consequent difficulty in validating analytical methods.
In this review, consisting of two parts, preliminary results about the presence of MP in food, water, and beverages are summarized (Part I) and several approaches for the characterization of micro- and nano-sized plastic particles are reported and discussed (Part II).
The information gathered in this manuscript highlights the need for a more comprehensive knowledge of MP/NP occurrence along the food chain in order to assess the food safety risk related to those contaminants and implement strategies for their monitoring in products intended for human consumption. Therefore, an outlook of the field towards a coherent, consistent, and policy-relevant data collection and standardization is included in this review.
Résumé
Les plastiques jouent un rôle central dans notre vie quotidienne. Cependant, leur utilisation massive a mené à une forte augmentation de la pollution plastique à travers le monde, générant après dégradation d’importantes quantités de microplastiques. Leur omniprésence dans l’environnement, mais également dans les produits alimentaires ou encore les emballages, représente un risque potentiel pour la santé humaine. Dans cette revue, une attention particulière est portée au tractus gastro-intestinal, à la fois porte d’entrée et première barrière aux microplastiques. Les caractéristiques de ces derniers (origine, occurrence, taille, forme, type de polymère, propriétés de surface) ainsi que les premiers résultats sur l’exposition orale humaine sont présentés. Puis, nous mettons en lumière les transformations physico-chimiques des microplastiques au cours de la digestion. Par la suite, nous détaillons l’impact potentiel des microplastiques sur l’homéostasie intestinale, via le triptyque épithélium/mucus/microbiote, en considérant les études in vitro et in vivo chez le rongeur. Nous proposons enfin de futures orientations dans l’étude des microplastiques sur la santé intestinale humaine. Un accent particulier porte sur la nécessité de développer des modèles in vitro gastro-intestinaux robustes afin de simuler au mieux la physiologie digestive humaine, ce qui permettra une meilleure évaluation des risques sanitaires relatifs aux microplastiques.
Nanoplastics are regarded as inert particulate pollutants pose potential threat to organisms. It has been verified that they can penetrate biological barriers and accumulate in organisms; however, there is still a knowledge gap on the in vivo stability and degradation behaviors due to the lack of ideal analytical methods. Herein, a surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) tag labeling technique was developed to study the in vivo behaviors of polystyrene (PS) nanoplastics by comparison with silica (SiO2) nanoparticles (NPs). The labeled NPs were composed of gold NP core, attached Raman reporters as well as PS and silica shell, respectively, demonstrating strong SERS signals which were responsive to the compactness of the shells. The labeled NPs enabled the probing of in vivo structural stability of PS and silica in the liver, spleen and lung of mice after intravenous injection via the time-dependent evolution of SERS signal intensity and gold element content in the organs. The results indicated that both PS and silica model NPs retained in these organs without apparent excretion within 28 d. However, the structural stabilities of PS and silica differed dramatically as reflected by the SERS signal and tissue slice characterization. The silica shell completely degraded whereas the PS shell was still compact. Our results verified the long-term accumulation and in vivo inert property of nanoplastics, hinting that they were distinct to natural NPs and probably induce higher health risks from the aspect of the non-degradation property.
Microplastics (< 5 mm) are considered to be global environmental pollutants. This study investigates the occurrence, physical properties, polymer composition and surface morphology, and element composition of MPs present in food-grade salts produced from seawater and bore-well water in Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu, Southeast coast of India. Fourteen different brands of sea salts and bore-well salts were collected from the salt manufacturing units. The mean abundance of microplastics was 35 ± 15 to 72 ± 40 items/kg in sea salt and 2 ± 1 to 29 ± 11 items/kg in bore-well salt. Four types of polymers viz. polyethylene (51.6%), polypropylene (25%), polyester (21.8%), and polyamide (1.6%) were found in salt. Polyethylene fibers of size ranging from 100 to 500 µm were observed commonly. Being manufactured from seawater, sea salt had the highest quantities of different microplastic particles. The study reveals that people consume approximately 216 particles of MPs per year via sea salt and 48 items per year via bore-well salt if the average person has a daily salt intake of 5 g. The surface morphology of MPs as exhibited in the SEM-EDAX images obtained in the study revealed the different weathering features of MPs, such as pits, cracks, and particles adhering to the surface. The presence of the elements Fe, As, and Ni on the surfaces as identified by energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy indicates that these elements exist in the environment as contaminants and have become associated with the MPs. The trace metals adsorbed onto MPs increase the risks of human exposure and may cause some adverse effects in humans.
