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Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes
An International Quarterly
ISSN: 1460-1176 (Print) 1943-2186 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tgah20
Aural landscape as an intangible heritage in
Chinese classical gardens
Shenghuan Zhao
To cite this article: Shenghuan Zhao (2017) Aural landscape as an intangible heritage in Chinese
classical gardens, Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes, 37:3, 242-249, DOI:
10.1080/14601176.2016.1268770
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14601176.2016.1268770
Published online: 09 Jan 2017.
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Aural landscape as an intangible heritage in Chinese classical gardens
shenghuan zhao
1. Introduction of aural landscape in classical gardens
The concept ‘landscape captured by ears’had been long used in Chinese
garden design. Aesthetics-based sound design is a unique characteristic of
many Chinese classical gardens. Nearly 28% of the first collection of poetry
in China, entitled ‘The Book of Songs’(诗经), 770 B.C.–476 B.C., is related
to landscape created by sound.(Wu, 2013)‘Jicheng’(1582–1642), the great
designer of Chinese classical gardens, also mentioned it in his design book,
‘Yuan Ye’: the sound of Brahma(Buddhism music)reached my ears’,‘the sound
of the crane flowed to my pillows’,‘night rain falling on the banana trees’, etc.
Such versions of mysterious aural landscape enlarged the imagination of garden
space for people and promoted the extent of an experience of gardens. Many
classical gardens have special viewing spots with names that reference an
environment of sounds, like ‘waterfront pavilion with the wind going through
pine forest’. Such places take the natural sound as elements, merging the
experience and feeling of the visitors, to create a poetic circumstance. There
are three different kinds of ‘classical gardens’in China, if we divide them
according to their styles and design strategies (table 1).
Most of those non-royal Gardens were built inside, or just outside, cities
where the cacophony of urban activities intruded on the desire for quietude.
However, some gardens were both situated and oriented within the city so as
to provide a sonorous distance between the city and the garden. ‘Liu garden’in
Suzhou is a good example (figure 1). Another classical example is ‘Ying
Garden’, which means ‘hidden garden’. It invoked a meandering path, so
fewer people are walking there, escaping from the intrusion of any noise.
After entering the gate, there is a small winding lane, with a second small door
at the end; passing through this there is a smaller alley lined by two rows of
Indus leads that lead to the third door. After entering that door, then you can
see yet another narrow lane. Such kind of design identifies a Chinese idiom:
‘winding lane leads to quietness’(Zhou, 2008).
2. Categorize of aural landscape in classical gardens
2.1Sounds from water
There are many sound elements in aural landscape: water, wind, rain, bird
song, sounds of the Brahma bell, people’s singing, etc. However, a majority of
the aural landscapes were created by water, which plays an exclusively impor-
tant role in the visual and also aural landscape; this ‘water sound’category also
can be divide into four subcategorizes.
First of all, for royal gardens, an environment with magnificent features was
needed. So many royal gardens took waterfall as the best option to achieve
their goal. Royal gardens in the Han dynasty (B.C.202–A.D. 220) used water
with different speeds and dissimilar wave shapes to create dynamic visual and
sound waterscape. Water inside ‘Hualin Garden’was fed by different kinds of
drains. ‘Flying springs’‘waterfalls’were covered inside the ‘stone roads’and
‘rock peaks’to produce gorgeous acoustic effects, revealing the identity of a
royal garden (Zhou, 2008). Another example is the ‘Clear sound pavilion’
which is located in E’Mei Mountain, Sichuan province. The site is inside a
forest with a quiet surrounding area and the pavilion was constructed on a
242 issn 1460-1176 #2017 informa uk limited, trading as taylor & francis group vol. 37, no. 3
https://doi.org/10.1080/14601176.2016.1268770
platform along the slope. The waterfall flies down from the top, beats upon the
rock, sending sprays that then fall down the deep valley with a clear sound. So
we call it ‘Clear Sound Pavilion’(Zhou, 2008).
