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Ties to Influential Adults Among Black and White Adolescents: Culture, Social Class, and Family Networks
Abstract
Although prior research suggests the importance of nonparental adults to adolescents, the ecological context of those relationships has received little attention. This study examined ties to influential adults among 122 adolescents who varied by race, family structure, and gender. The strongest effects were for race. Blacks reported stronger ties than Whites to the maternal grandmother as well as more supportive interactions with adult males. While race differences in grandparental ties were robust across social class (SES), ties to an influential adult male became nonsignificant upon controlling for SES. African American girls from divorced families consistently reported the strongest ties. Discussion considers the role of culture versus SES in explaining race differences. Implications for mentoring interventions are proposed, with special attention to the role of actualizing latent ties to already existing network members.
... Family dynamics, especially conflict, play a critical role in the emotional well-being of adolescents and have been shown to significantly influence suicide risk (Borowsky, Ireland, and Resnick 2001;Frey and Cerel 2015;Jiang et al. 2022). For Black adolescents, family is often a central source of social and cultural identity, offering both a protective buffer against external stressors and, paradoxically, a source of strain when conflict arises (Carlo et al. 2022;Hirsch, Mickus, and Boerger 2002). Our findings suggest that idioms of distress may overlap with or be exacerbated by family conflict, particularly in contexts where cultural expectations and family roles clash with individual stressors or identity struggles (e.g., race, gender, or sexual orientation). ...
Although rates of suicide among Black American youth have increased in recent years, few brief assessment tools have been culturally tailored and validated to better identify suicide risk for this population. The current study addresses this gap by testing the validity and reliability of the Cultural Assessment of Suicide Risk‐short form (CARS‐S) in an online sample of Black American adolescents. Three hundred eighty‐one Black adolescents (Mage = 17.5) completed a 13‐item CARS‐S measure online. Cronbach's alpha and exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were computed in Stata v.15 and Mplus v.8.0. The revised CARS‐S scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.82). A four‐factor solution retained through exploratory analysis demonstrated the best model fit (χ² = 46.62, p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.05, 95% CI = 0.01–0.08 CFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.97) compared to other model solutions. Confirmatory analysis supported a four‐factor model with no cross‐loaded items. The four factors were: (1) Family conflict and idioms of distress‐suicidal actions (four items); Social Support (two items); Minority‐specific distress (three items); Idioms of distress‐emotional/somatic and cultural sanctions (four items). Researchers conducting future suicide prevention research focused on Black American adolescents and including the CAR‐S measure should consider the inclusion of items related to family conflict and racism‐related stress to better capture risk.
... They also emphasize the importance of evaluating community engagement programs to assess their effectiveness and impact on participants and communities. A study by Hirsch et al. (2011) examined the impact of community service activities on college students. The findings revealed that engagement in community service led to increased civic engagement, social responsibility, and personal development among participants. ...
This post-community engagement evaluation assessed participant feedback and the long-term impact of the community service activity of G-SPACE (Graduate
School for Professional Advancement and Continuing Education). The community
service program has positively impacted personal growth and development, fostering community and collaboration. However, there are areas for improvement, such as communication, project planning, diversity, and reflection. Addressing these areas can
enhance effectiveness and participant satisfaction, leading to impactful community development outcomes. Community service promotes personal development, prosocial behaviors, well-being, social connectedness, and awareness. These findings align with existing literature on the transformative impact of community service on individuals.
It builds skills, self-esteem, purpose, and connections while raising awareness and
inspiring advocacy. Community service is a catalyst for individual transformation and community development.
... Schichter dan Chavis (Hirsch, Mickus & Berger, 2002) mendefinisikan komunitas lebih ke arah terbentuknya komunitas tersebut dari sisi sosial, yakni kelompok sosial yang memiliki ciri yang sama, berbagi antar relasi, dan hubungan rasa komunitas yang erat. Keadaan ini menegaskan adanya ciri kebersamaan antara satu dan yang lain dan berbagi di antara anggota komunitas. ...
SINOPSIS SEJAHTERAKAH BERMUKIM DI RUSUNAWA?
Berkembangnya pembangunan hunian di berbagai daerah menjadi tantangan tersendiri
dalam penataan wilayah. Hunian vertikal (rusunawa, apartemen, kondominium dan lain
sebagainya) menjadi alternatif solusi “kesejahteraan” yang ditawarkan.
Buku yang berasal dari penelitian disertasi ini mengajak kita menelisik lebih dalam
rusunawa sebagai hunian vertikal yang menjadi pilihan “yang tepat” bagi warga yang
membutuhkan tempat tinggal dengan harga terjangkau. Hal ini dikarenakan jumlah
lahan yang tersedia di kota besar semakin terbatas dan kebutuhan ruang terbuka publik
tidak dapat tergantikan, sehingga konsep hunian vertikal diyakini memberikan solusi
untuk memaksimalkan lahan sempit yang dapat menampung kebutuhan hunian bagi
banyak warga.
Pendekatan psikologi lingkungan dan psikologi sosial sangat kental dalam buku ini,
sehingga pembaca dapat memahami lebih dalam makna sejahtera tinggal. Dengan
mengambil lansekap rusunawa di Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, buku ini gamblang
memberikan situasi yang kerap menjadi masalah tinggal di hunian vertikal (yang
konon) khusus diperuntukkan bagi masyarakat berpenghasilan rendah. Dalam buku ini,
pembaca juga ditengahkan dengan alternatif solusi dari masalah yang diungkapkan
warga.