Microplastics (MP) are ubiquitous within the environment, but the analysis of this contaminant is
currently quite diverse, and a number of analytical methods are available. The comparability of
results is hindered as even for a single analytical method such as Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FT-IR) the different instruments currently available do not allow a harmonized
analysis. To overcome this limitation, a new free of charge software tool, allowing the systematic
identification of MP in the environment (siMPle) was developed. This software tool allows a
rapid and harmonized analysis of MP across FT-IR systems from different manufacturers
(Bruker Hyperion 3000, Agilent Cary 620/670, PerkinElmer Spotlight 400, Thermo Fischer
Scientific Nicolet iN10). Using the same database and the automated analysis pipeline (AAP) in
siMPle, MP were identified in samples that were analyzed with instruments with different
detector systems and optical resolutions, the results of which are discussed.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) represent a class of more than 4000 compounds. Their large number and structural diversity pose a considerable challenge to analytical chemists. Measurement of total fluorine in environmental samples and consumer products is therefore critical for rapidly screening for PFASs and for assessing the fraction of unexplained fluorine(i.e., fluorine mass balance). Here we compare three emerging analytical techniques for total fluorine determination: combustion ion chromatography (CIC), particle-induced Î-ray emission spectroscopy (PIGE), and instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Application of each method to a certified reference material (CRM), spiked filters, and representative food packaging samples revealed good accuracy and precision. INAA and PIGE had the advantage of being nondestructive, while CIC displayed the lowest detection limits. Inconsistencies between the methods arose due to the high aluminum content in the CRM, which precluded its analysis by INAA, and sample heterogeneity (i.e., coating on the surface of the material), which resulted in higher values from the surface measurement technique PIGE compared to the values from the bulk volume techniques INAA and CIC. Comparing CIC-based extractable organic fluorine to target PFAS measurements of food packaging samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry revealed large amounts of unidentified organic fluorine not captured by compound-specific analysis.
This study characterized the structure of food packages, determined the amount of toxic metals that pass through the package (due to the package’s condition and contact with food), and examined the appropriateness of current food legislation. The food packages were examined for weight, ash content, and optical properties under two different light sources. The toxic metal quantities of the packages were analyzed with the use of an inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES ). In all packages, Pb migrated into food and was found at levels that exceeded limit values. Although the amounts of Hg within the material structure were above limits in most packages, it did not migrate from the packages. Although the amount of Cd in structural packaging did not exceed the limit values, most of the migration-related values were high. The Zn concentration in packaging was substantially higher than the amount due to migration. Structural Cu values were mostly below the limit values, except in corrugated boards. Cr amounts in both packaging structure and migration were below the limit values. In all packaging, there were minimum amounts of Ni among paperboard samples and maximum amounts among corrugated boards. Al values were high among structural paper packages, as well as in migration values in paperboard packaging.
Purpose of Review
We describe evidence regarding human exposure to microplastics via seafood and discuss potential health effects.
Recent Findings
Shellfish and other animals consumed whole pose particular concern for human exposure. If there is toxicity, it is likely dependent on dose, polymer type, size, surface chemistry, and hydrophobicity.
Summary
Human activity has led to microplastic contamination throughout the marine environment. As a result of widespread contamination, microplastics are ingested by many species of wildlife including fish and shellfish. Because microplastics are associated with chemicals from manufacturing and that sorb from the surrounding environment, there is concern regarding physical and chemical toxicity. Evidence regarding microplastic toxicity and epidemiology is emerging. We characterize current knowledge and highlight gaps. We also recommend mitigation and adaptation strategies targeting the life cycle of microplastics and recommend future research to assess impacts of microplastics on humans. Addressing these research gaps is a critical priority due to the nutritional importance of seafood consumption.
