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Microplastics and other harmful substances released from disposable paper cups into hot water
Abstract
Disposable paper cups are popular for consuming beverages. These paper cups have an interior that is laminated with a hydrophobic film made of mostly plastic (polyethylene) and sometimes of copolymers. The objective of this study was to evaluate the degradation of these films as a result of exposure to hot water (85–90 °C). Due to deterioration of the films, ions like fluoride, chloride, sulfate, and nitrate were released into the water contained in the paper cups. Microplastic particles leaching into the liquid were identified and quantified. Fluorescence microscopy indicated the release of approximately 25,000 micron-sized microplastic particles into one cup of hot water in 15 min (100 ml) while scanning electron micrographs indicate 102 + 21.1 × 10⁶ sub-micron-sized particles/ml into the same volume of liquid. Toxic heavy metals like Pb, Cr, and Cd were detected in the films which can be transferred into hot water. Elemental analysis shows a decrease in the percentage of elements like C, H, and N (by weight) due to exposure to hot water. Ingestion of microplastics, ions, and heavy metals regularly while consuming our daily dose of hot beverages like tea and coffee can expose us to potential health risks in the future.
... Plastic-lined HDPE paper cups can release thousands of microplastic particles, along with other toxic substances, after just 15 min of exposure to hot liquid. If a person consumes three cups of tea or coffee in a paper cup daily, they could be ingesting up to 75,000 microplastic particles [74]. According to a study by Ranjan et al. [74], approximately 25,000 microplastic particles (10-1000 µm) are released into 100 mL of hot liquid (85-90 °C) after 15 min in paper cups. ...
... If a person consumes three cups of tea or coffee in a paper cup daily, they could be ingesting up to 75,000 microplastic particles [74]. According to a study by Ranjan et al. [74], approximately 25,000 microplastic particles (10-1000 µm) are released into 100 mL of hot liquid (85-90 °C) after 15 min in paper cups. The study also found that fluoride (F⁻), chloride (Cl⁻), nitrate (NO₃⁻), sulfate (SO₄2⁻) ions, as well as toxic heavy metals, such as Pb, Cd, As, Cu, manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and palladium (Pd) leach from the cup's inner lining into the liquid during this exposure [74]. ...
... According to a study by Ranjan et al. [74], approximately 25,000 microplastic particles (10-1000 µm) are released into 100 mL of hot liquid (85-90 °C) after 15 min in paper cups. The study also found that fluoride (F⁻), chloride (Cl⁻), nitrate (NO₃⁻), sulfate (SO₄2⁻) ions, as well as toxic heavy metals, such as Pb, Cd, As, Cu, manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and palladium (Pd) leach from the cup's inner lining into the liquid during this exposure [74]. These chemical substances are lipophobic and hydrophobic in nature, making paper containers stain-resistant and waterproof. ...
Microplastic pollution has become a widespread and pressing concern globally due to its increasing accumulation and hidden threat to human health, wildlife, and the environment. In recent years, there have been few reports on the invisible threat of microplastic exacerbated by paper cups and tea bags, which have attracted considerable public attention. The plastic coatings of paper cups degrade when exposed to hot water and releasing harmful compounds, such as vinyl chloride, styrene, benzotriazole, diethylhexyl phthalate, and diethyl phthalate into the beverage. Moreover, various ions (e.g., sulfate, nitrate, fluoride, chloride), organic compounds (e.g., naphthalene, butanone, hexanal), and toxic heavy metals leach into the beverage. Similarly, certain tea bags release microplastic particles composed of polymers, such acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, and nylon. These tea bags also release phthalates along with trace amounts of toxic metals including Cd, Co, Cr, and Ni. This study critically examines the overlooked presence and release of microplastics from paper cups and tea bags, particularly in the context of rising tea consumption in India. It aims to raise awareness and provide scientific insights into the potential health and environmental risks, highlighting the need for policy intervention and sustainable alternatives. This article delivers a comprehensive overview of the composition of paper cups and tea bags, along with the mechanisms through which microplastics and nanoplastics are released during the consumption of hot beverages. In addition, it offers current insights into the potential health risks associated with the ingestion of microplastics through tea consumption, as well as the broader environmental impacts. The article also thoroughly discusses recent advancements in analytical detection and identification techniques, such as AFM, ATR-FTIR, micro-FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, Focal Plane Array (FPA)-Based Reflectance Micro-FT-IR, Py-GC–MS, and LC–MS/MS, used for the characterization of microplastics released from paper cups and tea bags. To enhance understanding of the issue, the article highlights the environmental consequences and health hazards posed by microplastics both during consumption and after the disposal of paper cups and tea bags. Furthermore, this review identifies key research gaps and presents recommendations to reduce the risk of microplastic ingestion from tea infused in paper cups or tea bags. The conclusions drawn from this study are crucial and may contribute significantly to addressing the problem of microplastic contamination from paper cups and tea bags.
Graphical Abstract
... Consequently, there has been a swift global shift in recent decades toward alternative solutions for plastic waste, prompting governments and industries to replace single-use plastics with paper products. However, several studies have highlighted the negative impacts of both single-use plastics and paper products, concluding that paper is not a sufficient solution due to various harmful effects on the environment and human health (Fidan and Ayar, 2023;Joseph et al., 2023;Ranjan et al., 2021). ...
... The ions were detected in samples of water from the River Nile, leachate of tap water contained paper cups and tap water without paper cups using an Ion Chromatography system according to Michalski (2006) and Ranjan et al. (2021). Water samples were prepared before analysis to ensure compatibility with the ion chromatography system. ...
... To the diluted samples, concentrated nitric acid (HNO 3 ) (trace metal grade) was added to ensure the complete dissolution of metal ions and to prevent precipitation. The concentration of heavy metals was measured using ICP-MS and compared to the calibration curve following the methodology described by Ranjan et al. (2021). ...
Recent studies suggest that paper cups may also contribute to environmental pollution, particularly through the release of microplastics (MPs). The Nile River, one of the world’s most vital water sources, faces alarming contamination levels, raising concerns about its ecological health. This study investigated whether paper cups release MPs, ions, and heavy metals into water and assessed the potential impact of MPs on fish. In order to completely comprehend the nature and scope of the issue, 1 L of water was collected from the Nile River in Assiut, Egypt and the paper cups were ripped into tiny pieces. Paper cups were similarly soaked in similar volumes of distilled and tap water. Four months later, the leachate from each trail (three replicates for each) was analyzed to determine and compare the distribution of specific ions, heavy metals and microplastics. In order to clarify the availability of MPs in freshwater fish, the intestines of two common fish species (Oreochromis niloticus and Bagrus bajad) were collected from the River Nile in Assiut and examined. Polyethylene, polystyrene and polypropylene were the three main forms of microplastics identified in water samples from the Nile. Also, paper cups soaked in tap water leached the same three groups of MPs, but in lower amounts. Some microplastics may take longer to biodegrade in water, as evidenced by the absence of other forms of microplastics like rayon and polyvinyl chloride in any of the water samples under investigation. The present findings also indicate a noteworthy accumulation of MPs in the intestines of O. niloticus and B. bajad. In conclusion, these results indicated release of some ions, heavy metals, and microplastics from paper cups into water and the River Nile water is polluted with paper cups which have a negative effect on aquatic organisms. This study brings us one step closer to investigating and fully understanding the nature and extent of the problem posed by paper cups and their effects on the River Nile and freshwater fish, which will ultimately be reflected in human health risks.
... Paper and paperboard products are the most preferred and common materials in food packing processes [1]. Their popularity stems from their desired characteristics, as they are affordable, easily available, lightweight materials, flexible, and serve as a good barrier to oxygen, microbial entities, and moisture. ...
... For instance, the higher levels of potentially toxic elements (e.g., As, Ba, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Sb, V, etc.) and radioactive elements (Th and U) in paper cups might affect their recyclability, environmental impact, and potential health risks. It has been reported that potentially toxic elements and other harmful chemical substances can be leached from paper cups and cause adverse effects on human health [1,6,15]. ...
... For instance, the higher levels potentially toxic elements (e.g., As, Ba, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Sb, V, etc.) and radioacti elements (Th and U) in paper cups might affect their recyclability, environmental impa and potential health risks. It has been reported that potentially toxic elements and oth harmful chemical substances can be leached from paper cups and cause adverse effe on human health [1,6,15]. ...
This study characterizes single-use paper cups with respect to potentially toxic elements, radiological impact, and the potential of economic metals recovery from incineration residue. Thirty-six elements were identified in the analysis of paper cups, including naturally occurring radionuclides ⁴⁰K, Th, and U, as well as potentially toxic elements such as Al, Ba, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Mo, and V using neutron activation analysis. The determined mass fractions varied significantly, with Mg, Al, and Ca present in notably high concentrations. A comparison with plastic cups revealed higher mass fractions of most elements in paper cups. The study also evaluated the potential for valuable element recovery from the incineration ash of paper cups. It demonstrated a promising potential for recovery of Cu—especially from blue and green cups—and Mg, as their mass fractions are above the ore cut-off grade. The amount of CO2 emissions from the incineration of paper cups was estimated at 1.77 kg/kg. The activity concentrations of ⁴⁰K, Th, and U were estimated in the incineration ash, with ⁴⁰K accounting for around half of the total detected activity. The median radioactivity was 35 Bq/kg. Although the radioactivity levels are low, they should be considered due to the large volume of paper cup waste. The radiological risk was assessed using various hazard indices, indicating minimal risk to human health. The dose rate and the annual dose are well below the recommended limits, and the excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) of 2.17 × 10⁻⁵ is well below the typical safety limit.
... Table 1 includes a broad range of studies on microplastic contamination in various sources, presenting data on size range, concentration, analytical methods, polymer type, and geographical locations.The micron-sized particles are released from the plastic feeding and water bottles, mineral/carbonated water bottles, glass water bottles, single-use, and reusable PET bottles, plastic food containers, and disposable plastic and paper cups. The sizes of these particles were reported to be in the 5-500 μm range [9][10][11][12][13]. Analytical techniques have been widely used to characterize MPs in various shapes, sizes, and polymer types. ...
... In a similar study, paper cups exposed to hot water for 15 minutes released 102 + 21.1 x 10 6 MPs/mL in the size range of 150 nm-4.77 µm [13]. This range represented both the nanoplastics as well as microplastics. ...