... The relative importance of physical maltreatment from family members in this study also may reflect the importance of adults other than the primary caretaker on child development. These relationships may be particularly relevant in the lives of urban, minority youth (Coley, 1998;Hirsch, Mickus, & Boerger, 2002) and, therefore, reflect an important line of inquiry for researchers concerned with adolescent parenthood. Overall, these results suggest that interventions addressing experiences of physical violence from immediate, extended, and surrogate family members may be useful for pregnant teenagers in general. ...
This study examines trajectories and correlates of emotional distress symptoms in pregnant adolescents (n = 203) and nulliparous adolescents (n = 188) from economically disadvantaged communities over an 18-month period. For both groups, the prevalence of significant emotional distress exceeded expectation based on adolescent norms; however, the severity of symptoms did not differ between the 2 groups. Results from growth curve modeling revealed a significant decline in symptoms during the study period for both groups, but pregnant adolescents experienced a different pattern of decline. Also, certain interpersonal factors (e.g., history of physical maltreatment, partner support) appeared to play a more important role in the emotional well-being of pregnant and parenting adolescents relative to nulliparous adolescents. Implications for early identification and intervention are discussed.
Income Attainment and Hispanic Female Householders: Examining Educational Attainment, Labor Attachment and Geographic Region
Supportive non-parental adults may play a critical role in helping youth navigate the transformative period of adolescence. According to Roe (2017), characteristics associated with supportive intergenerational relationships include adults listening to youth, advocating on adolescents’ behalf, and holding them accountable. Non-parental adults are uniquely positioned to support adolescents as they may provide both the informal companionship of a peer relationship along with the knowledgeable guidance of an adult perspective (Hirsch, 2005). Among youth who report the presence of a supportive non-parental adult in their life, most will identify adults who are members of their family network (Beam et al., 2002; DuBois and Silverthorn, 2005a, DuBois and Silverthorn, 2005b; Hurd and Zimmerman, 2010). While, over time, youth may lose connection with an unrelated non-parental adult (e.g., teacher, coach), non-parental adult relatives are often among the most long-standing social connections youth will have due to their shared familial ties (DuBois and Silverthorn, 2005a, DuBois and Silverthorn, 2005b; Hirsch et al., 2002; Hurd et al., 2014; Zimmerman et al., 2005). Given the enduring nature of familial bonds, adolescents may feel a greater sense of connection to adults in their family network relative to non-kin adults (Zimmerman et al., 2005). In turn, this greater sense of connection to adult relatives may enhance adolescents’ comfort in seeking these adults out for support and guidance (Beam et al., 2002). The current chapter reviews relevant theory and empirical research on adolescents’ relationships with non-parental adult relatives. Although the review is primarily focused on the role of non-parental adult relatives in adolescents’ lives, in some cases we include research that has been conducted on relationships between adolescents and non-parental adults, more broadly, given that a large proportion of the non-parental adults included tended to be relatives. We conclude this chapter by discussing implications of this work and potential directions for future research.
Objectives
Many Mexican American families are immigrants who reside in under-resourced, urban communities, where they are at risk for numerous stressors, ranging from poverty to community violence. This paper analyzed qualitative data from Mexican American urban youth to explore their perspectives on neighborhood stressors, psychosocial difficulties and coping.MethodsA community-based participatory research approach was used with Mexican American youth from a Chicago neighborhood to explore personally salient experiences of living in their community. In collaboration with a community organization serving this neighborhood, 32 youth ranging from ages 12–18 with differing risk levels for violence and resilience participated in focus group sessions. Participants were asked about and discussed a wide range of topics covering (a) neighborhood characteristics and experiences; (b) psychosocial functioning and youth empowerment; (c) connection to school and community; and (d) family and cultural experiences.ResultsBased on content analyses, three themes emerged related to stress (i.e., violence, gangs and the police, poverty) and coping strategies (i.e., avoidant, aggressive, and active coping). While pervasive stress appeared consistent across all groups, coping styles and psychological sequelae varied across the youth.Conclusions
The study demonstrates the importance of incorporating culturally relevant strategies, such as reframing, support seeking, and engaging familism, when developing interventions for use in this population. Furthermore, maximizing social supports by providing access to appropriate mentors and supportive peers should be a focus of educational programming and intervention with these youth. Finally, the authors offer a discussion of how these results might inform future community-based research.
Those now beginning families will enter a new societal climate. Modern culture and changing family norms, with a heavy focus on education, success, wealth, and health has increased the need for parenting to focuses on both the physical health and mental health development of children in order to meet the demands of life when they are adults. This chapter focuses on how both the family and the social environment are essential for shaping the behavior and emotional development of children. Therefore, a peace promoting family and community engagement are vital for setting the foundation of a child’s healthy lifestyle mindset and daily health and wellness behaviors. Caregivers can be peace and wellness promoters in a child’s life by having mindful, attune parenting that is focused in a positive, solution-based style of parenting rather than a critical, punitive, and punishment-based style of parenting. The art of peaceful parenting begins when parents’ have greater awareness and insight of how their own unhelpful emotional regulation impacts how stress, social support, parental self-efficacy, and community engagement can have a positive influence on their children’s mental health.