The second subcategory is the mountain stream. Mountains here not only
mean real ones, but refer mainly to the fake mountains in gardens constructed
with ‘Taihu stones’, a special kind of rock used for rockery making; these are
hollow, so the spring flows inside and beats against the rock, like the sound of
jades clicking each other, especially in a quiet night. ‘Jichang Garden’, located
in Jiangsu Province, which has an Octave Stream inside it is good illustration of
this category. The spring comes from top of the mountain and ‘breaks
through’the hillside and converges into the water pond in the northwest
corner. There are rockeries made of the stones along its path. So when the
water falls through the holes, it makes different sounds, which is why it is
called the ‘Octave Stream’. The Harmony Garden in the Summer Palace
copied this idea, building one that made different sounds like a zither.
The third kind is small rivulet and spring, more common and easier to build
than either of the previous two categories. Many historic temples are of this
sort. There is a ‘Dajue Temple’located in Beijing, whose aural landscape was
praised by many emperors, who wrote couplets to describe its aural landscape.
‘The spring pouring over the stones, piping and hooting’,‘the sound of spring
and drizzle, also the color of the mountain is good’. The landscape inside the
garden is largely a waterscape with a small rivulet and spring, with the water
pumped in from outside, not only for drinking, but also for making the
waterscape. There was a pavilion inside the temple, behind which a spring
formed, falling down from the steep hillside. People could listen to the sound
while lying on a wooden bed in the pavilion. It became the feature of that
garden.
The last subcategory is the utilization of rain. The pavement under a
building’s eaves was always made with cobblestones, which made clearer and
stronger sounds when it rains. ‘The rain slipping off the eaves’can be trans-
ferred to other aural environments. So when the rain beats something else,
different kinds of other sounds are produced. ‘Zhuozheng Garden’in Suzhou
produced this kind of aural landscape perfectly. ‘Liuting Pavilion’inside that
garden, which in Chinese means ‘a pavilion for stay and listen’, is one of the
best places for acoustic enjoyment. This pavilion was built near the water pool
inside which were full of lotuses. A very famous poem was written to describe
the design: ‘Leave the broken lotus to hear the sound of rain’. People leave the
figure 1. The entrance of Liu Garden.
TABLE 1. Three different kinds of classical gardens in China.
Types Location Owners The styles of aural landscape
Royal
gardens
Around Beijing Emperors Strong and powerful; magnificent.
Jiangnan
gardens
South Yangtze
River Delta
Artists;
Poets;
Artistic; emotional; poetic; related with
Daoism and Zen.
Lingnan
gardens
South of China’s
Nan Mountains
Businessmen Anti-Confucianism; more pragmatic; not so
much a purposefully specific aural design.
aural landscape as an intangible heritage in chinese classical gardens
243
dead lotus leaves on purpose to get the sound of rain when it beats upon them.
And there are also other poems that described similar situations, like ‘listening
to the rain falling on the leaves of banana’.
2.2Sounds from birds and insects
Plants in the gardens have the function ‘inviting the wind and attracting the
rain, offering a place for the birds and cicadas’. Another factor of the aural
heritage comes from animals and insects. At first, the animals were raised in the
royal gardens only for hunting. That is a recreation activity for the emperors.
Gradually, the hunting place was moved out of the garden because they are
difficult to be tamed. However, different species of birds were still kept inside.