It is estimated that 2.5-10 bn disposable coffee cups are used every year in the U.K. Most ofthese cups end up in landfill or as litter, as the majority of poly-coated paper cups are not recyclableor not recycled. Here, we report on a field experiment that was conducted at twelve universityand business sites to examine whether the use of reusable cups can be promoted through easilyimplementable measures. The study found that both environmental messaging and the provision ofalternatives increased the use of reusable cups. While a charge on disposable cups increased their useas well, a discount on reusable cups did not. The effects for the individual measures were modest, butadditive, meaning that the greatest behavioural change was achieved with a combination of measures.None of the measures negatively impacted the total number of hot drink sales. One universitycontinued with the charge after the experiment had finished and distributed more reusable cupsfor free among their students. This boosted the use of reusable cups up to 33.7% across three cafés.This shows that a charge in combination with the provision of alternatives can increase the use ofreusable cups substantially in the long term.
Polymer identification of plastic marine debris can help identify its sources, degradation, and fate. We optimized and validated a fast, simple, and accessible technique, attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR FT-IR), to identify polymers contained in plastic ingested by sea turtles. Spectra of consumer good items with known resin identification codes #1-6 and several #7 plastics were compared to standard and raw manufactured polymers. High temperature size exclusion chromatography measurements confirmed ATR FT-IR could differentiate these polymers. High-density (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) discrimination is challenging but a clear step-by-step guide is provided that identified 78% of ingested PE samples. The optimal cleaning methods consisted of wiping ingested pieces with water or cutting. Of 828 ingested plastics pieces from 50 Pacific sea turtles, 96% were identified by ATR FT-IR as HDPE, LDPE, unknown PE, polypropylene (PP), PE and PP mixtures, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and nylon.
Over the last 60 years plastics production has increased manifold, owing to their inexpensive, multipurpose, durable and lightweight nature. These characteristics have raised their demand that will continue to grow over the coming years. However, with increased plastic materials production, comes increased plastic material wastage creating a number of challenges, as well as opportunities to the waste management industry. The present overview highlights the waste management and pollution challenges, emphasising on the various chemical substances (known as "additives") contained in all plastic products for enhancing polymer properties and prolonging their life. Despite how useful these additives are in determining the functionality of polymer products, their potential to contaminate soil, air, water and food is widely documented in the literature and described herein. These additives can potentially migrate and undesirably lead to human exposure via, e.g. food contact materials, such as packaging. They can, also, be released from plastics during the various recycling and recovery processes and from the products produced from recyclate. Thus, sound recycling has to be performed in such a way as to ensure that emission of substances of high concern and contamination of recycled products is avoided, ensuring environmental and human health protection, at all times.
Marine debris is widely recognized as a global environmental problem. One of its main components, microplastics, has been found in several sea salt samples from different countries, indicating that sea products are irremediably contaminated by microplastics. Previous studies show very confusing results, reporting amounts of microparticles (MPs) in salt ranging from zero to 680 MPs/kg, with no mention of the possible causes of such differences. Several errors in the experimental procedures used were found and are reported in the present work. Likewise, 21 different samples of commercial table salt from Spain have been analyzed for MPs content and nature. The samples comprise sea salts and well salts, before and after packing. The microplastic content found was of 50–280 MPs/kg salt, being polyethylene-terephthalate (PET) the most frequently found polymer, followed by polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE), with no significant differences among all the samples. The results indicate that even though the micro-particles might originate from multiple sources, there is a background presence of microplastics in the environment.