Aims
This study aims to document and understand the benefits of underserved youths' successful involvement in an after‐school music program (ASMP).
Methods
The contents of semi‐structured, individual interviews with 11 alumni and five staff members of an ASMP were coded and analyzed using inductive Thematic Analysis.
Results
Alumni identified several positive program characteristics as most influential (e.g., consistency, opportunity, exposure), and described the program's favorable impact at a personal (e.g., identity development), relational (e.g., improving social skills), and musical level (e.g., acquiring performance skills). Staff members identified similar program characteristics as crucial for the success of the program and singled out their personal, relational, and social motivations as important dimensions that bring about the program's impact.
Conclusions
The study highlights the value of musical experiences and after‐school resources for a group of underserved youth who would otherwise not be exposed to them due to socioeconomic barriers and inequities in opportunities.
Understanding and identifying the mentoring approaches of African-American mentors may shed light on practices that can be implemented in higher education to help increase the number of underrepresented minority (URM) graduates. This exploratory research seeks to identify the mentoring approaches that African-American mentors use to help their African-American undergraduate protégés persist and succeed in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) majors. Multiple interviews were conducted with ten African-American mentors from academia, government, and industry/non-profit sectors. Using an interpretivist lens, interview transcripts were thematically coded and analyzed to produce the most emergent themes about mentoring approaches. Findings indicate mentors use familial, guidance and resource acquisition, and empathetic mentoring approaches. These approaches promote the development of protégés’ sense of community and STEM identities to support student persistence. The intent of this study is to establish a foundation for future research to examine and identify the characteristics of mentoring practices and approaches that may assist URMs pursuing STEM degrees.
Research suggests that the well-being of black girls is often neglected in schools and juvenile justice systems. Gender-responsive programs designed to serve black girls can be beneficial if they focus on developing strong relationships between girls and adults. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews with 10 black girls and 10 adults at a gender-responsive agency. Staff members and girls discussed the ways mentoring relationships developed at the agency. Themes emerged related to positive relationships (the development of positive relationships, integrity and trustworthiness, perceived support, and role modeling) as well as potential challenges/barriers (challenges to trust, perceived judgment, advice giving, and confidentiality).
Although family social support has been linked to numerous psychological, behavioral, and academic outcomes for Black adolescents, little research investigates the family support networks of these youths. Using nationally representative data from the National Survey of American Life Adolescent Supplement (NSAL-A), this study examines the family social support exchanges of African American and Black Caribbean adolescents. We focus specifically on the frequency of instrumental and emotional support provided by and offered to adolescents and the sociodemographic and family correlates of this support. Findings indicate that both African American and Black Caribbean adolescents provide and receive a substantial amount of support from family, though there is significant variation by age, gender, income, ethnicity, region, and country of origin within and across these populations. Further, subjective family closeness was related to both the receipt and provision of support. Overall, findings affirm the importance of investigating adolescent family support networks, as well as examining ethnic differences within the U.S. Black population.
This study uses nationally representative longitudinal data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, to examine the prevalence and predictors of extended family households among children in the United States and to explore variation by race/ethnicity and socio-economic status (SES). Findings suggest that extended family households are a common living arrangement for children, with 35 per cent of youth experiencing this family structure before age 18. Racial/ethnic and SES differences are substantial: 57 per cent of Black and 35 per cent of Hispanic children ever live in an extended family, compared with 20 per cent of White children. Further, 47 per cent of children whose parents did not finish high school spend time in an extended family, relative to 17 per cent of children whose parents earned a bachelor's degree or higher. Models of predictors show that transitions into extended families are largely a response to social and economic needs.
This article reviews the major findings of two large-scale studies on adolescent–grandparent relationship conducted in the UK and in Israel. The Israeli study followed the UK study, deepening the investigation of some of the major themes uncovered in the British study. Both studies reveal that grandmothers and grandfathers are highly involved in adolescents’ lives and that this involvement is associated with increased adolescent well-being. The studies focus on the role of grandparents in times of parental divorce and other stressful events, as well as the weaker status of the paternal grandparents in post-divorce families and the correlates of the adolescent’s relationship with the paternal grandmother. Both studies highlight the role of intergenerational relationships, including parent–grandparent and parent–adolescent bonds, in the adolescent–grandparent relationship, in line with the intergenerational solidarity model. The Israeli study deepens our understanding of the possible contributions of cultural affiliation to the child–grandparent relationship by comparing Arab and Jewish adolescents’ self-reports of their relationships with their grandparents. These studies bring to light the possible positive role of grandparent involvement. Family psychology should pay greater attention to this role and its contribution, especially in times of transition and distress in adolescents’ lives.