Microplastics (MPs) released from disposables are receiving widespread attention due to direct human exposure during use. The present study investigates the quantification and size classification of MPs released from disposable plastic-coated paper cups commonly used for serving hot beverages. In order to evaluate MPs that can possibly seep into hot beverages in 15 minutes, the study examines five different types of paper cups (A-E) with varying film thicknesses (20-80 microns) and capacities (70-220 ml). Fluorescence microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and liquid particle counter (LPC) were employed to characterize MPs. The findings indicate that high-density polyethylene (HDPE) MPs, primarily 2-5 μm in diameter, comprise a negligible percentage of particles larger than 15 μm. A 100 ml disposable cup may release up to 0.7 million microplastics (MPs), which are affected by the liquid's pH and temperature. The results from the recyclability analysis show that D is more resistant to moisture and biodegradability due to the thicker paper boards than the HDPE film lining. Routine users may ingest 657-876 million MPs annually, which could potentially affect human health and the environment. The results of the study are expected to provide insight into the health impacts and will contribute to the knowledge pool of microplastic removal technologies.
... Demand from the takeaway catering industry has significantly driven its widespread use. Numerous studies have concentrated on the quantity of MP released from PE paper cups under diverse service conditions, temperature, time, or liquid composition, etc. [24][25][26][27] High temperature, vigorous shaking, and exposure time might induce MP release, owing to the PE film fragmentation. This constitutes a serious issue because a significant amount of MP can be directly ingested by humans. ...
... Ranjan et al. employed fluorescence microscopy to characterize the size range of MPs released from PE paper cups, which ranged from 26 to 765 μm. 26 In this study, MPs with sizes <30 μm predominated, whereas MPs with sizes >50 μm were relatively scarce. It is noteworthy that previous studies have shown that the gastrointestinal tract can absorb MPs with particle size <10 μm, and MPs with particle size >130 μm can even enter the circulatory system. ...
Disposable plastic cups are commonly used as beverage containers. This study investigated the characteristics of microplastics (MPs) discharged from plastic cups in everyday situations and assessed the emission of MPs...
... Existing studies have shown a certain resistance on the part of consumers to purchase circular products derived from recycled or reused material, as they are not only perceived as dirty, unhygienic or contaminated (Gomes et al., 2022;Magnier et al., 2019;Meng and Leary, 2021;Wiefek et al., 2021) but also capable of releasing harmful substances into food. Regarding the latter, several studies in the literature have pointed to the increasing amount of harmful substances in food and beverages released both from plastic packaging (Eriksen et al., 2018;Jadhav et al., 2021;Liu et al., 2022;Shruti et al., 2020;Zuccarello et al., 2019) and from paper (Akhdhar et al., 2022;Ranjan et al., 2021), even those that are recycled or reusable (Geueke et al., 2018). In fact, microplastics, heavy metals and other substances were found in hot drinks, regardless of whether they were contained in plastic cups (Liu et al., 2022) or paper cups (Akhdhar et al., 2022;Ranjan et al., 2021). ...
... Regarding the latter, several studies in the literature have pointed to the increasing amount of harmful substances in food and beverages released both from plastic packaging (Eriksen et al., 2018;Jadhav et al., 2021;Liu et al., 2022;Shruti et al., 2020;Zuccarello et al., 2019) and from paper (Akhdhar et al., 2022;Ranjan et al., 2021), even those that are recycled or reusable (Geueke et al., 2018). In fact, microplastics, heavy metals and other substances were found in hot drinks, regardless of whether they were contained in plastic cups (Liu et al., 2022) or paper cups (Akhdhar et al., 2022;Ranjan et al., 2021). In a study conducted by Wiefek et al. (2021), a respondent's aversion to reusable cups was reported as being unhygienic. ...
Purpose
This study investigates the variables that play a role in the purchase intention of a hot beverage at a vending machine (1) served in a 100% recyclable plastic single-use cup, (2) served in a biodegradable paper single-use cup and (3) served in personal, reusable cups brought by customers. The variables considered are perceived environmental benefits (PEBs), perceived contamination risk (PCR), social norms (SNs), value for money (VM), gender and age. The secondary objective is to investigate respondents’ perceptions of these cups using the first four variables and to assess the existence of significant differences among them.
Design/methodology/approach
For the first purpose, three separate logistic regression models on purchase intention were created, considering PEBs, PCR, SNs, VM, gender and age as independent variables. For the second purpose, the analysis relied on Friedman’s nonparametric test. The entire survey was conducted in Italy on a sample of 1,006 consumers.
Findings
SNs and VM are the variables with the greatest influence on final purchase intention. PEBs seem to have an effect only in the case of the plastic and paper single-use cups, while PCR only in the case of the reusable cup. Neither gender nor age seem to play a significant role in final purchase intention. Friedman’s test revealed significant differences among the three cup types in terms of perceptions, but not in the case of the PCR variable.
Originality/value
The study is the first to compare new single-use cups with reusable cups from vending machines in terms of consumers’ perceptions and preferences.
... Nevertheless, recent research has unveiled that individuals are exposed to substantial quantities of microplastics while consuming takeaway meals. [12,13] Notably, one study discovered that disposable food-grade nylon bags and hot drink cups lined with low-density polyethylene, commonly employed in takeaways, can release 10 12 micro-and nanoplastic particles during usage. [14] Another study revealed that individuals who consume takeout food four times per week ingest between 12 and 203 microplastic particles through the use of takeout containers. ...
Given the extensive utilization of microplastics in the food industry, there is a growing prominence of health issues they induce, particularly gut infections. Incorporating probiotics may serve as an effective strategy for addressing this inflammation and infection. Here, we provide an overview of current applications of probiotics in promoting gut well-being along with their principal modes of action. Furthermore, we explore the potential role of probiotics in mitigating or aiding in the treatment of microplastic-induced gut inflammation. Our investigation reveals that probiotics can exert a positive regulatory role by mitigating oxidative stress in the gut, modulating immune responses effectively while reducing neurotoxicity. We further investigate the mechanisms by which probiotics alleviate or assist in the treatment of microplastic-associated enteritis, encompassing 1) regulation of gut microbiota composition; 2) enhancement of gut mucosal barrier function ; 3) modulation of gut immune balance; and 4) promotion of microplastic excretion and degradation. Future research should focus on exploring specific probiotic strains, combinations of single and mixed bacteria, coloniza-tion capacity, optimal dosage regimens, as well as long-term safety profiles. Additionally, further investigation into the mechanism underlying probiotic action in microplastic-induced enteritis is warranted to provide scientific guidance for future research and development of probiotic formulations.
... threat to the environment, wildlife, and human health 5,8,9 . The degradation and leaching of plastic waste and the wear and breakdown of plastic products and clothing are important sources of plastic pollutants 10,11 , including the use of plastic products for drinking water supply (pipes 1 ), storage (bottles 4,12 , cups 13 , and containers 14 ) and heating (kettles 15,16 ) that can lead to direct MP ingestion by humans 12,15,[17][18][19] . Despite the myriads of potential sources, most studies have focused on degradation mechanisms induced by extrinsic factors, such as UV irradiation and/or mechanical abrasion [20][21][22] . ...
Residual stress is an intrinsic property of semicrystalline plastics such as polypropylene and polyethylene. However, there is no fundamental understanding of the role intrinsic residual stress plays in the generation of plastic pollutants that threaten the environment and human health. Here, we show that the processing-induced compressive residual stress typically found in polypropylene and polyethylene plastics forces internal nano and microscale segregation of low molecular weight (MW) amorphous polymer droplets onto the plastic’s surface. Squeeze flow simulations reveal this stress-driven volumetric flow is consistent with that of a Bingham plastic material, with a temperature-dependent threshold yield stress. We confirm that flow is thermally activated and stress dependent, with a reduced energy barrier at higher compressive stresses. Transfer of surface segregated droplets into water generates amorphous polymer micropollutants (APMPs) that are denatured, with structure and composition different from that of traditional polycrystalline microplastics. Studies with water-containing plastic bottles show that the highly compressed bottle neck and mouth regions are predominantly responsible for the release of APMPs. Our findings reveal a stress-induced mechanism of plastic degradation and underscore the need to modify current plastic processing technologies to reduce residual stress levels and suppress phase separation of low MW APMPs in plastics.
... In addition, some heavy metals are also added to MPs as additives; a study found large concentrations of Zn in the plastic film of five disposable paper cups tested; the study also detected heavy metals such as Pb, Ni, Cr, and Cu [64]. Antimony oxide, aluminum oxide, and zinc borate are well-known flame retardants used in the manufacture of plastics; however, Sb and Al have been found to be metalloestrogens in addition to the risk of breast cancer [63]. ...
... MPs and 47 The peak at wavenumber 1472 cm −1 can be attributed to the CH 2 bend, and the peak at 730 cm −1 and 717 cm −1 correspond to the CH 2 rock. 48 The peaks found in sludge containing MPs closely corresponds to the absorption peaks of PE MPs. Thus, FTIR analysis clearly indicates the entrapment of MPs in sludge through adsorption. ...
Emerging contaminants, particularly pesticides and microplastics, pose a substantial risk to both human beings and ecosystems. In order to provide clean freshwater sources and preserve aquatic ecosystems, their removal from water matrices is crucial.
... Some plastic treated papers are obvious, such as food, cigarette and gum packaging, however others can be covert. Plastic coating can be found on both cold and hot paper cups (Foteinis, 2020;Ranjan et al., 2021;Sandhu et al., 2021), paper straws (Timshina et al., 2021) and thermal papers such as till and cash point receipts (Campanale et al., 2020;Ortiz Peñate, 2021). To reduce vulnerability to corrosion, plastic-coatings are applied to the inside of aluminium drink tins (Ortiz Peñate, 2021; Yousef et al., 2021). ...
Litter is a collective noun that encompasses a large variety of items, ranging from organic to synthetic, and from sharp to inert. Despite this, conversations and regulation on litter continue to group these items with little consideration towards the various levels of associated negative consequences. As a result, the Litter Impact Index (LII) was constructed to score individual items within indicators of toxicity, tenacity, threat and transportability (4T). The product of the index provides a clear visualisation of litter impact on a 0–100 point scale. As a result, it is found that litter items have varying degrees of adverse effects and cannot be considered equally impactful. This index is the first of its kind and was developed with the intention to inform sustainable waste practices, litter related policy, and packaging design by decreasing associated negative impacts.
... However, these characteristics can also lead to the dissolution of large amounts of plastic debris into beverages. Paper cups have a hydrophobic film laminated to the inside of the cup, which is made of plastic or copolymers (Ranjan et al., 2020). These films degrade when exposed to hot water, and as the films deteriorate, ions such as fluoride, chloride, sulfate and nitrate are released into the water in the paper cup. ...