The recent food-borne microbial outbreaks in the world have led to the search for more innovative ways to inhibit microbial growth in foods that will maintain their quality, freshness, and safety. One of the options, that provides an increased margin of safety and quality in food products is the use of antimicrobial packaging. The next generation of food packaging may include materials with antimicrobial properties. These packaging technologies could play a role in extending the shelf-life of foods and reduce the risk from pathogens. Antimicrobial packaging is a form of active packaging which interacts with the product or the headspace between the package and the food system, to obtain a desired outcome. Antimicrobial packaging has an important effect on food packaging when the shelf-life extension and food safety of food products are taken into consideration. The basic idea behind this technology is the usage of antimicrobial substances in polymeric matrices to target specific microorganisms, in order to achieve higher safety and quality food products with extended shelf life. Various types of antimicrobial substances such as organic acids and their salts, enzymes, bacteriocins, and miscellaneous compounds (triclosan, silver, and fungicides) have been used in synthetic polymers and edible films. Different types of antimicrobial food packaging systems can be constructed by using antimicrobial packaging materials and/or antimicrobial agents inside the package space or inside foods.
The European Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the United States Microbead Free Waters Act are credited for being ambitious in their goals for protecting the marine environment from microplastics pollution. As a result, the microplastic pollution of marine environments and the incidence of microplastic ingestion by fish is rapidly receiving an increase in overdue attention. This commentary summarizes recent discoveries regarding the potential negative effects of micro- and nanoplastic ingestion by fish. Analysis shows that the occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract of fish is ephemeral, with low accumulation potential in the gastrointestinal tract, although translocation to the liver may occur. Nevertheless, the total load of micro- and nanoplastics that will pass through the gastrointestinal tract of a fish in its lifetime is likely high and will keep increasing in the future. This may pose a risk because there is evidence that micro- and nanoplastic ingestion can interfere with fish health. Observed effects of microplastics ingestion include (but are not necessarily limited to) intestinal blockage, physical damage, histopathological alterations in the intestines, change in behavior, change in lipid metabolism, and transfer to the liver. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2017;13:510–515.
A new approach is presented for analysis of microplastics in environmental samples, based on selective fluorescent staining using Nile Red (NR), followed by density-based extraction and filtration. The dye adsorbs onto plastic surfaces and renders them fluorescent when irradiated with blue light. Fluorescence emission is detected using simple photography through an orange filter. Image-analysis allows fluorescent particles to be identified and counted. Magnified images can be recorded and tiled to cover the whole filter area, allowing particles down to a few micrometres to be detected. The solvatochromic nature of Nile Red also offers the possibility of plastic categorisation based on surface polarity characteristics of identified particles. This article details the development of this staining method and its initial cross-validation by comparison with infrared (IR) microscopy. Microplastics of different sizes could be detected and counted in marine sediment samples. The fluorescence staining identified the same particles as those found by scanning a filter area with IR-microscopy.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are highly persistent synthetic chemicals, some of which have been associated with cancer, developmental toxicity, immunotoxicity, and other health effects. PFASs in grease-resistant food packaging can leach into food and increase dietary exposure. We collected ∼400 samples of food contact papers, paperboard containers, and beverage containers from fast food restaurants throughout the United States and measured total fluorine using particle-induced γ-ray emission (PIGE) spectroscopy. PIGE can rapidly and inexpensively measure total fluorine in solid-phase samples. We found that 46% of food contact papers and 20% of paperboard samples contained detectable fluorine (>16 nmol/cm²). Liquid chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis of a subset of 20 samples found perfluorocarboxylates, perfluorosulfonates, and other known PFASs and/or unidentified polyfluorinated compounds (based on nontargeted analysis). The total peak area for PFASs was higher in 70% of samples (10 of 14) with a total fluorine level of >200 nmol/cm² compared to six samples with a total fluorine level of <16 nmol/cm². Samples with high total fluorine levels but low levels of measured PFASs may contain volatile PFASs, PFAS polymers, newer replacement PFASs, or other fluorinated compounds. The prevalence of fluorinated chemicals in fast food packaging demonstrates their potentially significant contribution to dietary PFAS exposure and environmental contamination during production and disposal.
In this article, we review special features of Gwyddion—a modular, multiplatform, open-source software for scanning probe microscopy data processing, which is available at http://gwyddion.net/. We describe its architecture with emphasis on modularity and easy integration of the provided algorithms into other software. Special functionalities, such as data processing from non-rectangular areas, grain and particle analysis, and metrology support are discussed as well. It is shown that on the basis of open-source software development, a fully functional software package can be created that covers the needs of a large part of the scanning probe microscopy user community.