This study examines black adolescents’ reports of the most helpful types of social support that they receive from and provide to family members, and whether family support exchanges vary by ethnicity (African American vs. Black Caribbean) and gender. Data for this study are from the National Survey of American Life Adolescent Supplement (NSAL-A), a national, probability sample of African American and Black Caribbean youth (ages 13–17). Overall, youth reported financial support, followed by emotional assistance and practical support as the most helpful types of support that they received. Practical and emotional assistance characterized the most commonly reported types of support that they provided to family members. Black Caribbean adolescents were more likely than African American adolescents to report financial and practical assistance as the most helpful types of support that they received from family members; no ethnic differences were observed in the provision of support to relatives. There were no significant gender differences in the receipt of support, but adolescent girls reported greater involvement in providing emotional support and caregiving than adolescent boys. The results of this paper reveal that African American and Black Caribbean adolescents are involved in a complex pattern of reciprocal support exchanges with their extended family members. Study findings also reinforce the importance of research focused on racial/ethnic and gender differences in family support exchanges in order to develop a more nuanced understanding of family support behaviors within these groups.
A growing body of literature has been dedicated to evaluating the potential benefits of mentoring interventions. Although the majority of youth served by mentoring interventions are youth of color, little is known about the role of mentoring programs in specific cultural populations. The current literature review was conducted to compile all available research evidence about mentoring for Black boys. The aims of the review were to examine (a) the demonstrated effects of mentoring for Black male youth and (b) the factors that condition or influence (moderators) the effectiveness of mentoring for Black male youth. Available research points to a range of potential benefits of mentoring for this population, such as reduced health-risk behavior and improved academic outcomes, social-emotional wellbeing, mental health, interpersonal relationships, and racial identity. The literature revealed potential moderators of mentoring for Black boys related to program and mentor characteristics. This review showed that there are few studies focused specifically on mentoring for Black boys and that there is generally a lack of rigor in many studies of mentoring programs targeting this group. Further, it is unknown whether culturally tailored mentoring programs are more effective than general mentoring programs targeting diverse youth. We call on researchers to conduct investigations of mentoring for this population, to specifically examine the racial, cultural, and contextual factors that influence the effect of mentoring on Black male youth’s outcomes, and to study culturally specific outcomes.
Intergenerational family ties include relationships between grandparents and their grandchildren. Historically, scholars have examined intergenerational solidarity including the influences of contact, comfort, geographical proximity, beliefs, and values within the grandparent?grandchild relationship. In the early 21st century these issues are still important; however, scholars have become more interested in contemporary intersections between individuals and families, leading to advancing the understanding of the grandparent?grandchild relationship. Researchers have found that grandchildren provide care-related tasks for grandparents when the latter are frail or sick. Further, regardless of sexual orientation of grandparents and/or grandchildren, close ties remain. Grandparents also continue to assume parenting roles to grandchildren as custodial grandparents. Issues related to grandparent?grandchild relations are likely to receive greater attention as the number of older adults who experience grandparenthood continues to increase.
A growing body of research has shown the positive contribution of grandparents to adolescents’ well-being. However, studies often overlook the cultural context in which this relationship is embedded. The current study examined whether emotional closeness to the grandparent identified by the adolescents as their closest grandparent varied among Arab and Jewish adolescents and whether cultural affiliation serves as a moderator in the association between emotional closeness to grandparents and adolescent adjustment difficulties and prosocial behaviors. The study was based on a sample of 2,751 Jewish and Arab secondary school students (aged 12–18) from Israel who completed a structured questionnaire. Among the whole sample, greater emotional closeness to the closest grandparent was associated with reduced emotional symptoms, reduced hyperactivity, and increased prosocial behaviors. While there were lower levels of emotional closeness to the closest grandparents among Arab adolescents, emotional closeness to grandparents was found to be more strongly associated with reduced emotional symptoms and increased prosocial behavior among Arab adolescents than among Jewish adolescents. These findings emphasize the importance of considering culture when examining intergenerational relationships in the family and their contribution to grandchildren’s well-being.
Trusted adults outside the home often play an important role in young people's lives, providing motivational, emotional and practical support as young people navigate the social and economic transitions of young adulthood. Their support is developmentally appropriate as they often treat young people as adults, as they are guiding them towards that status. Yet knowledge of trusted adult relationships is largely drawn from the perspectives of young people. How do trusted adults themselves experience the relationship?
Drawing on a broader study of young people's social and economic engagement during adolescence to adulthood, this paper explores the perspectives of 23 trusted adults, including those in family/friend, paid professional and community roles. It looks at how trusted adults' accounts of the relationship compare with young people's accounts. It examines some subtleties trusted adults experience in the relationship, related to their perception of their role and the roles of others, the impermanence of the relationship and personal–professional boundaries. It draws policy and practice implications regarding how to support both trusted adults and young people in the relationships they share.
Testing critical race theory, we examined whether children and adolescents with an adult mentor of the same race/ethnicity display higher levels of confidence, competence, and caring than those with a mentor of a different race/ethnicity. We also tested whether longer participation in the mentoring program results in better developmental outcomes. The sample included 47 cross- and same-race mentor-mentee pairs in the Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS) program. Developmental outcomes were measured using Big Brothers Big Sisters of America's (BBBSA) Program-based Outcome Evaluation, and were analyzed using t-test, chi-square, and General Lineal Model. No significant differences were found in youth development based on racial/ethnic match. However, the longer matched pairs showed greater competence. Implications for practice, policies, and research are also discussed.