The widespread use of plastics in beverage packaging has led to the accumulation of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) in beverages, which poses significant environmental and health hazards. This review explores the sources, entry pathways, and risk factors for MPs and NPs in beverages, emphasizing their toxicological profiles and harmful effects on human health and the environment. Methods for detecting MPs and NPs in beverages are discussed, highlighting the need for standardized testing protocols. Furthermore, future solution strategies, challenges, and preventive measures for mitigating MP and NP contamination in beverages are proposed, including advanced filtration systems, the development of alternative packaging materials, and the strengthening of regulatory standards. Collaborative efforts among industry stakeholders, scientific institutions, and policymakers are essential to address this complex issue and ensure the safety and purity of beverages for consumers worldwide.
... Aside from precise methodological differences noted earlier, higher MNP concentrations here could result from the presence of an array of additional ingredients, including coarsely filtered fruit pulp and starch products. Lin et al. (2019) also raise concerns that bubble teas may often use unhygienic water and ice and undergo preparation in unclean facilities and environments, while experiments undertaken by Ranjan et al. (2020) suggest that disposable paper cups laminated with plastic can act as a significant source of MNPs (mainly PE) in takeout drinks more generally. Li, Peng, et al. (2022) extracted and filtered (0.22 μm) MNPs that remained suspended in water of unspecified quality after exposure to tea leaves. ...
... First off, some research has shown that the measured concentrations of metals in the microplastics are primarily due to the intrinsic load of metals that are added to the synthetic polymers during their production processes. [14][15][16] Second, it was found that the metals from the surrounding natural systems get adsorbed onto the surface of microplastics. Based on the literature survey, a few analytical techniques have been utilized to identify and quantify heavy metals present in MPs. ...
Plastic debris is unavoidably released into the ecosystems, and their physicochemical and mechanical qualities deteriorate when exposed to the environment. This, ultimately, leads to the generation of tiny fragments of plastic, which are known as nanoplastics (<1000 nm) and microplastics (<5 mm). Over the past few years, the pollution of synthetic polymers has been reported in almost all the compartments of the environment across the globe. It is regarded as a hazard to both human health and natural systems. In addition, synthetic polymers act as vectors for contaminants as they can adsorb and accumulate contaminants from seawater. The accumulation of plastic waste in the environment and its widespread presence have drawn the attention of policymakers and the public. This global issue has led to the creation of numerous remediation solutions by innovators in previous decades, either to clear up old waste or to stop plastic from entering the various matrices of the environment. This review focused on the extensive scientific research available on effective techniques for removing plastic debris to promote positive action and progress in this important area. Despite the various challenges, these techniques offer vital opportunities, from increasing awareness to enhancing environmental quality. Further, the article has been enriched by incorporating bibliometric data that illustrates the widely used methods for removing microplastics from various environmental matrices. According to the data analysis, numerous remediation techniques have been developed to date (2010 and 2024). These techniques encompass various approaches, among which the chemical‐based methods enjoy more success. This success can be attributed to the diverse advantages offered by chemical‐based methods over other remediation techniques. Much research is now focused on overcoming the disadvantages and developing more efficient and environmentally sound technologies.
... It is also said they can act as potential transporters ("vectors") of toxic substances ("Trojan horse effect") (Gruber et al., 2022). MP and other hazardous substances may be released from food containers to ready-to-eat food products, from the heat's effect on the food (Ranjan et al., 2021). ...
... When food-grade nonwoven bags are boiled once, they can release 0.12 to 0.33 million microplastics (>1 μm) and 17.6 to 30.6 billion nanoplastics (<1 μm), or 2.25 to 6.47 mg in mass [17]. It has been reported that tens of thousands of MPs/NPs can be released when objects like tea bags and disposable paper cups are exposed to hot water [18]. Even though, NFWP bags are widely used in everyday cooking operations in many countries like Bangladesh [19,20]. ...
Nonfood-grade nonwoven polyethene (NFWP) bags which are frequently used in microwave cooking or carrying hot foods have been reported for releasing large amount of nanoplastics. Hence, the present study was designed to investigate the harmful effects of nanoplastics released from NFWP bags on mice. NFWP bags were cut into small pieces which were then boiled in water for 5 minutes. Then the boiled water was used as nanoplastic-contaminated drinking water for treated mice for 50 days. Surprisingly, the body weights and organ weight were increased remarkably for treated mice than control mice. The total Red Blood Cell (RBC) count decreased remarkably while total WBC count increased significantly in treated mice than in control. The percentage of neutrophils decreased remarkably while percentage of Monocytes increased significantly in treated mice as compared with control. The consumption of nanoplastics caused histological damage to intestine, heart, lung, kidney and liver of treated mice. The layers of intestinal muscles in the villi of treated mice were disrupted and infiltrated with foam cells. Destruction of alveoli and fibrosis was observed in the lungs of the treated mice. The heart muscles of treated mice were also disrupted and irregularly arranged with fibrosis. In the kidney of treated mouse, enhancement of renal spaces, shrinkage of glomeruli, eroded Bowman’s capsule, deleted and congested glomeruli along with blood vessel were found. The liver of the treated mice was affected by apoptosis, fibrosis, vacuole formation in hepatocyte, congested in hepatic tissue and dilation of blood vessel. Therefore, it can be concluded that consumption of nanoplastics released from hot NFWP bags has serious deleterious effect on haematopoiesis and tissue integrity of different organs of Mice.
... However, paper cups have an interior lining, usually made of polyethylene plastic, which degrades into MP when exposed to water over 85 °C. These MP then leach into the hot beverage, with a release of 2.5 × 10 3 MP into 100 ml of hot water within 15 min, along with 102 × 10 6 "sub-micron" particles ranging in size from 100 nm to 5 µ [51]. ...
Background
Israel is a regional "hotspot" of plastic pollution, with little discussion of potential adverse health effects from exposure to plastic. This review aims to stimulate discussion and drive policy by focusing on these adverse health effects.
Main body
Plastics are synthetic polymers containing additives which can leach from food- and beverage-contact plastic into our food and beverages, and from plastic textiles onto our skin. Plastics persist in the environment for generations, fragmenting into MNPs: Micro (1 micron–5 mm)-Nano (1 nm–1 micron)-Plastic, which contaminate our atmosphere, water, and food chain. MNP can enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation and touch. MNP < 10 microns can cross epithelial barriers in the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems, and fragments < 100 nm can cross intact skin, enabling entry into body tissues. MNP have been found in multiple organs of the human body. Patients with MNP in atheromas of carotid arteries have increased risk of a combined measure of stroke, cardiovascular disease, and death. Toxic additives to plastics include bisphenols, phthalates, and PFAS, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) which cause dysregulation of thyroid function, reproduction, and metabolism, including increased risk of obesity, diabetes, endometriosis, cancer, and decreased fertility, sperm count and quality. Fetal exposure to EDCs is associated with increased rates of miscarriages, prematurity and low birth weight. There is likely no safe level of exposure to EDCs, with increasing evidence of trans-generational and epigenetic effects. There are several existing Israeli laws to reduce plastic use and waste. Taxes on single-use plastic (SUP) were recently cancelled. There are many gaps in regulatory standards for food-, beverage- and child- safe plastic. Existing standards are poorly enforced.
Conclusion
Reduction in production and use of plastic, promotion of recycling and reduction of leaching of toxic additives into our food and beverages are essential policy goals. Specific recommendations: Periodic monitoring of MNP in bottled beverages, food, indoor air; Strengthen enforcement of standards for food-, beverage-, and child-safe plastic; Renew tax on SUPs; National ban on SUP at public beaches, nature reserves and parks; Ban products manufactured with MNP; Increase research on sources and health outcomes of exposure to MNP and EDCs.
... On the other hand, the shorter the period of exposure of a microplastic material to UV rays, the lower the degradation rate, and the lesser the presence of microplastic intermediates that would be yielded. This accounts for why Group soil samples which were exposed UV rays for 7 days showed higher levels of microplastics connoting lower degradation rate compared to soil samples that were exposed for 14 days to UV rays (Ranjan et al., 2021). ...
The contamination of soil caused by the degradation of plastics introduced through disposal has been increasing globally. Researchers have reported that exposure to microplastics, the degradative product of plastic materials triggers a “wide variety of toxic insults”. The present study aimed at investigating the effect of temperature on microplastic degradation in soil environment. Soil samples were collected from Federal University Wukari farm, air-dried and sieved to obtain fine particles. They were arranged in three groups; one served as the control (Group 1), containing no shredded microplastics, whereas microplastics were shredded in Group 2 and Group 3 soil samples. They were all arranged in triplicates. The control group was kept at room temperature for 14 days whereas Group 2 was exposed to sunlight for 14 days. Group 3 was exposed to sunlight for 7 days. The results obtained from this study revealed the presence of the following microplastic types in Group 2 and 3 soil samples: polyamide, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyethylene, ethylene glycol, terephthatic acid, acrylic acid and polyester. The highest level of total detectable microplastics were associated with Group 3 soil samples (59314.95±808.35), followed by Group 2 soil samples (56022±1352.14) and lastly Group 1 (control) soil samples (32703.51±649.99) respectively. The result also revealed polyamide to be the most abundant microplastic present in all the assayed soil samples: Group 3 (48977.99±1071.61), Group 2 (52204.46±582.03) and Group 1 (28022.08±425.28) whereas the least microplastic present in all assayed soil samples was Terephthatic acid shown as thus: Group 3 (393.69±17.44) > Group 2 (369.36±28.11) > Group 3 (211.32±14.77) respectively. Overall, the result revealed that soil samples exposed to sunlight for a period of 7 days (Group 3) had the highest level of individually detected microplastics followed by soil samples exposed to sunlight for 14 days (Group 2). The control group clearly showed the least levels of individually detected microplastics. The study revealed that microplastics upon exposure to UV rays from sun light could undergo degradation yielding several intermediates which may be either more or less harmful. The study also revealed that the longer the exposure of a microplastic material to UV rays, the higher the degradation rate and the more intermediates associated with the microplastic material will be yielded. On the other hand, the shorter the exposure time of a microplastic material to UV rays, the lesser the degradation rate and less intermediates associated with the microplastic material will be yielded.