For the past 25 years NIH Image and ImageJ software have been pioneers as open tools for the
analysis of scientific images. We discuss the origins, challenges and solutions of these two programs,
and how their history can serve to advise and inform other software projects.
The effects of rice husk, sawdust and rice bran on the composting process of food waste were studied in a 180-L laboratory composter based on a mixture experimental design. Linear and quadratic models of seven important process characteristics (composting and acidification times, lowest and final pH values, highest temperature, the water-soluble organic carbon to water-soluble organic nitrogen (C(OW)/N(OW) ratio), and the water-soluble organic carbon to total organic nitrogen (C(OW)/N(OT)) ratio) in terms of fractional compositions of bulking agents as well as the water absorption capacity and the free air space of the composting matrix were developed.
A gas chromatography-ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry procedure was developed for the determination of 2,6-diisopropylnaphthalene (DIPN) and n-dibutylphthalate (DBP) in domestic and imported paper packages and food sold in US marketplaces. The procedure involved ultrasonic extraction with dichloromethane, followed by analysis with the gas chromatography-ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry. Calibration curves for DIPN and DBP were achieved with concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 10 microg ml(-1) and the corresponding r(2) values were 0.9976 and 0.9956, respectively. In most of the fortified samples the recoveries were higher than 80% with a relative standard deviation (RSD) <10%. Using this procedure, it was found that less than 20% of the tested domestic packages and more than 60% of the tested imported food packages contained both DIPN and DBP. The concentrations of DIPN and DBP ranged from 0.09 to 20 mg kg(-1) and 0.14 to 55 mg kg(-1), respectively, with most of the DINP and DBP levels lower than 20 mg kg(-1). DIPN was not detected (<0.01 mg kg(-1)) in 41 food samples and DBP was only detected in two domestic and four imported food samples with concentrations ranging from <0.01 to 0.81 mg kg(-1).
Bisphenol-A (BPA), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), which are common chemical residues in food-packaging materials, were investigated in paper and cardboard containers used for take-away food. The oestrogenicity of aqueous extracts was tested in E-Screen bioassay and analysis carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Oestrogenicity was demonstrated in 90% of extracts (geometric mean [GM] = 11.97 pM oestradiol equivalents g(-1)). DEHP, DBP, and BPA (GM = 341.74, 37.59, and 2.38 ng g(-1) of material) were present in 77.50, 67.50, and 47.50% of samples, respectively. In bivariate analyses, no significant association was found between the levels of these chemicals and oestrogenicity in cardboard/paper extracts. A close-to-significant association was found between oestrogenicity and DBP (beta = 1.25; p = 0.06) in paper extracts, which reached statistical significance in multivariate analysis (beta = 1.61; p = 0.03). Paper and cardboard used in food packaging may contribute to the inadvertent exposure of consumers to endocrine-disrupting chemicals.
This study investigated the microplastic (MP) contamination of seawater and fishes from different habitats so as to understand the level of human exposure to microplastics. Samples of Harpodon nehereus, Chirocentrus dorab, Sardinella albella, Rastrelliger kanagurta, Katsuwonus pelamis and Istiophorus platypterus were collected from Tuticorin, southeast coast of India. The MPs in seawater and the gastrointestinal tracts of fish were identified using Stereomicroscope and characterized by FTIR and SEM-EDAX analysis. The abundance of MPs varied from 3.1 ± 2.3 to 23.7 ± 4.2 items L⁻¹ in water, from 0.11 ± 0.06 to 3.64 ± 1.7 items/individual, and from 0.0002 ± 0.0001 to 0.2 ± 0.03 items/g gut weight. The epipelagic fishes had higher levels of MP contamination than the mesopelagic ones. Most of the MPs identified were of blue color, of fiber type and with their size <500 μm. Polyethylene was the most commonly detected MP, followed by polyester and polyamide, and this fact could be attributed to the inflow of domestic sewage and to the intensive fisheries activities in the area. SEM-EDAX spectra revealed the weathered MP surfaces which could adsorb/leach inorganic elements (colorants and fillers) from/to the environment. We may conclude that the concentration of MPs in fishes is a function of the concentration of MPs in their environment.