The current study examined whether students’ perceptions of school disorder influenced their psychosocial outcomes directly and indirectly via connectedness to school. The current study also explored moderation by the presence of a supportive figure in the school and investigated gender differences. Participants were 28,104 high school students. Results indicated that students’ perceptions of school disorder predicted more externalizing behaviors and internalizing symptoms directly and indirectly via reduced connectedness to school. Perceived school disorder also indirectly predicted lower academic grades. The presence of a supportive figure in the school lessened the detrimental influence of school disorder on student outcomes. Results also indicated that male students may stand to benefit more from the protective influence of a supportive figure in the school.
The presence of non-parental adults (NPAs), or adults outside of caregivers (e.g., extended family, natural mentors), in the lives of adolescents and emerging adults has received a rapidly expanding amount of empirical attention in the last decade. Sexual minority male youth (SMMY) face disproportionate risks of abuse and victimization in relationships with parents and peers. Yet, despite the fact that this group, therefore, may be both potentially vulnerable to negative interpersonal influences but also poised to benefit from additional relationships, NPA involvement in the lives of SMMY is currently not well understood in the extant literature. This study sought to examine and characterize the involvement of NPAs in the social and risk networks of SMMY (n = 175; 54% African American, 21% Hispanic/Latino, 14% Caucasian; ages 17-23). Most SMMY identified at least one NPA, such as friends and grandparents, in their networks. Three categories of relationships were identified, Strictly Social, which only involved social interactions; Complex, which were both social and involved substance use and/or sexual activity; and Risky, which purely consisted of substance use or sexual activity. Relationships were rated as emotionally "closer" among ethnic minority SMMY, although, racial/ethnic similarity between SMMY and NPAs was not associated with relationship closeness. In addition, relationships involving female and heterosexual NPAs were also rated as stronger. These findings suggest the potential usefulness of considering multiple types of relationships between SMMY and NPAs when designing intervention and prevention efforts. Moreover, African American and Latino SMMY, who represent the most vulnerable sub-groups of SMMY in terms of HIV-risk, may be particularly poised to benefit from positive NPA relationships.
A literature review was conducted on behalf of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to inform the development of the communications component of a teen dating violence prevention initiative entitled Dating Matters: Strategies to Promote Healthy Teen Relationships. The review aimed to identify who influences youth in high-risk urban communities and how to best engage them. Sources included published peer-reviewed studies supplemented by publicly available data, research, and trend reports. The review identified four core influencer groups: peers, mass media, role models/mentors, and parents. Peers have a unique influence, especially with regard to dating and dating violence, which teens are more likely to discuss with peers than adults. Mass media is another key influence because of this audience’s high rates of media consumption and because it can deliver messages directly to youth. Role models and mentors—for example, family members, other known individuals, and media figures—all have a strong impact on the values, attitudes, and behaviors of our audience. Parents are also a critical source of influence, but poverty and communication challenges appear to weaken this influence. Understanding that teens prefer to talk to peers about their dating experiences, value peer opinions on dating more than those of other influencers, and are more likely to conform to peer norms than parent beliefs, it is recommended that the communications component of Dating Matters leverage the power of peer influence and incorporate it into a direct-to-youth communication strategy. Influencer-to-youth programming that provides parents and mentors with communications skills training may be an important complement to this approach and can be provided through other components of the Dating Matters initiative.
The voices of Black male students labeled as having an emotionally disorder (ED) are seldom heard regarding their perspectives on education. By excluding their opinions, educators are missing an important aspect that could improve educational services for Black males with ED. This study was undertaken to determine the implications of web-based mentoring for Black male students with ED on factors that affected their behaviors and academic achievement. Mentoring through technology was used to engage students with ED and to provide a platform to share their thoughts. Using a case study approach, two Black males with ED in high school participated in web-based mentoring. Results of the study reveal that the participants’ behaviors and achievement were affected by negative school and home environments, but that web-based mentoring was a positive venue to support their needs.
Reciprocity is fundamental to effective mentoring relationships. However, we argue that it is inappropriate, and perhaps unethical, to expect comparable levels of reciprocity in all mentoring relationships. Instead, contextual factors influence optimal levels of reciprocity. Foremost is the developmental stage of the protégé, with less mature, relatively inexperienced protégés generally less capable of forming and maintaining a reciprocal relationship with their mentors than are more mature, relatively experienced protégés. We discuss three examples of contextual variables that can affect appropriate levels of reciprocity—the academic research apprenticeship, gender, and culture—and argue that mentors’ expectations of reciprocity necessarily must be adjusted in order to achieve ethical mentoring within these contexts.
Mentoring programs for youth have become increasingly popular interventions and are generally effective in promoting protégés’ wellbeing and functioning. Building on recent efforts to understand the interpersonal mechanisms underlying mentoring relationships, the authors apply central concepts from attachment, social support and social learning theories and systematically compare the mentor’s role with the roles of other caregivers (parent, therapist, friend, teacher). The authors highlight similarities and differences between mentoring and these roles, and discuss interpersonal dynamics specific to each relationship that can be enacted in mentoring. It is argued that the uniqueness of mentoring rests on mentors’ ability flexibly to transverse these different roles to some degree, without embodying any. Consequently, the authors underscore the existence of different profiles of mentoring relationships and suggest that these might address diverse protégés’ needs. This view serves to articulate specific recommendations for research and practice in light of protégé heterogeneity.