... 9 In previous studies, the main components of these plastic products were found to be additives such as phthalates, as well as plastic particles like polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyamide. [10][11][12] These harmful substances are continuously released and enter the human body through the respiratory and digestive systems. In recent years, researchers have detected plastic particles in human blood, 13 lungs, 14 colon, 15 placenta, 16 feces, 17 and breast milk, 18 confirming that long-term exposure can affect heart function, 19 disrupt normal liver lipid metabolism 20 and induce cytotoxicity, 21 leading to comprehensive impacts on human health. ...
Background
The widespread exposure to plastic products and the increasing number of individuals with cognitive impairments have imposed a heavy burden on society.
Objective
This study aims to investigate the relationship between plastic product exposure in daily life and cognitive function in older Chinese individuals.
Methods
Data were obtained from the 2023 Ningxia Older Psychological Health Cohort, comprising 4045 participants aged 60 and above. Cognitive function was assessed using the Mini-Mental State Examination scale. A population-based plastic exposure questionnaire was used to calculate plastic exposure scores (PES). Binary logistic regression was employed to analyze the relationship between PES and cognitive function, while restricted cubic splines were used to examine the dose-response relationship between PES and cognitive function. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was employed to explore the potential patterns of plastic exposure, and logistic regression was used to investigate the relationship between different exposure patterns and cognitive function. A linear regression model was utilized to investigate the relationship between PES and different dimensions of cognitive function.
Results
Among the 4045 participants, 1915 individuals were assessed with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). After adjusting for all covariates, PES (OR = 1.04, 95% CI 1.02–1.06) was significantly associated with the risk of MCI and exhibited a dose-response relationship. LPA identified two potential categories of plastic exposure, with a higher risk of MCI observed in the group using plastic utensils.
Conclusions
This study indicates a positive correlation between plastic exposure levels and MCI risk, particularly among individuals who frequently use plastic tableware.
Single-Use plastic (SUP) has been identified as the most serious challenge to the environment. As
it is ubiquitous it is also hard to eliminate them. These are non-biodegradable because of which 170
countries have pledged to minimize its sale and production by 2030 as recently as 2022. As a part of
this, pledge India introduced the ban on SUP in July 2022. However, as SUP is the most used as well
as the cheapest form of plastic, it is a challenge to implement the ban. This study attempts to analyze
the inherent approach of the people towards SUP and also find out whether there is a resistance among
people due to lack of awareness regarding the detrimental effect of SUP. The study also attempts to
identify factors affecting people’s approach, measure the key attitudinal and behavioural variations and
identify the barriers in adoption of alternatives to SUPs, so that a behaviour change communication
This study aimed to assess the heavy metals (HMs), viz., Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Hg, in commonly used disposable containers (one-time hard plates, flexible plates, teacups, single-wall coffee cups, double-wall coffee cups, transparent polybags, nontransparent polybags, foam boxes, and noodle cups) and their potential health hazards due to their migration into foodstuffs. For this study, the samples (n=45) were collected and the polymer materials were assessed using attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). Four types of polymers, namely, polypropylene, polyethylene, polystyrene, and polyethylene-coated cellulose, were identified. An atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used to analyze the HM concentration. The mean concentrations of the metals in the studied samples ranged as Pb (4.43–28.69 mg/kg), Cd (1.02–9.07 mg/kg), Cr (2.64–8.45 mg/kg), and Ni (18.97–62.35 mg/kg) and in food simulant Pb (0.136–0.220 mg/kg), Cd (0.008–0.059 mg/kg), Cr (0.012–0.087 mg/kg) and Ni (0.015–0.21 mg/kg). Polystyrene foam boxes showed the highest migration of Pb, Cd, and Cr, while nontransparent polybags had the highest migration of Ni. Among the HMs, the target hazard quotient value for Cd was particularly high. Pb had a relatively high migration rate; however, its individual cancer risk remained below the safety limit (< 1 × 10−4). In contrast, severe health impacts for Ni migration were observed in most samples, with potential carcinogenic risks identified in polybags and polystyrene foam containers, where total cancer risk values ranged from 9.4 × 10−3 to 1.15 × 10−2. Therefore, the use of food-grade materials rather than one-time containers is recommended for takeout foods.
According to the new study published in Nature, India has secured the top spot as biggest plastic polluter in the world, releasing 9.3 million tonnes (Mt) annually. Plastic pollution remains a global challenge and this alarming trend of rising plastic waste in India has severe consequences for the environment, wildlife, and human health. The Indian government has launched initiatives like the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan to improve waste management, but more needs to be done to address the plight of waste pickers. Microplastics in water sources and food chains pose significant risks to human health, affecting the respiratory and reproductive systems and contributing to conditions like cancer. Studies link plastic pollution to an increased risk of cancer, male and female sterility, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and obesity. Microplastic has been found in food and beverages. Microplastic are also found in disposable plastic cups for drinking and single-use food containers for home delivery of tea, coffee, and hot beverages. Hence it is recommended that avoid drinking tea, coffee and hot beverages in the plastic cups. Since microplastics do not degrade, those particles which enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation or touch, but are not excreted, can be expected to accumulate in tissues of the human body. Tissue accumulation of microplastics has been demonstrated in marine organisms and mammals. Additives to plastic of major health concern include toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium, arsenic and chromium, bisphenol A (BPA). phthalates, brominated flame retardants (BFR) and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). The three main methods for detecting and quantifying microplastic concentrations in water are FTIR Spectroscopy, py-GC/MS, and Raman Spectroscopy.
Extensive production and utilization of plastics have resulted in the subsequent accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in the environment, which has become a serious threat to human health globally. Therefore, in this study, 112 drinks and food products were purchased from local markets in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and the abundance of MPs was investigated. The dominant size of MPs was 101–250 μm for tuna fish, noodles, bottled water, and disposable containers, 251–500 μm for honey, tea bags, and sugar, and 501–1000 μm for salt, juice, and soft drink samples. FTIR analysis indicated polypropylene, polyethylene, polycarbonate, and polyvinylchloride as the major polymer contents. The average total number of MPs was highest in tea bags (615.71 particles teabag⁻¹), followed by sugar (281.01 particles kg⁻¹), honey (197.67 particles kg⁻¹), and salt (147.30 particles kg⁻¹). Consumption of tea bags exhibited the highest risks of daily and annual MPs intake (15.06 particles kg⁻¹ day⁻¹ and 5496.45 particles kg⁻¹ year⁻¹, respectively), followed by bottled water (4.77 particles kg⁻¹ day⁻¹ and 1741.32 particles kg⁻¹ year⁻¹, respectively). Overall, this study provides vital baseline data about MPs contamination in Saudi Arabia. These findings could be used to develop strategies to minimize MPs contamination in food and beverages. Therefore, monitoring MPs in commonly consumed dietary products to avoid adverse impacts of MPs on human health is critically important.
The aims of research to explore the conversion of disposable paper cups, commonly used in the food and beverage industry, into cellulose acetate film. The increasing environmental concerns regarding plastic waste and the desire for sustainable alternatives have led to the investigation of utilizing cellulose-based materials. Cellulose, a biopolymer derived from plant-based sources, is the primary component of paper cups. Through a series of chemical processes, cellulose fibers are extracted from the paper cups and subsequently acetylated to form cellulose acetate. Cellulose acetate is a biodegradable and versatile material with various applications in packaging, textiles, and films. The project involves experimental work to extract cellulose fibers from the paper cups, optimizing the acetylation process, and fabricating cellulose acetate films through casting. The cellulose acetate films exhibit favourable properties, including good mechanical strength and thermal stability. These properties make cellulose acetate films a potential alternative to conventional plastic films, offering environmental benefits and promoting sustainability. The project highlights the importance of utilizing waste materials and transforming them into value-added products. By diverting waste from landfills and reducing dependence on conventional plastics, the project contributes to the promotion of a circular economy and sustainable practices.
Information on the microplastic (MPs) migration, particularly phthalate acid esters (PAEs) in packaged seafood, is limited to a few studies. The aim of this study is to follow the possible migration potential and speed of phthalates in rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) fillets stored in vacuum packaging depending on the storage temperature, as well as to determine the polyethylene polymer detection. For this purpose, the fillets were randomly distributed as three pieces in each bag, vacuum‐packed, and stored at commonly used temperatures (+4°C and −20°C) for 3 months. On the first day of storage in fillet and packaging materials, in certain periods of storage, the phthalate content in the fillet of each temperature group was determined. It has been determined that the chemical composition of the bag used in the vacuum packaging process is affected by the temperature depending on the storage period, and different polymer types are formed in the packaged material. Ten types of PAEs including diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), dibutylphthalate (DBP), di‐n‐pentyl phthalate (DPENP), di‐n‐hexyl phthalate (DHEXP), butylbenzylphthalate (BBP), di‐(2‐ethylhexyl)‐phthalate (DEHP), dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP), di‐n‐octylphthalate (DNOP), di‐iso‐nonylphthalate (DINP), and di‐isodecylphthalate (DIDP) were recorded in the packaging material and stored fillets. It was determined that the dominant PAE in the fillets were DPENP, and DEHP in the package at all temperature applications and storage periods. The findings help monitor the presence and migration of PAEs in foods and provide a motivating model for adopting the right technologies.
Free access
https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1k3xiW9Wfmfmk
Many single–use plastic (SUP) options made of synthetic polymers, bio-based materials, and blends of both are available in the market and used in large quantities. The disintegration of eleven commercial SUP, marketed in Mexico as cups and plates, was investigated in an aerobic home compost environment at a laboratory scale over 180 days. An evaluation of chemical changes, surface morphology, and thermal and mechanical properties was conducted to ascertain the original composition of SUP and the progression of disintegration in samples that are challenging to clean from soil contamination. Furthermore, the impact of residual compost on barley (Hordeum vulgare) plant growth and its correlation with the leaching of heavy metals were explored. The bio-based SUP, but not those made of expanded polystyrene foam, showed a correlation between the disintegration degree (measured by weight loss into particles <2 mm) and a decrease in functional groups (observed by FT-IR), mechanical-thermal stability loss, and surface wear over disintegration time. For instance, the highest disintegration at 180 days was approximately 70 % for wheat bran and palm leaf plates, followed by wheat plates and cellulose-PLA cups (60 %). In addition to the components listed by the manufacturers, the FT-IR and DSC analysis revealed the presence of polyethylene and polypropylene in cellulose cups and sugarcane plates. These components, impede disintegration but contribute to preserving thermal resistance and hydrophobicity during utilization. Compost derived from expanded polystyrene foam SUP, with 90 days of disintegration, was rich in zinc and chromium and significantly decreased in the barley plant's root length compared to the control. This demonstrates the necessity of considering the impact of the leaching of additives and secondary microplastics into the environment.