The widespread dispersal of microplastic (plastic particle <5 mm) contamination in human food chain is gaining more attention in the public arena and scientific community. Better assessment of diversified consumer products is a key for combating problems related to microplastic contamination. To the best of our knowledge, no study has been conducted on dairy milk products, and the current research status of microplastics is lacking. Here, a total of 23 milk samples (22 adult and 1 kid) from 5 international and 3 national brands of Mexico was collected and tested for the occurrence of microplastics. Results confirmed the ubiquity of microplastics in the analyzed samples and showed variability ranging between 3 ± 2-11 ± 3.54 particles L-1 with an overall average of 6.5 ± 2.3 particles L-1 which are lower than any reported levels in liquid food products. Microplastic particles exhibited variety of colors (blue, brown, red and pink), shapes (fibers and fragments) and sizes (0.1-5 mm). Among which, blue colored fibers (<0.5 mm) were predominant. Micro-Raman identification results revealed that thermoplastic sulfone polymers (polyethersulfone and polysulfone) were common types of microplastics in milk samples, which are highly used membrane materials in dairy processes. Thus, this study findings developed a baseline outlook for microplastics contamination in dairy products and posed a great deal to take necessary controls and preventive measures to avoid them.
The present research examines the effects of UV radiation, moisture and elevated temperature on the mechanical properties of GFRP pultruded profiles. Flexural, compressive and tensile properties of different GFRP sections were studied after they were exposed for 1000, 1500, 2000 and 3000 h to UV radiation and water vapour condensation cycles. Mechanical tests, including three-point bending, compression and tension tests, SEM analyses, and statistical studies were conducted to gather comprehensive results. The results showed that the mechanical properties of various GFRP sections generally decreased with the duration of conditioning: however, the rate of the decrease that was only slight up to 1000 h, increased rapidly during 1000-2000 h, and again it was slow during 2000-3000 h. The maximum reductions were 34%, 28% and 23% after exposure to 3000 h cycles for bending, tensile and compression tests, respectively. In the bending tests, where inter-laminar shear failure controls ultimate strength, the degradation was greater compared to the situation where fibres fracture controls the failure. Further, regarding the cross-section parameter, it was concluded that the thickness and perimeter are the effective factors; the thinner the sample and the larger the perimeter, the greater is the reduction. However, the maximum effect of the cross section in terms of thickness and perimeter did not exceed 13% among all sections.
Microplastics (particle size <5 mm) are an emerging contaminant for aquatic environmental, which have attracted increasing attention in worldwide range. In this study, an improved fluorescent staining method for detection and quantification of microplastics was developed based on thermal expansion and contraction. This method is effective in detection of polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene terephthalate plastic particles. In order to avoid error statistics caused by pretreatment, various characterizations of microplastics were measured after heated, such as microstructure, compositions and thermostability. The results showed that there was no significant damage to microplastics even under heating condition at 75 °C for 30 min, and the stained microplastics had strong stability for up to two months. Moreover, this method has been successfully applied to the quantification of microplastics in biological samples and result showed there were about 54 particles g-1 (dry weight) microplastics in the Sipunculus nudus. This new method provides a reliable method for quantitative analysis of microplastics in environment and biological tissue.
The increasing presence of micro- and nano-sized plastics in the environment and food chain is of growing concern. Although mindful consumers are promoting the reduction of single-use plastics, some manufacturers are creating new plastic packaging to replace traditional paper uses, such as plastic teabags. The objective of this study was to determine whether plastic teabags could release microplastics and/or nanoplastics during a typical steeping process. We show that steeping a single plastic teabag at brewing temperature (95 °C) releases approximately 11.6 billion microplastics and 3.1 billion nanoplastics into a single cup of the beverage. The composition of the released particles is matched to the original teabags (nylon and polyethylene terephthalate) using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The levels of nylon and polyethylene terephthalate particles released from the teabag packaging are several orders of magnitude higher than plastic loads previously reported in other foods. An initial acute invertebrate toxicity assessment shows that exposure to only the particles released from the teabags caused dose-dependent behavioral and developmental effects.