Cluster analyses and hierarchical linear modeling were used to investigate the impact of perceptions of connectedness to family, school, and neighborhood contexts on academic and psycho-social outcomes for 437 urban ethnically diverse adolescents. Five profiles of connectedness to family, school, and neighborhood were identified. Two profiles were characterized by reports of either strong or weak connectedness to all contexts. The other three profiles were anchored by reports of low family connectedness, low neighborhood connectedness, or average connectedness. Race/ethnic differences were found in profiles and outcomes. Hierarchical linear models showed that each profile of connectedness was significantly associated with adolescents' self-report of grades, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms after adjusting for correlates, suggesting that the domain and number of contexts matter for positive youth development. These analyses underscore the importance of considering the independent and joint effects of family, schools, and neighborhoods on adolescent well-being. Implications for research and intervention are discussed.
The family and social network support of adolescents in three ethnic groups (African-American, Caucasian, and Latino) were studied. A repeated-measures MANOVA was performed using a within-subjects design to examine how adolescents appraised the quality of their relationships with various members of their social networks. Overall, the quality of support did not vary significantly across ethnic groups. However, they varied within groups. Interactions by gender and ethnicity emerged across specific subscales that represent support for personal development.
Recent demographic trends suggest that grandparents may play influential roles in the lives of their grandchildren. Despite this, the role of grandparents in the lives of youth remains an understudied topic. Using data from a nationally-representative group of youth aged 14-19 from the 1992 Wave Two National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH), this study seeks to better understand the role of grandparents in the lives of grandchildren by examining which factors predict the quality of the grandparent-grandchild relationship, and what the implications of this relationship are for youth. Key factors influencing the quality of the grandparent-grandchild relationship are distance, the parent's relationship with both the grandparent and the child, and age of both the child and parent. Results do not support the hypothesis that grandparents influence the dimensions of youth well-being examined here.
Whereas mentoring programs are well received as support services, very little empirical research has been conducted to assess the effectiveness of these programs to meet the diverse needs of different special populations of youth. Potentially useful theoretical orientations (attachment, parental acceptance-rejection, social support, adult development, host provocation) and a sociomotivational model of mentoring are presented to complement Rhodes's (2002) model. Mentoring research literatures for five special populations of youth (abused and neglected youth, youth who have disabilities, pregnant and parenting adolescents, juvenile offenders, academically at-risk students) are critiqued. Systemic, longitudinal research must address the cooccurrence of risk factors, populations, and interventions. We conclude with specific recommendations for future research. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Research on age in geography has become highly compartmentalized into separate literatures on younger and older generations that rarely intersect. As such, the geographies of intergenerational relationships – and particularly, extrafamilial intergenerational relationships – remain substantially under-researched. This essay reviews how geographers have approached issues of intergenerational relationships while also drawing on recent work from other fields (including sociology, anthropology and queer theory) that can extend current thinking on the geographies of intergenerationality and age relations. How does space facilitate and limit intergenerational contact and relationships? How do the geographies of intergenerational relationships vary between social groups and contexts? And if generational separation and segregation are problems (as a substantial body of work suggests), how can this be ameliorated? Throughout the essay, I examine how social scientists have attempted to address these questions while also identifying the significant gaps that remain in our understanding.
One factor that contributes to adolescent positive mental health is active engagement. Engagement is defined as any activity that is initiated to attain an outcome. In general, two forms of activities exist that correspond with engagement: solitary, non-structured, and non-cooperative pursuits, often without adult supervision (e.g., playing video games, watching television) and highly structured, collaborative activities that are under the guidance of a competent set of adults (i.e., structured extracurricular activities, or SEAs). Although large amounts of time spent in unstructured activities is related to negative psychosocial outcomes, participation in SEAs has been related to a variety of positive outcomes for students. This paper reviews current research regarding adolescent participation in SEAs and its effects on academic and personal-social variables (i.e., self-concept, life satisfaction), as well as potential preventive effects for youths considered to be “at-risk” for negative developmental outcomes. The paper also examines research investigating the potential benefits and shortcomings of different types of SEAs. Finally, suggestions for future research and school-based preventive intervention are presented. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 41: 31–41, 2004.
The Risk Amplification and Abatement Model (RAAM) demonstrates that negative contact with socializing agents amplify risk, while positive contact abates risk for homeless adolescents. To test this model, the likelihood of exiting homelessness and returning to familial housing at 2 years and stably exiting over time are examined with longitudinal data collected from 183 newly homeless adolescents followed over 2 years in Los Angeles, CA. In support of RAAM, unadjusted odds of exiting at 2 years and stably exiting over 2 years revealed that engagement with prosocial peers, maternal social support, and continued school attendance all promoted exiting behaviors. Simultaneously, exposure to family violence and reliance on shelter services discouraged stably exiting behaviors. Implications for family-based interventions are proposed.