This study found that PS-M/NPs have a size-dependent cytotoxic effect on the human intestinal epithelial cell line Caco-2, mediated by the production of reactive oxygen species. Additionally, catechins were shown to mitigate these adverse effects.
Microplastics (MPs) are emergent environmental contaminants that are designated as either primary or secondary dependent on their origins. Formulation, morphology, dimensions, and colour scheme, along with other features, are connected with their propensity to reach the food webs and their dangers. Whilst ecological adversities of MPs have drawn considerable interest, the hazards to individuals from dietary exposure have yet to be determined. The aim of this review is to gauge existing understanding concerning MPs in foodstuffs and to explore the problems and inadequacies for threat assessment. The prevalence of MPs in foodstuffs and sugary drinks has been detected all over the world, but most researchers judged the existing information to be not only inadequate but also of dubious value, owing to the notable lack of agreement on a regulated quantification methods and a consistent appellation. Most published papers have highlighted potable water and condiments such as sugars, salts, and nectar as significant food components of MPs for humans. The threat assessment reveals significant discrepancies in our understanding of MP toxicity for human consumption, which hinders the estimate of risk-based regulations regarding food safety. The lack of comparators for evaluating MPs food consumption prohibits dietary MPs risk description and risk mitigation. Researchers and Food Safety Administrators confer various obstacles along with possibilities linked to the appearance of MPs in foodstuffs. Further investigation on the MPs categorization and exposures is essential considering that any subsequent threat evaluation record can contain a comprehensive dietary viewpoint.
Microplastics (< 5 mm) are considered to be global environmental pollutants. This study investigates the occurrence, physical properties, polymer composition and surface morphology, and element composition of MPs present in food-grade salts produced from seawater and bore-well water in Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu, Southeast coast of India. Fourteen different brands of sea salts and bore-well salts were collected from the salt manufacturing units. The mean abundance of microplastics was 35 ± 15 to 72 ± 40 items/kg in sea salt and 2 ± 1 to 29 ± 11 items/kg in bore-well salt. Four types of polymers viz. polyethylene (51.6%), polypropylene (25%), polyester (21.8%), and polyamide (1.6%) were found in salt. Polyethylene fibers of size ranging from 100 to 500 µm were observed commonly. Being manufactured from seawater, sea salt had the highest quantities of different microplastic particles. The study reveals that people consume approximately 216 particles of MPs per year via sea salt and 48 items per year via bore-well salt if the average person has a daily salt intake of 5 g. The surface morphology of MPs as exhibited in the SEM-EDAX images obtained in the study revealed the different weathering features of MPs, such as pits, cracks, and particles adhering to the surface. The presence of the elements Fe, As, and Ni on the surfaces as identified by energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy indicates that these elements exist in the environment as contaminants and have become associated with the MPs. The trace metals adsorbed onto MPs increase the risks of human exposure and may cause some adverse effects in humans.
Microplastics (MP) are ubiquitous within the environment, but the analysis of this contaminant is
currently quite diverse, and a number of analytical methods are available. The comparability of
results is hindered as even for a single analytical method such as Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FT-IR) the different instruments currently available do not allow a harmonized
analysis. To overcome this limitation, a new free of charge software tool, allowing the systematic
identification of MP in the environment (siMPle) was developed. This software tool allows a
rapid and harmonized analysis of MP across FT-IR systems from different manufacturers
(Bruker Hyperion 3000, Agilent Cary 620/670, PerkinElmer Spotlight 400, Thermo Fischer
Scientific Nicolet iN10). Using the same database and the automated analysis pipeline (AAP) in
siMPle, MP were identified in samples that were analyzed with instruments with different
detector systems and optical resolutions, the results of which are discussed.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) represent a class of more than 4000 compounds. Their large number and structural diversity pose a considerable challenge to analytical chemists. Measurement of total fluorine in environmental samples and consumer products is therefore critical for rapidly screening for PFASs and for assessing the fraction of unexplained fluorine(i.e., fluorine mass balance). Here we compare three emerging analytical techniques for total fluorine determination: combustion ion chromatography (CIC), particle-induced Î-ray emission spectroscopy (PIGE), and instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Application of each method to a certified reference material (CRM), spiked filters, and representative food packaging samples revealed good accuracy and precision. INAA and PIGE had the advantage of being nondestructive, while CIC displayed the lowest detection limits. Inconsistencies between the methods arose due to the high aluminum content in the CRM, which precluded its analysis by INAA, and sample heterogeneity (i.e., coating on the surface of the material), which resulted in higher values from the surface measurement technique PIGE compared to the values from the bulk volume techniques INAA and CIC. Comparing CIC-based extractable organic fluorine to target PFAS measurements of food packaging samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry revealed large amounts of unidentified organic fluorine not captured by compound-specific analysis.
This study characterized the structure of food packages, determined the amount of toxic metals that pass through the package (due to the package’s condition and contact with food), and examined the appropriateness of current food legislation. The food packages were examined for weight, ash content, and optical properties under two different light sources. The toxic metal quantities of the packages were analyzed with the use of an inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES ). In all packages, Pb migrated into food and was found at levels that exceeded limit values. Although the amounts of Hg within the material structure were above limits in most packages, it did not migrate from the packages. Although the amount of Cd in structural packaging did not exceed the limit values, most of the migration-related values were high. The Zn concentration in packaging was substantially higher than the amount due to migration. Structural Cu values were mostly below the limit values, except in corrugated boards. Cr amounts in both packaging structure and migration were below the limit values. In all packaging, there were minimum amounts of Ni among paperboard samples and maximum amounts among corrugated boards. Al values were high among structural paper packages, as well as in migration values in paperboard packaging.
Purpose of Review
We describe evidence regarding human exposure to microplastics via seafood and discuss potential health effects.
Recent Findings
Shellfish and other animals consumed whole pose particular concern for human exposure. If there is toxicity, it is likely dependent on dose, polymer type, size, surface chemistry, and hydrophobicity.
Summary
Human activity has led to microplastic contamination throughout the marine environment. As a result of widespread contamination, microplastics are ingested by many species of wildlife including fish and shellfish. Because microplastics are associated with chemicals from manufacturing and that sorb from the surrounding environment, there is concern regarding physical and chemical toxicity. Evidence regarding microplastic toxicity and epidemiology is emerging. We characterize current knowledge and highlight gaps. We also recommend mitigation and adaptation strategies targeting the life cycle of microplastics and recommend future research to assess impacts of microplastics on humans. Addressing these research gaps is a critical priority due to the nutritional importance of seafood consumption.
It is estimated that 2.5–10 bn disposable coffee cups are used every year in the U.K. Most of these cups end up in landfill or as litter, as the majority of poly-coated paper cups are not recyclable or not recycled. Here, we report on a field experiment that was conducted at twelve university and business sites to examine whether the use of reusable cups can be promoted through easily implementable measures. The study found that both environmental messaging and the provision of alternatives increased the use of reusable cups. While a charge on disposable cups increased their use as well, a discount on reusable cups did not. The effects for the individual measures were modest, but additive, meaning that the greatest behavioural change was achieved with a combination of measures. None of the measures negatively impacted the total number of hot drink sales. One university continued with the charge after the experiment had finished and distributed more reusable cups for free among their students. This boosted the use of reusable cups up to 33.7% across three cafés. This shows that a charge in combination with the provision of alternatives can increase the use of reusable cups substantially in the long term.
Polymer identification of plastic marine debris can help identify its sources, degradation, and fate. We optimized and validated a fast, simple, and accessible technique, attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR FT-IR), to identify polymers contained in plastic ingested by sea turtles. Spectra of consumer good items with known resin identification codes #1-6 and several #7 plastics were compared to standard and raw manufactured polymers. High temperature size exclusion chromatography measurements confirmed ATR FT-IR could differentiate these polymers. High-density (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) discrimination is challenging but a clear step-by-step guide is provided that identified 78% of ingested PE samples. The optimal cleaning methods consisted of wiping ingested pieces with water or cutting. Of 828 ingested plastics pieces from 50 Pacific sea turtles, 96% were identified by ATR FT-IR as HDPE, LDPE, unknown PE, polypropylene (PP), PE and PP mixtures, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and nylon.
Over the last 60 years plastics production has increased manifold, owing to their inexpensive, multipurpose, durable and lightweight nature. These characteristics have raised their demand that will continue to grow over the coming years. However, with increased plastic materials production, comes increased plastic material wastage creating a number of challenges, as well as opportunities to the waste management industry. The present overview highlights the waste management and pollution challenges, emphasising on the various chemical substances (known as "additives") contained in all plastic products for enhancing polymer properties and prolonging their life. Despite how useful these additives are in determining the functionality of polymer products, their potential to contaminate soil, air, water and food is widely documented in the literature and described herein. These additives can potentially migrate and undesirably lead to human exposure via, e.g. food contact materials, such as packaging. They can, also, be released from plastics during the various recycling and recovery processes and from the products produced from recyclate. Thus, sound recycling has to be performed in such a way as to ensure that emission of substances of high concern and contamination of recycled products is avoided, ensuring environmental and human health protection, at all times.
Marine debris is widely recognized as a global environmental problem. One of its main components, microplastics, has been found in several sea salt samples from different countries, indicating that sea products are irremediably contaminated by microplastics. Previous studies show very confusing results, reporting amounts of microparticles (MPs) in salt ranging from zero to 680 MPs/kg, with no mention of the possible causes of such differences. Several errors in the experimental procedures used were found and are reported in the present work. Likewise, 21 different samples of commercial table salt from Spain have been analyzed for MPs content and nature. The samples comprise sea salts and well salts, before and after packing. The microplastic content found was of 50–280 MPs/kg salt, being polyethylene-terephthalate (PET) the most frequently found polymer, followed by polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE), with no significant differences among all the samples. The results indicate that even though the micro-particles might originate from multiple sources, there is a background presence of microplastics in the environment.