Birds were popular with the garden designers and the designers in history
had their criteria to choose which kinds of birds. The most common kind of
bird with cultural implication is crane which stands for the noble character and
good taste from the garden owners. Many documents of garden designing
recorded it. ‘If they are not chosen for their gorgeous feathers, the enchanting
sound must be the reason’(Chen, 1979). There is also description inside
another book History of Hualin Garden,‘there comes five baby yellow par-
tridges, their necks are as long as ten feet, their crispy sounds can be heard as far
away as 5kilometers’. The poet Wangji wrote a poet to describe the sound
environment created by birds and cicadas which became famous around the
whole country. ‘The forest is more peaceful while cicadas are chirping, the
mountain is more secluded while the birds are singing’. Another case is
‘Xiangshan temple’, people set up many pavilions along the hillside. ‘Many
birds calling in the morning, these sounds combing the brahma bell sound and
the mourning from the monks, flying through the sky’(Zhou, 2008). In the
aspect of insects, cicadas and rickets were the representatives, with a lot of
cultural meanings. ‘When it comes the season with autumn wind, if there is no
cicada making noise under the sunset and cricket hooting in the night, how
lonely the garden would be’(Chen, 1979).
2.3Sounds from music and artificial constructions
‘Bell sound beyond clouds’is a place of interest located on the hillside to south
of ‘Xiangshan Temple’; the sound of the bell at dusk was a deliberate poetic
effect. ‘Fudaofangzhai Garden’belonged to a famous poet in Tang dynasty,
and when the owner lived there, he took to playing zither as an important
element for creating an aural landscape. He wrote something to describe it:
‘after drinking wine and playing the zither, I let the servants land on the
pavilion in the middle of the island to play the music together. The sound is
flying on the wind, sometimes gathering, sometimes scattering, floating
between the bamboo forests and the moon’. The poet, seeing and listening,
merges music and landscape together to create the artistic atmosphere and
perception.
Besides all the composition factors above, the artificial construction is
another kind of aural landscape source. One of the best examples is ‘Ge
Garden’in Yangzhou (figure 2). There is a hall inside the ‘Ge Garden’
which is used specially for enjoying the snows in winter. On the south wall
of that hall is a series of circular holes. When breezes go through them, the
sound of a strong north wind blowing is produced and our conception of a
cold winter is artificially strengthened. The buildings themselves also can be
devices that create an aural landscape. The famous Yinyin Tower in Shanxi
province, first built 800 years ago and refurbished 600 years later, is one good
example of this category. This is a 13-storey-high tower, built on the top of a
steep slope. The whole tower and the eaves of each floor were made of glazed
bricks. At first, the glaze was used to protect the bricks from erosion. But
figure 2. Windy wall in the Ge Garden.
studies in the history of gardens and designed landscapes: zhao
244
because of its smooth surface, where the coefficient of sound reflection reaches
0.98, almost all the sounds reaching the brick surface will be reflected. Mean-
while, each of the eaves which have the shape of a curve on each of the 13
floors contributes the sound focusing effect around 24 metres from the tower.
As a result, when you click the rocks in front of that tower, it produces the
sound like frogs(Zhao, 2010).
3. The values of the aural landscape heritage
3.1Physical function of aural landscape
Some researchers have proposed that the construction of place is developed
from specific attributes that emphasize the physical landscape features (Richard
C. Stedman, 2003). Recognizing that the visual environment is not the only
thing influencing a sense of place, other scholars have claimed aural landscape
are an acoustic manifestation of place (John Andrew Fisher, 1998). Fisher stated
that ‘‘many sounds of nature, the sounds of oceans or rivers or the forest
canopy or weather events vary significantly from place to place, from time to
time, and with each instance’(p. 168). ‘Soundscapes’have been referred to as
an element in a sense of place (R.M. Schafer, 1994). A sense of place is defined
as a collection of symbols, values, feelings and meanings ascribed to a specific
place (Williams, Daniel R.; Stewart, 1998). Schafer recognized the relationship
between an environment of sound and the sense of place: ‘‘every natural
soundscape has its own unique tones and often these are so original as to
constitute sound marks’. Even our home environment has sounds that we
perceive can create an acoustic sense of place (Hildegard Westerkamp, 2002).
Thus, the way people comprehend and rejoice in cultural and natural heritage
is multisensorial. Our sense of hearing also plays an important role in this
process.