As mentoring programs have proliferated, considerable variation in approaches to programmatic mentoring has emerged. Concomitant confusion exists about the context, structure, and goals that constitute mentoring as a distinct intervention. This article presents a brief summary of what is currently known about different approaches to mentoring and proposes a framework that identifies both the common and the specific elements among different youth mentoring approaches. Rather than focusing solely on the participants and contexts of mentoring programs, such as peer- or school-based mentoring, as the key elements that differentiate programs, the authors suggest that more fruitful program development and research will result from a closer examination of the context, structure, and goals of programs, as well as of three critical program elements: content, infrastructure, and dosage. To understand better how and under what conditions mentoring works, program developers and researchers should test hypotheses regarding the influences of these program elements based on theory-driven expectations about the interrelationships among proximal, enabling, and distal outcomes of mentoring programs. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Individual differences shape the needs and characteristics of protégés, the processes through which mentoring may influence protégés' developmental trajectories, and the social networks into which the mentors enter. The literature on the influences of gender, ethnicity, and age on mentoring is reviewed and discussed as examples of how mentoring programs may have different influences on, and outcomes for, specific groups of youth. A focus on individual differences will help facilitate the development of mentoring programs that create a close fit between the needs of protégés and the services offered by the programs, as well as greater insight into what are the key elements of program effectiveness. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Prior research on adolescent peer relationships has focused on interpersonal dimensions of friendships but not of romantic relationships, and has rarely examined minority groups. We used a random sample of 122 adolescents to examine race and gender differences in friendships, romantic relationships, and the congruence between closest friendship and romantic relationship on five interpersonal domains: mutual support, self-disclosure, hurtful conflict, fear of betrayal, and interpersonal sensitivity. Significant race by gender differences in the difference between relationship type for both positive and negative dimensions of relationships were found. White girls reported significantly higher levels of self-disclosure in their friendship ties in comparison to romantic relationship, whereas white boys reported nearly equivalent levels. In comparison to white adolescents, Black adolescent girls and boys had similar levels of self-disclosure in their romantic relationships as their same-sex friendships. With regards to negative elements of relationships, girls reported more hurtful conflict in romance than friendship, whereas boys reported an opposite pattern. Results highlight the importance of consideration of race and gender influences on youth interpersonal skills within peer and romantic relationships.
Although neighborhood stressors have a negative impact on youth, and social support can play a protective role, it is unclear what types and sources of social support may contribute to positive outcomes among at-risk youth. We examined the influences of neighborhood disadvantage and social support on global self-worth among low-income, urban African American youth, both concurrently and longitudinally. We examined social support from both a structural and functional perspective, and tested the main-effects and the stress-buffering models of social support. Participants included 82-130 youth, in 6th-8th grade, who completed self-report measures. Network support results suggest participants received emotional, tangible, and informational support most often from mothers and other female relatives, with friends, fathers, and teachers also playing important roles. Model testing accounted for neighborhood stressors and support from various sources, revealing support from close friends was associated with concurrent self-worth; whereas, parent support predicted self-worth longitudinally, above and beyond initial levels of self-worth. The findings provide evidence for the main-effects model of social support and not the stress-buffering model. Our findings illustrate the importance of extended family networks and the types of support that youth rely upon in African American impoverished communities, as well as how support contributes to global self-worth. Implications and suggestions for future research and intervention are discussed.
Peer-based prevention programs for homeless youth are complicated by the potential for reinforcing high-risk behaviors among participants. The goal of this study is to understand how homeless youth could be linked to positive peers in prevention programming by understanding where in social and physical space positive peers for homeless youth are located, how these ties are associated with substance use, and the role of social networking technologies (e.g., internet and cell phones) in this process. Personal social network data were collected from 136 homeless adolescents in Los Angeles, CA. Respondents reported on composition of their social networks with respect to: home-based peers and parents (accessed via social networking technology; e.g., the internet, cell phone, texting), homeless peers and agency staff (accessed face-to-face) and whether or not network members were substance-using or non-substance-using. Associations between respondent's lifetime cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamine use and recent (previous 30 days) alcohol and marijuana use were assessed by the number of non-substance-using versus substance-using ties in multivariate linear regression models. 43% of adolescents reported a non-substance-using home-based tie. More of these ties were associated with less recent alcohol use. 62% of adolescents reported a substance-using homeless tie. More of these ties were associated with more recent marijuana use as well as more lifetime heroin and methamphetamine use. For homeless youth, who are physically disconnected from positive peers, social networking technologies can be used to facilitate the sorts of positive social ties that effective peer-based prevention programs require.
There is limited research on adolescent-grandparent relationships, especially from the adolescent perspective and on large-scale samples. The study examined the associations between the adolescent-grandparent relationship (i.e., importance of, emotional closeness to, and respect for grandparents' views) and the characteristics of the adolescent, grandparent, and parent-grandparent relationship, as well as the interactions between several of these factors. It was based on a representative sample of 1478 students aged 11-16 from England and Wales who completed a structured questionnaire. Results supported the position that grandparents are a significant factor in the lives of adolescents. Findings of hierarchical regression analyses showed that more frequent contact, greater grandparent involvement, and better parent-grandparent relationships predicted adolescents' reports on higher levels of emotional closeness to, importance of, and respect for their closest grandparent's views. The interactions consistently emphasized the role of parents as gatekeepers of intergenerational exchange.
We investigated whether role models (individuals adolescents look up to) contributed to the resilience of adolescents who were exposed to negative nonparental adult influences. Our sample included 659 African American, ninth-grade adolescents. We found that adolescents' exposure to negative adult behavior was associated with increased externalizing, internalizing, and substance using behaviors, as well as more negative school attitudes and behavior. We found that role models had protective effects on externalizing and internalizing behaviors and compensatory effects on school outcomes. Collectively, our findings indicate that role models can contribute to the resilience of African American adolescents who are exposed to negative nonparental adult behavior.