The recent food-borne microbial outbreaks in the world have led to the search for more innovative ways to inhibit microbial growth in foods that will maintain their quality, freshness, and safety. One of the options, that provides an increased margin of safety and quality in food products is the use of antimicrobial packaging. The next generation of food packaging may include materials with antimicrobial properties. These packaging technologies could play a role in extending the shelf-life of foods and reduce the risk from pathogens. Antimicrobial packaging is a form of active packaging which interacts with the product or the headspace between the package and the food system, to obtain a desired outcome. Antimicrobial packaging has an important effect on food packaging when the shelf-life extension and food safety of food products are taken into consideration. The basic idea behind this technology is the usage of antimicrobial substances in polymeric matrices to target specific microorganisms, in order to achieve higher safety and quality food products with extended shelf life. Various types of antimicrobial substances such as organic acids and their salts, enzymes, bacteriocins, and miscellaneous compounds (triclosan, silver, and fungicides) have been used in synthetic polymers and edible films. Different types of antimicrobial food packaging systems can be constructed by using antimicrobial packaging materials and/or antimicrobial agents inside the package space or inside foods.
The European Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the United States Microbead Free Waters Act are credited for being ambitious in their goals for protecting the marine environment from microplastics pollution. As a result, the microplastic pollution of marine environments and the incidence of microplastic ingestion by fish is rapidly receiving an increase in overdue attention. This commentary summarizes recent discoveries regarding the potential negative effects of micro- and nanoplastic ingestion by fish. Analysis shows that the occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract of fish is ephemeral, with low accumulation potential in the gastrointestinal tract, although translocation to the liver may occur. Nevertheless, the total load of micro- and nanoplastics that will pass through the gastrointestinal tract of a fish in its lifetime is likely high and will keep increasing in the future. This may pose a risk because there is evidence that micro- and nanoplastic ingestion can interfere with fish health. Observed effects of microplastics ingestion include (but are not necessarily limited to) intestinal blockage, physical damage, histopathological alterations in the intestines, change in behavior, change in lipid metabolism, and transfer to the liver. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2017;13:510–515. © 2017 SETAC
Key Points
The mass of plastic in certain parts of some oceans is already surpassing the mass of plankton, and in the relatively near future, plastic will surpass fish stocks in the oceans by weight while the count of plastic micro- and nanoparticles will be considerably greater than the count of plankton. Occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract of fish is ephemeral, with low accumulation potential in the gastrointestinal tract, although translocation to the liver may occur. Ingestion of micro- and nanoplastics by fish may lead to physical blockage of the digestive organs and interference with feeding, change in behavior, mechanical injury, histopathological alterations in intestinal tract and liver, and change in lipid metabolism among other problems. Both microplastics quantity and ingestion frequency by fish will rise in the future as the input of microplastics in marine environment is increasing, whereas the cost of ocean cleanup operations from plastic litter is very high and microplastics cleanup, in particular, is highly unfeasible.
A new approach is presented for analysis of microplastics in environmental samples, based on selective fluorescent staining using Nile Red (NR), followed by density-based extraction and filtration. The dye adsorbs onto plastic surfaces and renders them fluorescent when irradiated with blue light. Fluorescence emission is detected using simple photography through an orange filter. Image-analysis allows fluorescent particles to be identified and counted. Magnified images can be recorded and tiled to cover the whole filter area, allowing particles down to a few micrometres to be detected. The solvatochromic nature of Nile Red also offers the possibility of plastic categorisation based on surface polarity characteristics of identified particles. This article details the development of this staining method and its initial cross-validation by comparison with infrared (IR) microscopy. Microplastics of different sizes could be detected and counted in marine sediment samples. The fluorescence staining identified the same particles as those found by scanning a filter area with IR-microscopy.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are highly persistent synthetic chemicals, some of which have been associated with cancer, developmental toxicity, immunotoxicity, and other health effects. PFASs in grease-resistant food packaging can leach into food and increase dietary exposure. We collected ∼400 samples of food contact papers, paperboard containers, and beverage containers from fast food restaurants throughout the United States and measured total fluorine using particle-induced γ-ray emission (PIGE) spectroscopy. PIGE can rapidly and inexpensively measure total fluorine in solid-phase samples. We found that 46% of food contact papers and 20% of paperboard samples contained detectable fluorine (>16 nmol/cm²). Liquid chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis of a subset of 20 samples found perfluorocarboxylates, perfluorosulfonates, and other known PFASs and/or unidentified polyfluorinated compounds (based on nontargeted analysis). The total peak area for PFASs was higher in 70% of samples (10 of 14) with a total fluorine level of >200 nmol/cm² compared to six samples with a total fluorine level of <16 nmol/cm². Samples with high total fluorine levels but low levels of measured PFASs may contain volatile PFASs, PFAS polymers, newer replacement PFASs, or other fluorinated compounds. The prevalence of fluorinated chemicals in fast food packaging demonstrates their potentially significant contribution to dietary PFAS exposure and environmental contamination during production and disposal.
In this article, we review special features of Gwyddion—a modular, multiplatform, open-source software for scanning probe microscopy data processing, which is available at http://gwyddion.net/. We describe its architecture with emphasis on modularity and easy integration of the provided algorithms into other software. Special functionalities, such as data processing from non-rectangular areas, grain and particle analysis, and metrology support are discussed as well. It is shown that on the basis of open-source software development, a fully functional software package can be created that covers the needs of a large part of the scanning probe microscopy user community.
For the past 25 years NIH Image and ImageJ software have been pioneers as open tools for the
analysis of scientific images. We discuss the origins, challenges and solutions of these two programs,
and how their history can serve to advise and inform other software projects.
The effects of rice husk, sawdust and rice bran on the composting process of food waste were studied in a 180-L laboratory composter based on a mixture experimental design. Linear and quadratic models of seven important process characteristics (composting and acidification times, lowest and final pH values, highest temperature, the water-soluble organic carbon to water-soluble organic nitrogen (C(OW)/N(OW) ratio), and the water-soluble organic carbon to total organic nitrogen (C(OW)/N(OT)) ratio) in terms of fractional compositions of bulking agents as well as the water absorption capacity and the free air space of the composting matrix were developed.
A gas chromatography-ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry procedure was developed for the determination of 2,6-diisopropylnaphthalene (DIPN) and n-dibutylphthalate (DBP) in domestic and imported paper packages and food sold in US marketplaces. The procedure involved ultrasonic extraction with dichloromethane, followed by analysis with the gas chromatography-ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry. Calibration curves for DIPN and DBP were achieved with concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 10 microg ml(-1) and the corresponding r(2) values were 0.9976 and 0.9956, respectively. In most of the fortified samples the recoveries were higher than 80% with a relative standard deviation (RSD) <10%. Using this procedure, it was found that less than 20% of the tested domestic packages and more than 60% of the tested imported food packages contained both DIPN and DBP. The concentrations of DIPN and DBP ranged from 0.09 to 20 mg kg(-1) and 0.14 to 55 mg kg(-1), respectively, with most of the DINP and DBP levels lower than 20 mg kg(-1). DIPN was not detected (<0.01 mg kg(-1)) in 41 food samples and DBP was only detected in two domestic and four imported food samples with concentrations ranging from <0.01 to 0.81 mg kg(-1).
Bisphenol-A (BPA), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), which are common chemical residues in food-packaging materials, were investigated in paper and cardboard containers used for take-away food. The oestrogenicity of aqueous extracts was tested in E-Screen bioassay and analysis carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Oestrogenicity was demonstrated in 90% of extracts (geometric mean [GM] = 11.97 pM oestradiol equivalents g(-1)). DEHP, DBP, and BPA (GM = 341.74, 37.59, and 2.38 ng g(-1) of material) were present in 77.50, 67.50, and 47.50% of samples, respectively. In bivariate analyses, no significant association was found between the levels of these chemicals and oestrogenicity in cardboard/paper extracts. A close-to-significant association was found between oestrogenicity and DBP (beta = 1.25; p = 0.06) in paper extracts, which reached statistical significance in multivariate analysis (beta = 1.61; p = 0.03). Paper and cardboard used in food packaging may contribute to the inadvertent exposure of consumers to endocrine-disrupting chemicals.
This study investigated the microplastic (MP) contamination of seawater and fishes from different habitats so as to understand the level of human exposure to microplastics. Samples of Harpodon nehereus, Chirocentrus dorab, Sardinella albella, Rastrelliger kanagurta, Katsuwonus pelamis and Istiophorus platypterus were collected from Tuticorin, southeast coast of India. The MPs in seawater and the gastrointestinal tracts of fish were identified using Stereomicroscope and characterized by FTIR and SEM-EDAX analysis. The abundance of MPs varied from 3.1 ± 2.3 to 23.7 ± 4.2 items L⁻¹ in water, from 0.11 ± 0.06 to 3.64 ± 1.7 items/individual, and from 0.0002 ± 0.0001 to 0.2 ± 0.03 items/g gut weight. The epipelagic fishes had higher levels of MP contamination than the mesopelagic ones. Most of the MPs identified were of blue color, of fiber type and with their size <500 μm. Polyethylene was the most commonly detected MP, followed by polyester and polyamide, and this fact could be attributed to the inflow of domestic sewage and to the intensive fisheries activities in the area. SEM-EDAX spectra revealed the weathered MP surfaces which could adsorb/leach inorganic elements (colorants and fillers) from/to the environment. We may conclude that the concentration of MPs in fishes is a function of the concentration of MPs in their environment.
The widespread dispersal of microplastic (plastic particle <5 mm) contamination in human food chain is gaining more attention in the public arena and scientific community. Better assessment of diversified consumer products is a key for combating problems related to microplastic contamination. To the best of our knowledge, no study has been conducted on dairy milk products, and the current research status of microplastics is lacking. Here, a total of 23 milk samples (22 adult and 1 kid) from 5 international and 3 national brands of Mexico was collected and tested for the occurrence of microplastics. Results confirmed the ubiquity of microplastics in the analyzed samples and showed variability ranging between 3 ± 2-11 ± 3.54 particles L-1 with an overall average of 6.5 ± 2.3 particles L-1 which are lower than any reported levels in liquid food products. Microplastic particles exhibited variety of colors (blue, brown, red and pink), shapes (fibers and fragments) and sizes (0.1-5 mm). Among which, blue colored fibers (<0.5 mm) were predominant. Micro-Raman identification results revealed that thermoplastic sulfone polymers (polyethersulfone and polysulfone) were common types of microplastics in milk samples, which are highly used membrane materials in dairy processes. Thus, this study findings developed a baseline outlook for microplastics contamination in dairy products and posed a great deal to take necessary controls and preventive measures to avoid them.