The sounds created by the flow of wind and water or plants, of course, has a
feature of time fleeting and returning, giving the static buildings and rocks
inside the garden some lively characters (Xiao, 2009). Further, the change of
seasons and weather bring the changes of sound landscape into gardens. The
aural landscape in classical gardens changed over time, expressing different
artistic perceptions. So the fixed physical space has a variation dimension,
improving the space experience from limited 3Dto4D, deepening the feeling
when we experience the garden (Xiao, 2009). If we just talk about the physical
3D dimension, a nice aural landscape also can enlarge the space’s physical
limitation. The extent or size of a space that we occupy depends on our
acoustic limitation, not on its visual boundaries. ‘Borrowing the scene’is a
traditional method of design in landscape of the classical gardens, a tower on
the mountain far away also can be one element of the scene pattern inside the
garden. This ‘borrowing’concept was applied also in the aural landscape,
which resulted in many places of interest especially focused on this strategy.
‘Borrowing the sound’lets you perceive the space outside the garden, not just
being restricted to what is inside.
3.2Culture value of the aural landscape heritage
Aural landscape in Chinese classical gardens was not only used for enriching
the visual-scape but also an artifice containing spiritual meaning, representing
Chinese culture in that history (Zhao, 2010). The ‘Lushan Cottage’can be an
outstanding example of this perspective. Although its name is called ‘cottage’,
it was not only a shabby cottage but an exquisite garden. The owner of
‘Lushan Cottage’, a famous poet in that period, named it to identify a modest
character for himself (indifferent to fame and fortune). This poet wrote
several poems to describe the aural landscape of his garden. ‘Waterfall coming
from the east, hanging three feet above, going down through the stairs,
falling down into the stone ditch. It looks like a white silk belt in the
evening and morning, producing the sound of jade clicking in the night’.
‘How to wash my ears? The water falls down from the roof and goes inside
my ears’. Why did the poet want to wash his ears? Because at that time, poets
were also officers in local governments but always got frustrated in their
political careers because of their noble characters. They did not want to
flatter their leaders or cheat citizens, so they built ‘natural’gardens to express
their honest personality. The deeper meaning of washing ears thus expressed
dissatisfaction with a corrupted government, about which did not want to
hear any scandals. The aural landscape was a technique for these garden
owners who did not wish their political role and career to be an expression
of their real characters and aspirations.
There is a crucial concept in Chinese culture that comes from a national
religion ‘Taoism’.‘Tian ren he yi’means that ‘nature and the human should be
in harmony and merged into one’. As a result, the designers organized a mimic
natural world into a garden whose function originally was where people could
aural landscape as an intangible heritage in chinese classical gardens
245
live in harmony. Once the secular life and the ideal one were combined, the
materialistic life and the spiritual life were joined, nature and human were in
balance. So, the aural landscape plays a very important role in this process,
becoming a crucial element to remind people that they were in nature as well
as participating in the secular.
Aesthetically, the design of sound landscape was a creative process, focusing on
‘artistic expression’. The majority of classical gardens were owned and designed by
poets or artists. The aural landscape or the garden itself was the tool for these artists
to express their apprehensions on art. ‘Wabi Sabi’is known as a popular Japanese
aesthetic style. In fact, it originated in Chinese culture and the aural landscape of
those classical gardens, especially in Jiangnan, also has the same genre. In the
Chinese context, ‘Zen silence’, originating from local Chinese Buddhism, is the
most suitable word to describe it (figure 3). If we have to give a definition of ‘Zen
silence’,itcouldbeto‘decrease the numbers of elements but not to remove its
charm, keep it clear and pure but don’t deprive it of vitality’. So, the aural
landscape in those classical gardens is not a symphony but always a solo voice,
with no other unnecessary items. The means to create it is deliberate but the
meaning ensured is deep and provoking. You can imagine, when everything stays
silently but suddenly the sound of a bird bursts out, a sad and lonely feeling is
created. Especially in autumn, the most inspiring season for poets and artists, when
everything turns from lush to decay, it evokes an emotion sentimental but not
mawkish—an important element in for Chinese art. Aural landscape is one of the
factors that in a discordant environment can inspire artists.