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation under different environmental conditions deteriorates to different extents. The objective of this study was to evaluate changes in the physical and chemical properties of LDPE strips under four different environmental conditions: air, double distilled water (DDW), and two salt solutions with ionic strengths of 0.017 M (corresponding to potable water) and 0.6 M (corresponding to seawater) by incubating them for 90 days at 30°C. LDPE samples were taken out at
time intervals of 30, 60, and 90 days and analyzed for various mechanical (tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and percentage elongation),
physical (surface roughness, texture, topography, morphology, and composition), and chemical properties. Photodegradation of LDPE was greatest in air, followed by DDW, 0.017 M aqueous salt solution, and, finally and least of all, in 0.6 M salt solution. Increasing salt concentrations resulted in the protection of LDPE strips from photodegradation due to the formation of salt crystals on the film surface. The presence of oxygen was found to be the most important factor in the initiation of photooxidative degradation of LDPE film.
Background
Sources of fluoride exposure for Mexicans include foods, beverages, fluoridated salt, and naturally fluoridated water. There are no available data describing fluoride content of foods and beverages consumed in Mexico.
Objective
To measure the content of fluoride in foods and beverages typically consumed and to compare their content to that of those from the United States and the United Kingdom.
Methods
Foods and beverages reported as part of the Mexican Health and Nutrition Survey (n = 182) were purchased in the largest supermarket chains and local markets in Mexico City. Samples were analyzed for fluoride, at least in duplicate, using a modification of the hexamethyldisiloxane microdiffusion method. Value contents were compared to those from the US Department of Agriculture and UK fluoride content tables.
Results
The food groups with the lowest and highest fluoride content were eggs (2.32 µg/100 g) and seafood (371 µg/100 g), respectively. When estimating the amount of fluoride per portion size, the lowest content corresponded to eggs and the highest to fast foods. Meats and sausages, cereals, fast food, sweets and cakes, fruits, dairy products, legumes, and seafood from Mexico presented higher fluoride contents than similar foods from the United States or the United Kingdom. Drinks and eggs from the United States exhibited the highest contents, while this was the case for pasta, soups, and vegetables from the United Kingdom.
Conclusion
The majority of items analyzed contained higher fluoride contents than their US and UK counterparts. Data generated provide the first and largest table on fluoride content, which will be useful for future comparisons and estimations.
Pulp and paper industry is one of the major sector in every country of the globe contributing not only to Gross Domestic Product but surprisingly to environmental pollution and health hazards also. Paper and paperboard based material is the one of the earliest and largest used packaging form for food products like milk and milk based products, beverages, dry powders, confectionary, bakery products etc. owing to its eco-friendly hallmark. Various toxic chemicals like printing inks, phthalates, surfactants, bleaching agents, hydrocarbons etc. are incorporated in the paper during its development process which leaches into the food chain during paper production, food consumption and recycling through water discharges. Recycling is considered the best option for replenishing the loss to environment but paper can be recycled maximum six to seven times and paper industry waste is very diverse in nature and composition. Various paper disposal methods like incineration, landfilling, pyrolysis and composting are available but their process optimization becomes a barrier. This review article aims at discussing in detail the use of paper and paper based packaging materials for food applications and painting a wide picture of various health and environmental issues related to the usage of paper and paper based packaging material in food industry. A brief comparison of the environmental aspects of paper production, recycling and its disposal options (incineration and land filling) had also been discussed.