The present research examines the effects of UV radiation, moisture and elevated temperature on the mechanical properties of GFRP pultruded profiles. Flexural, compressive and tensile properties of different GFRP sections were studied after they were exposed for 1000, 1500, 2000 and 3000 h to UV radiation and water vapour condensation cycles. Mechanical tests, including three-point bending, compression and tension tests, SEM analyses, and statistical studies were conducted to gather comprehensive results. The results showed that the mechanical properties of various GFRP sections generally decreased with the duration of conditioning: however, the rate of the decrease that was only slight up to 1000 h, increased rapidly during 1000-2000 h, and again it was slow during 2000-3000 h. The maximum reductions were 34%, 28% and 23% after exposure to 3000 h cycles for bending, tensile and compression tests, respectively. In the bending tests, where inter-laminar shear failure controls ultimate strength, the degradation was greater compared to the situation where fibres fracture controls the failure. Further, regarding the cross-section parameter, it was concluded that the thickness and perimeter are the effective factors; the thinner the sample and the larger the perimeter, the greater is the reduction. However, the maximum effect of the cross section in terms of thickness and perimeter did not exceed 13% among all sections.
Microplastics (particle size <5 mm) are an emerging contaminant for aquatic environmental, which have attracted increasing attention in worldwide range. In this study, an improved fluorescent staining method for detection and quantification of microplastics was developed based on thermal expansion and contraction. This method is effective in detection of polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene terephthalate plastic particles. In order to avoid error statistics caused by pretreatment, various characterizations of microplastics were measured after heated, such as microstructure, compositions and thermostability. The results showed that there was no significant damage to microplastics even under heating condition at 75 °C for 30 min, and the stained microplastics had strong stability for up to two months. Moreover, this method has been successfully applied to the quantification of microplastics in biological samples and result showed there were about 54 particles g-1 (dry weight) microplastics in the Sipunculus nudus. This new method provides a reliable method for quantitative analysis of microplastics in environment and biological tissue.
The increasing presence of micro- and nano-sized plastics in the environment and food chain is of growing concern. Although mindful consumers are promoting the reduction of single-use plastics, some manufacturers are creating new plastic packaging to replace traditional paper uses, such as plastic teabags. The objective of this study was to determine whether plastic teabags could release microplastics and/or nanoplastics during a typical steeping process. We show that steeping a single plastic teabag at brewing temperature (95 °C) releases approximately 11.6 billion microplastics and 3.1 billion nanoplastics into a single cup of the beverage. The composition of the released particles is matched to the original teabags (nylon and polyethylene terephthalate) using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The levels of nylon and polyethylene terephthalate particles released from the teabag packaging are several orders of magnitude higher than plastic loads previously reported in other foods. An initial acute invertebrate toxicity assessment shows that exposure to only the particles released from the teabags caused dose-dependent behavioral and developmental effects.
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation under different environmental conditions deteriorates to different extents. The objective of this study was to evaluate changes in the physical and chemical properties of LDPE strips under four different environmental conditions: air, double distilled water (DDW), and two salt solutions with ionic strengths of 0.017 M (corresponding to potable water) and 0.6 M (corresponding to seawater) by incubating them for 90 days at 30°C. LDPE samples were taken out at
time intervals of 30, 60, and 90 days and analyzed for various mechanical (tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and percentage elongation),
physical (surface roughness, texture, topography, morphology, and composition), and chemical properties. Photodegradation of LDPE was greatest in air, followed by DDW, 0.017 M aqueous salt solution, and, finally and least of all, in 0.6 M salt solution. Increasing salt concentrations resulted in the protection of LDPE strips from photodegradation due to the formation of salt crystals on the film surface. The presence of oxygen was found to be the most important factor in the initiation of photooxidative degradation of LDPE film.
Background
Sources of fluoride exposure for Mexicans include foods, beverages, fluoridated salt, and naturally fluoridated water. There are no available data describing fluoride content of foods and beverages consumed in Mexico.
Objective
To measure the content of fluoride in foods and beverages typically consumed and to compare their content to that of those from the United States and the United Kingdom.
Methods
Foods and beverages reported as part of the Mexican Health and Nutrition Survey (n = 182) were purchased in the largest supermarket chains and local markets in Mexico City. Samples were analyzed for fluoride, at least in duplicate, using a modification of the hexamethyldisiloxane microdiffusion method. Value contents were compared to those from the US Department of Agriculture and UK fluoride content tables.
Results
The food groups with the lowest and highest fluoride content were eggs (2.32 µg/100 g) and seafood (371 µg/100 g), respectively. When estimating the amount of fluoride per portion size, the lowest content corresponded to eggs and the highest to fast foods. Meats and sausages, cereals, fast food, sweets and cakes, fruits, dairy products, legumes, and seafood from Mexico presented higher fluoride contents than similar foods from the United States or the United Kingdom. Drinks and eggs from the United States exhibited the highest contents, while this was the case for pasta, soups, and vegetables from the United Kingdom.
Conclusion
The majority of items analyzed contained higher fluoride contents than their US and UK counterparts. Data generated provide the first and largest table on fluoride content, which will be useful for future comparisons and estimations.
Pulp and paper industry is one of the major sector in every country of the globe contributing not only to Gross Domestic Product but surprisingly to environmental pollution and health hazards also. Paper and paperboard based material is the one of the earliest and largest used packaging form for food products like milk and milk based products, beverages, dry powders, confectionary, bakery products etc. owing to its eco-friendly hallmark. Various toxic chemicals like printing inks, phthalates, surfactants, bleaching agents, hydrocarbons etc. are incorporated in the paper during its development process which leaches into the food chain during paper production, food consumption and recycling through water discharges. Recycling is considered the best option for replenishing the loss to environment but paper can be recycled maximum six to seven times and paper industry waste is very diverse in nature and composition. Various paper disposal methods like incineration, landfilling, pyrolysis and composting are available but their process optimization becomes a barrier. This review article aims at discussing in detail the use of paper and paper based packaging materials for food applications and painting a wide picture of various health and environmental issues related to the usage of paper and paper based packaging material in food industry. A brief comparison of the environmental aspects of paper production, recycling and its disposal options (incineration and land filling) had also been discussed.
The factors affecting the migration of organic contaminants from paper packaging materials into packaged dry powdered food were studied. Based on the molecular structure, volatile, molecular weight, and harm posed to the human body, five organic substances were selected as simulated pollutants. According to EU technical standard BS EN13130-1:2004 (E) migration trough types E manufactured migration cell and completion of migration of simulated contaminants from paper to solid powdered foods at different temperature and times were studied. GC-MS technology was used to detect the content of simulated pollutants in paper and food. Partial least-squares (PLS) method was used to analyze the effects of various factors affecting migration performance. Results showed that the migration of simulated pollutants from paper packaging materials into solid powdered foods was affected by temperature, contact time, molecular weight of organic pollutants, and volatile. Among them, volatile and molecular weight contributed the greatest effects, whereas temperature contributed the least effect. Changes in temperature and contact time were positively correlated with migration performance, whereas volatile, molecular weight, molecular polarity of organic pollutants were negatively correlated. In other words, for the individual factors, higher temperature and longer contact time meant higher migration percentage of organic pollutants from paper-based packaging to packaged dry powdered foods, whereas greater volatile and higher molecular weight of organic pollutants led to poorer migration into food.
Paperboard used as packaging, a non-inert material, can transfer chemicals into food. Over the years, endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), such as NonylPhenols (NPs), BisPhenol A (BPA) and phthalates have been shown to migrate from packaging materials into food. Due to chronic exposure and mixture effects of these EDCs, they could cause health effects even at very low doses. Many EDCs are still unknown and many more are still unregulated. The ERE-CALUX bioassay was used as a bioanalytical tool to investigate estrogenic activities of paperboard food packaging and its characteristics, including recycling rate and printing ink. A “worst case” scenario with full extraction is compared to a dry food migration experiment. By measuring an overall estrogenic activity, known and unknown estrogenic chemicals and mixture effects are taken into account and the data are compared to molecule specific analysis. Estrogenic activities ranged from 682 ± 66 pg E2 eq./dm2 to 3250 ± 400 pg E2 eq./dm2 for “worst case” extraction and from 347 ± 30 pg E2 eq./dm2 to 1350 ± 70 pg E2 eq./dm2 for migration experiments. A two-factor ANOVA revealed a relationship between estrogenic activity and the recycling rate of the paperboard, but no significant difference with printing ink was observed for these paperboard samples. Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) and 1,2-
cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester (DINCH) were determined in all extraction and migrations experiment samples. A Spearman rank correlation analysis showed a relationship between the estrogenic activity and the total phthalates as well as with each compound individually.
Disposable Paper cups are a threat to the environment and are composed of 90% high strength paper with 5% thin coating of polyethylene. This polyethylene prevents the paper cup from undergoing degradation in the soil. Hence, in the present study two different approaches towards the management of paper cup waste through vermicomposting technology has been presented. The experimental setup includes 2 plastic reactors namely Vermicompost (VC) (Cow dung + Paper cup waste + Earthworm (Eudrillus eugeinea)) and Vermicompost with bacterial consortium (VCB) (Cow dung + Paper cup waste + Eudrillus eugeinea + Microbial consortia such as Bacillus anthracis, B. endophyticus, B. funiculus, B. thuringiensis, B. cereus, B. toyonensis, Virigibacillius chiquenigi, Acinetobacter baumanni and Lactobacillus pantheries). After treatment the physicochemical parameters were analysed. The results showed that the values of TOC (26.52 and 37.47%), TOM (36.01 and 33.13%) and C/N (15.02 and 11.92%) ratio are reduced in both VC and VCB whereas, the values of pH (8.01 and 7.56), EC (1.2-1.9 µs-1 and 1.4-1.9 µs-1), TP (46.1 and 51%), TMg (50.52 and 64.3%), TCa (50 and 64%), TNa (1.39 and 1.75%) and TK (1.75 and 1.86%) have increased. This study substantiates the addition of the microbial consortia augmenting the degradation in VCB reactor by reducing the period of process from 19 to 12 weeks. Further the characterisation of the vermicompost prepared from paper cup with FT-IR shows high degradation of carboxylic and aliphatic group; SEM analysis shows the disaggregation of cellulose and lignin; XRD shows the degradation of cellulose. All these analyses endorse the degradation of the paper cup waste faster with microbes (VCB). Thus, this present study high lights management of the paper cup waste in a relatively short period of time.