3.3The role as intangible culture heritage
Aural landscape heritage reminds us that we should not neglect the multisensory
character and the influence of other perceptual stimuli when we regenerate
historical centers, not focusing only on the visual. Besides, when we build new
residential communities, we should also create the sense of belonging by
designing some unique sonic environment. As the carriers of cultural memories,
aural landscape can also help to safeguard and transmit cultural identity and
traditions. In conclusion, the aural landscape has an intangible and irreplaceable
value, which contributes to its marvelous universal value, making a built envir-
onment unique, recognizable by the community, and attractive for tourists.
Nine Classical Gardens of Suzhou have been listed as a world culture heritage.
However, in the two documents in which ICOMOS evaluated gardens as a
world heritage (ICOMOS, 1997) and (ICOMOS, 2000), nothing related to
their sound landscape was mentioned. Worse, in the conservation reports of the
years 2004,2006,and2008, the commission still had not realized the acoustics
environment is an indispensable element of these gardens. The 21st session of
World Heritage Committee praised The Classical Gardens of Suzhou, reflecting
their abstruse artistic philosophies, yet still with no attention paid on the aspect
of sound landscape. The most possible reason for this may be that ‘world
heritage cultural landscape’and ‘world culture heritage’are treated in two
separated heritage list, and Suzhou Gardens are not in the first category.
However, if we put aural landscape of classical gardens inside the big frame
of intangible heritage definition, it becomes essential. Within the definition of
intangible cultural heritage (ICH) in the UNESCO Convention for the Safe-
guarding of ICH (UNESCO, 2003), cultural sounds can be considered as
intangible cultural heritage. Based on UNESCO’s definition, sound is a
representative value of knowledge, skills, expressions, and so on, which are
constantly recreated by communities carrying their sense of cultural identity
(Yelmi, 2016). The document (UNESCO, 2003) stated the definition of
intangible heritage as—‘the intangible cultural heritage means the practices,
representations, expressions, knowledge, skills—as well as the instruments,
objects, artefacts and cultural spaces associated therewith—that communities,
groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural
figure 3. Three cultural aspects of the aural landscape.
studies in the history of gardens and designed landscapes: zhao
246
heritage’. There are five elements in this definition, so for the aural landscape
heritage in classical gardens, it comes under the fourth category—‘knowledge
and practices concerning nature and the universe’.
It is impossible for the aural heritage in gardens to be treated as a separated
intangible heritage item officially, although it does satisfy all the criteria and
requirements. However, its identity and importance still need to be recog-
nized. The latest document about the convention (UNESCO, 2015) states that
‘Effective management involves a cycle of short, medium and long-term
actions to protect, conserve and present the nominated property. It may also
include related social and cultural practices, economic processes and other
intangible dimensions of heritage such as perceptions and associations’. So,
aural heritage really can be realized and conserved in that future process.
4. The existing situation and safeguarding suggestions
4.1Existing situation
Preservation and management of tangible properties did not include considera-
tion of the aural landscape as an intangible element. As a result, the existing
situation of their aural landscape heritage is not hopeful. As a consequence of
this neglect, lots of aural landscape heritages have vanished, and those that still
survive are in danger during China’s drastic urbanism process. The author of
this article made a survey of public awareness of the sound heritage, drawing
upon 130 graduate students from Shanghai Tongji University, aged from 23 to
30, who have a good education background. From the pie charts we can
understand what the public attitudes toward these sound heritage are.
We can see from figure 4that 42% of the tourists did not pay any attention
to the aural landscape in gardens, 26% of them notice the sound environment
occasionally, and only 32% of the tourists really follow and listen the sounds
deliberately. As indicated earlier, the public still has not realized the importance
and the value of aural landscape heritage. Figure 5illustrates the degree of
public awareness of places of interest which are famous for its aural landscape.