The factors affecting the migration of organic contaminants from paper packaging materials into packaged dry powdered food were studied. Based on the molecular structure, volatile, molecular weight, and harm posed to the human body, five organic substances were selected as simulated pollutants. According to EU technical standard BS EN13130-1:2004 (E) migration trough types E manufactured migration cell and completion of migration of simulated contaminants from paper to solid powdered foods at different temperature and times were studied. GC-MS technology was used to detect the content of simulated pollutants in paper and food. Partial least-squares (PLS) method was used to analyze the effects of various factors affecting migration performance. Results showed that the migration of simulated pollutants from paper packaging materials into solid powdered foods was affected by temperature, contact time, molecular weight of organic pollutants, and volatile. Among them, volatile and molecular weight contributed the greatest effects, whereas temperature contributed the least effect. Changes in temperature and contact time were positively correlated with migration performance, whereas volatile, molecular weight, molecular polarity of organic pollutants were negatively correlated. In other words, for the individual factors, higher temperature and longer contact time meant higher migration percentage of organic pollutants from paper-based packaging to packaged dry powdered foods, whereas greater volatile and higher molecular weight of organic pollutants led to poorer migration into food.
Paperboard used as packaging, a non-inert material, can transfer chemicals into food. Over the years, endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), such as NonylPhenols (NPs), BisPhenol A (BPA) and phthalates have been shown to migrate from packaging materials into food. Due to chronic exposure and mixture effects of these EDCs, they could cause health effects even at very low doses. Many EDCs are still unknown and many more are still unregulated. The ERE-CALUX bioassay was used as a bioanalytical tool to investigate estrogenic activities of paperboard food packaging and its characteristics, including recycling rate and printing ink. A “worst case” scenario with full extraction is compared to a dry food migration experiment. By measuring an overall estrogenic activity, known and unknown estrogenic chemicals and mixture effects are taken into account and the data are compared to molecule specific analysis. Estrogenic activities ranged from 682 ± 66 pg E2 eq./dm2 to 3250 ± 400 pg E2 eq./dm2 for “worst case” extraction and from 347 ± 30 pg E2 eq./dm2 to 1350 ± 70 pg E2 eq./dm2 for migration experiments. A two-factor ANOVA revealed a relationship between estrogenic activity and the recycling rate of the paperboard, but no significant difference with printing ink was observed for these paperboard samples. Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) and 1,2-
cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester (DINCH) were determined in all extraction and migrations experiment samples. A Spearman rank correlation analysis showed a relationship between the estrogenic activity and the total phthalates as well as with each compound individually.
Disposable Paper cups are a threat to the environment and are composed of 90% high strength paper with 5% thin coating of polyethylene. This polyethylene prevents the paper cup from undergoing degradation in the soil. Hence, in the present study two different approaches towards the management of paper cup waste through vermicomposting technology has been presented. The experimental setup includes 2 plastic reactors namely Vermicompost (VC) (Cow dung + Paper cup waste + Earthworm (Eudrillus eugeinea)) and Vermicompost with bacterial consortium (VCB) (Cow dung + Paper cup waste + Eudrillus eugeinea + Microbial consortia such as Bacillus anthracis, B. endophyticus, B. funiculus, B. thuringiensis, B. cereus, B. toyonensis, Virigibacillius chiquenigi, Acinetobacter baumanni and Lactobacillus pantheries). After treatment the physicochemical parameters were analysed. The results showed that the values of TOC (26.52 and 37.47%), TOM (36.01 and 33.13%) and C/N (15.02 and 11.92%) ratio are reduced in both VC and VCB whereas, the values of pH (8.01 and 7.56), EC (1.2-1.9 µs-1 and 1.4-1.9 µs-1), TP (46.1 and 51%), TMg (50.52 and 64.3%), TCa (50 and 64%), TNa (1.39 and 1.75%) and TK (1.75 and 1.86%) have increased. This study substantiates the addition of the microbial consortia augmenting the degradation in VCB reactor by reducing the period of process from 19 to 12 weeks. Further the characterisation of the vermicompost prepared from paper cup with FT-IR shows high degradation of carboxylic and aliphatic group; SEM analysis shows the disaggregation of cellulose and lignin; XRD shows the degradation of cellulose. All these analyses endorse the degradation of the paper cup waste faster with microbes (VCB). Thus, this present study high lights management of the paper cup waste in a relatively short period of time.