Today, plastics are an integral part of modern society. Living without plastics is almost impossible ever since their mass production began in the 1950s (Barnes et al. 2009). Plastics are versatile materials mainly due to their molecular structure and additives, and have many different positive applications that have eased human life to a great extent. However, plastics are a major treatment and disposal problem in urban solid waste management as plastics are relatively inert and non-biodegradable (Nayak et al. 2011). It is an undeniable fact that the environment and its biodiversity is greatly disturbed and damaged as a result of the rampant and uncontrolled use and disposal of these non-biodegradable materials (Barnes et al. 2009; Teuten et al. 2009). The impact of plastics on the environment is now a global concern since treatment and disposal methods are limited while rates of production and usage are increasing. Incineration of these plastic wastes generates toxic and harmful gases causing air pollution and is a common practice in many less developed and developing countries as appropriately engineered/planned landfill sites to dispose these wastes are very limited. Additionally, many disposal methods that are not acceptable like open dumping, uncontrolled incineration, unscientific composting and improper landfilling are often followed in countries like India (Kandakatla et al. 2012). Increasing concern among people about this problem has stimulated interest in the field of biodegradation of polymers such as polyethylene and polystyrene, etc., which are very stable in nature, and are not readily biodegradable. Globally, about 140 million tonnes of synthetic polymers are produced every year (Masayuki 2001) and only about 10% of these materials are recycled or reused as the disposal options are extremely limited.
Among the various biological effects PFAS perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) exert on living organisms, metabolic effects are important and have attracted considerable attention in PFAS studies in vitro and in vivo. Although PFAS are metabolically inert themselves, they can interfere with endogenous metabolic processes and thus do have the ability to exert effects on metabolism. The alteration on metabolism could induce a wide range of biochemical and physiological changes. Metabolic effects have various connections with other systemic toxicities induced by PFAS and potentially serve as the fundamental basis for other observed toxicities. Conversely, other systemic toxicities could potentially affect the metabolic balance of an organism, and thus induce secondary metabolic effects as well. This chapter discusses the molecular basis of PFAS-induced metabolic effects including experimental animal and human data regarding metabolic effects. While the major focus of this chapter is on metabolic effects, some systemic and organ-specific toxicities are also discussed, as it is necessary for a comprehensive discussion. A good understanding of PFAS-induced metabolic effects could help us to better handle the potential health risks associated with PFAS exposure.
In this chapter, the major human health risk assessment activities that have been undertaken for human exposure to perfluoroalkyls, with emphasis on perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), have been summarized. Margin of exposure risk assessments, risk assessments based on dietary exposure, and the establishment of regulatory levels for PFOS and PFOA concentration in drinking water are covered in detail. Although a large and robust database exists for PFOS and PFOA that covers multiple health endpoints, data are more limited for other perfluoroalkyls. A brief review of the chemical/physical properties and hazard profiles of PFOS and PFOA in the context of risk assessment and human relevance is given. It becomes apparent that the methods used to assess human health risk from exposure to perfluoroalkyls have been evolving and will likely continue to develop as new information and approaches are introduced. Perhaps the most important direction that risk assessment for perfluoroalkyls has taken has been in the use of internal dose metrics to bridge differences in pharmacokinetic elimination kinetics between species. There is a need to better inform epidemiological investigations with the understanding obtained from toxicological and pharmacokinetic investigations and principals. Translating our understanding from toxicological systems into a human context will improve our collective ability to understand whether environmental exposure to perfluoroalkyls affects human health risk.
The majority of disposable cups are made from paper plastic laminates (PPL) which consist of high quality cellulose fibre with a thin internal polyethylene coating. There are limited recycling options for PPLs and this has contributed to disposable cups becoming a high profile, problematic waste. In this work disposable cups have been shredded to form PPL flakes and these have been used to reinforce polypropylene to form novel paper plastic composites (PPCs). The PPL flakes and polypropylene were mixed, extruded, pelletised and injection moulded at low temperatures to prevent degradation of the cellulose fibres. The level of PPL flake addition and the use of a maleated polyolefin coupling agent to enhance interfacial adhesion have been investigated. Samples have been characterised using tensile testing, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and thermogravimetric analysis. Use of a coupling agent allows composites containing 40wt.% of PPL flakes to increase tensile strength of PP by 50% to 30MPa. The Young modulus also increases from 1 to 2.5GPa and the work to fracture increases by a factor of 5. The work demonstrates that PPL disposable cups have potential to be beneficially reused as reinforcement in novel polypropylene composites.
Phthalates are organic lipophilic compounds that are principally used as plasticiser to increase the flexibility of plastic polymers. Other applications are a.o. the use of phthalates in printing inks and lacquers. Human exposure to phthalates mainly occurs via food ingestion and can induce adverse health effects. In this study, the presence of eight phthalate compounds--dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), benzylbutyl phthalate (BBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP) and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP)--was investigated in 400 food products, divided over eleven groups, and packages sold on the Belgian market. For this purpose, suitable extraction techniques were developed and validated for four different matrices, namely high-fat foods, low-fat food products, aqueous-based beverages and packaging materials. The instrumental analysis was performed by means of gas chromatography-low resolution-mass spectrometry with electron impact ionisation (GC-EI-MS). A wide variety of phthalate concentrations was observed in the different groups. DEHP was found in the highest concentration in almost every group. Moreover, DEHP was the most abundant phthalate compound, followed by DiBP, DnBP and BBP. This survey is part of the PHTAL project, which is the first project that discusses phthalate contamination on the Belgian food market.
In this study, we explore the identity of a range of polyfluorinated surfactants (PFS) used for food contact materials, primarily to impart oil and water repellency on paper and board. PFS are of interest, as they can be precursors of poly- and perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS), of which several are persistent and are found worldwide in human blood and in the environment.
To determine the elemental composition of PFS, we combined information from patents, chemical suppliers and analyses of industrial blends using ultra performance liquid chromatography-negative electrospray ionisation quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry.
At a high pH of 9.7, both non-ionic and anionic PFS were ionised and were recognised by negative mass defects of exact masses, and neutral fragment losses of n × 20 or n × 100 Da. More than 115 molecular structures were found in industrial blends from the EU, US and China, belonging to the groups of polyfluoroalkyl-mono- and di-ester phosphates (monoPAPS, diPAPS and S-diPAPS), -ethoxylates, -acrylates, -amino acids, -sulfonamide phosphates and -thio acids, together with residuals and synthesis byproducts. In addition, a number of starting materials such as perfluorooctane sulfonamide N-alkyl esters were analysed. Di- and trialkylated PAPS and S-diPAPS were found in migrates from European food contact materials.
This study highlights the need to monitor for more types of PFS in order to map the sources of PFAS in humans and the environment.
In the last few decades many new polymers have been synthesized that are now being used in cultural heritage conservation. The physical and chemical properties and the long-term behaviors of these new polymers are determined by the chemical composition of the starting materials used in their synthesis along with the nature of the substances added to facilitate their production. The practical applications of these polymers depend on their composition and form (foam, film, sheets, pressure-sensitive adhesives, heat-seal adhesives, etc.). Some materials are used in restoration works and others for the exhibition, storage and transport of works of art. In all cases, it is absolutely necessary to know their compositions. Furthermore, many different materials that are manufactured for other objectives are also used for conservation and restoration. The technical information about the materials provided by the manufacturer is usually incomplete, so it is necessary to analytically characterize such materials. FTIR spectrometry is widely used for polymer identification, and, more recently, ATR–FTIR has been shown to give excellent results. This paper reports the ATR-FTIR analysis of samples of polymeric materials used in the conservation of artworks. These samples were examined directly in the solid material without sample preparation.
Figure
The migration of five surrogate contaminants, anthracene, benzophenone, dimethyl phthalate, methyl stearate and pentachlorophenol, from paper and paperboard into water through a polyethylene (PE) coating layer was investigated. Virgin paper and paperboard coated with PE films of 0.012 and 0.030 mm thickness were spiked evenly with standard 1-ml solutions containing 5mg of each surrogate. The spiked papers were placed in contact with the PE coating layer at 10 and 24 degrees C for 21 days. The resulting surrogate migration through the PE layer into 100ml water was measured by an analytical method developed here that used gas chromatography equipped with a flame ionization detector. Non-polar surrogates of anthracene and methyl stearate did not show any significant migration. In the case of the thin layer coating of 0.012 mm, polar water-soluble contaminants of benzophenone, dimethyl phthalate and pentachlorophenol showed an equilibrated or maximized migration after 1 day, even at a refrigerated temperature of 10 degrees C. A thick PE coating of 0.030 mm thickness delayed the progress of contaminant migration, which was also slower at lower temperature. Our results indicate that polyethylene coatings should not be seen as a complete barrier against possible contaminants in paper packaging materials under chilled or ambient conditions. Several variables such as coating thickness, temperature and suspected contaminants need to be considered to control the possible contamination risk from recycled or printed paper.
This study presents the research on the chemical analysis and genotoxicity of 28 virgin/recycled paper products in food-contact use. In the chemical analysis, paper products were extracted by reflux with ethanol, and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. 4,4'-bis(dimethylamino)benzophenone (Michler's ketone: MK), 4,4'-bis(diethylamino)benzophenone (DEAB), 4-(dimethylamino)benzophenone (DMAB) and bisphenol A (BPA) were found characteristically in recycled products. Seventy-five percent of the recycled paper products contained MK (1.7-12 microg/g), 67% contained DEAB (0.64-10 micro g/g), 33% contained DMAB (0.68-0.9 microg/g) and 67% contained BPA (0.19-26 microg/g). Although, BPA was also detected in virgin paper products, the detection levels in the recycled products were ten or more times higher than those in the virgin products. The genotoxicity of paper and paperboard extracts and compounds found in them were investigated by Rec-assay and comet assay. Of the 28 products tested by Rec-assay using Bacillus subtilis, 13 possessed DNA-damaging activity. More recycled than virgin products (75% against 25%) exhibited such activity, which, of the compounds, was observed in BPA, 1,2-benzisothiazoline-3-one (BIT), 2-(thiocyanomethylthio)benzothiazole, 2,4,5,6-tetrachloro-isophthalonitrile, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP), and pentachlorophenol. The critical toxicant in one virgin paper product was concluded to be BIT. Eight samples with DNA-damaging activity were also tested by comet assay using HL-60 cells; six induced comet cells significantly (five times or higher than the control) without a decrease of viable cells. TCP, BZ, DEAB, and BIT also caused a slight increase in comet cells. In conclusion, we showed that most recycled paper products contain chemicals such as MK, DEAB, DMAB, and BPA, and possess genotoxicity. However, the levels of the chemicals in the recycled products could not explain their genotoxic effects.
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