About 16% of the respondents do not know any of them and 42% had only
heard about them. About 12% of the people have been to those places but do
not have any sense of its aural condition. The remaining 30% of respondents
really enjoyed at those places.
Figure 6tells us the noise pollution inside the gardens, where 44%ofthepeople
think the environment is quiet and 55% think it’s noisy; 6% of the respondents
think the noise in gardens is unbearable. Speaking of their favorite aural landscapes,
39% of the people like aural landscapes produced by water (figure 7). The second
largest segment find birds part of it is the aural landscapes. The following three
sounds are wind, music instruments, and insects, with much smaller proportions.
In conclusion, the public awareness of the aural landscape in classical gardens still
stays in a low level. Yet noise in the gardens is not so bad, and a majority of the
people take water as their favorite element of an aural landscape.
4.2Future safeguarding procedures
Why should we preserve the aural landscape of archaeological gardens? To
preserve the sound identity of the archaeological area and ensure a better use
of the spaces is primary. ‘Safeguarding’means measures aimed at ensuring the
figure 4. Awareness of aural landscape.
aural landscape as an intangible heritage in chinese classical gardens
247
viability of the intangible cultural heritage, including the identification, docu-
mentation, research, preservation, protection, promotion, enhancement, trans-
mission, particularly through formal and non-formal education, as well as the
revitalization of the various aspects of such heritage. Many aural landscapes of
gardens are being destroyed by noise pollution. In order to rescue these intan-
gibles, we need to control noise pollution first. Then we can take two different
ways to restitute some aural landscapes, by earphones with GPS or via public
loudspeakers. Besides that, one online database of the aural landscape is needed
which can make it more approachable. One academic group from South China
University of Technology has already started this work (Xiao & Kun, 2009).
The first step to conserve this type of aural landscape heritages is to give
them a quiet sound background. High flows of noise outside can negatively
affect the existence of aural landscape. Many classical gardens are located in the
old city districts, so when we regenerate cities, wide roads nearby those gardens
should be avoided. If the sound pollution has already happened, various
strategies should be taken to decrease the noise. On the issue of noise control
inside the gardens, quietness from tourists should be requested, for tourism has
now taken the place of people inhabiting them. The local authority should
publish some specific regulation forbidding speaking loudly or shouting when
they take the visits. What’s more, tour guides also should use their own voices
rather than some megaphone, returning some original quiet environment to
the gardens.
Besides issues of preservation, recreational uses also should be considered
for some vanished cases. We can make this in modern ways which can
better adapt to contemporary life: like electronic versions of sounds, which
provide the best matching option. Virtual sound environment modules
should be added to recreate some of the original atmosphere. This can
produce multiple original sounds depending on the user’s location, which
can be acquired through the GPS on cell phones. Sources of such con-
textual sounds can draw upon virtually at key moments in a visitor’s
figure 5. Places named after aural landscape. figure 6. Subjective feeling of noisiness.
studies in the history of gardens and designed landscapes: zhao
248
itinerary. This method also can be combined with the electronic version of
site introductions by tourist guides. Another option to reproduce public
sounds is putting loudspeakers inside gardens directly, connecting with the
whole electro-acoustic system, where different locations and different times
would produce a variety of different sounds. One kind of sound could be
heard in a specific moment then switch to another one after a while. If
some gardens do not want visible devices to be installed in gardens and
parks, we can design some means of disguising it, in rocks or bird cages. In
that case, headphones will not be used as the loudspeakers have already
supplied a simulated original aural landscape.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Funding
This work is supported by China scholarship council: 201607820005.
Department of Architecture, Built Environment and Construction
Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
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figure 7. Favorite aural landscape element.
aural landscape as an intangible heritage in chinese classical gardens
249