Examined 2,666 high school students of Anglo origin and 492 high school students of Mexican origin who were surveyed by the Families, Peers, and Schools Research Project at Stanford University. Data were obtained from 2 questionnaires administered in San Francisco in fall and spring 1987–1988. Behavioral, attitudinal, and structural dimensions of familism were related to students' self-reported grades, the key dependent variable. The Mexican origin sample supported J. S. Coleman's (1988) social capital argument that familistic attitudes are a form of social capital important to academic success, provided parents themselves had completed at least 12 yrs of schooling. Results challenge the myth that academic achievement is hampered by collective orientations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Relations among kinship support, family management, and adolescent adjustment were examined in 135 African American adolescents 14 to 19 years old. Kin social support was positively related to self-reliance and grades and negatively associated with problem behavior. Poor kin relations were associated with psychological distress. Kinship support was also positively linked to family organization and parental involvement in schooling, which in turn were positively associated with self-reliance and grades and negatively related to problem behavior and psychological distress.
This analytical review considers the black extended family within the framework of the family life model. Particularly, it presents: (a) the life stages of the black extended family; (b) research on the antecedents and consequences of extended family life; and (c) social policy, clinical intervention, and family research implications of the black extended family from the context of a broad conceptual and methodological definition of family. It is noted that past usage of the term family was restricted to the nuclear family model, which implied that other family forms were incomplete or deviant. The assumptions that underlie such a strategy—(a) cultural equivalence of black and white Americans and (b) homogeneity of black Americans—are challenged. Three implications are examined: (a) the black extended family should be accepted as a healthy, distinct system; (b) clinical interventions with black families should assess the influence of the extended family members in family problems; and (c) further research is necessary.
The association of kinship support with psychosocial adjustment and parenting practices for 125 African-American adolescents (52 boys and 73 girls) in Grades 9–12 from single- and 2-parent households was assessed. Findings revealed that kinship support was positively associated with adolescent adjustment and with authoritative parenting practices in single- but not 2-parent households. Results also indicated that parenting practices mediated the effects of kinship support. When the effects of authoritative parenting practices were controlled, significant relations found between kinship support and adolescent adjustment were no longer apparent. The importance of kinship support for the functioning of African-American families and adolescents was discussed.
Two aspects of child development in the context of the extended family are considered in this article: factors that influence the formation of the extended family and the direct and indirect effects of the extended family on child and family development. It is noted that past usage of the term family was restricted to the nuclear family model, which typically implied that other family forms were not legitimate. In the face of a longstanding dominant cultural norm, however, the Black extended family has prevailed for successive generations. Current socioeconomic difficulties and unstable interpersonal relations in the Black community have contributed to the persistence of the extended family form; in addition, historical evidence suggests that the Black extended family system has considerable precedence as well as prevalence. Current research reveals that the effects on children are more indirect than direct. That is, single mothers who are active participants in an extended-family system have a greater opportunity for self-improvement, work, and peer contact than do other mothers. Also, it appears that the Black elderly donate rather than receive services.
This research examines the relationships among network structure, social support, and psychological well-being in the single-parent family. Three network types are identified: the family of origin network, the extended network, and the conjugal network. Findings indicate that network structure is associated with type of support, and that effects of structure and support on psychological well-being are mediated by a third variable, role orientation of the mother. Theoretical and methodological implications for research on stress and psychological distress as well as practical implications for community mental health services are suggested.
The impact of upward mobility over three generations, on the extended kin network of black parents in the mid-Atlantic area was examined. Extensive involvement had been maintained by those born in both the middle and working classes and those living in urban and suburban sites. The reciprocal obligations of the help exchange patterns were not perceived as excessive, but were stronger for those born in the working class. Educational achievement and maternal employment peaked in the generation in which mobility occurred. Kin interaction was high with low geographic mobility. Results indicate that extended help patterns are culturally rather than solely economically based.
In order to provide a fuller and more satisfying description of the significant others in the social world of an adolescent, the Social Relations Questionnaire was developed and then administered to almost 3000 seventh-through tenth-graders in a midwestern suburban school district. The sample was randomly split in half and analyses were run on both halves separately to test for replicability. Results indicated that parents and siblings are almost always listed as significant others by adolescents in all four grade levels. Furthermore, the majority of adolescents listed at least one extended family adult and at least one nonrelated adult as important in their lives. The nonrelated adults lived closer to the adolescents and were seen more frequently and in more contexts than extended family members. Fewer extended family adults were listed in the older grades. Females listed more significant others than males both overall and in terms of both same- and opposite-sex nonrelated young people. As hypothesize, an increasing number of opposite-sex young people was listed as a function of grade level. Most nonrelated young people listed (a loose definition of peers) were from the same grade, same school, and same neighborhood as the respondent. The authors conclude that age-segregation in this community is not extreme (over 40% of the significant others listed were adults) and that the Social Relations Questionnaire provides a useful and holistic description of an adolescent's social world.
The challenges of early adolescence are intensified for girls of color who live in disadvantaged urban communities. One response to the needs of these girls comes from the Boys & Girls Clubs of America (BGCA), a youth development organization that has a long-standing presence in inner-city neighborhoods. A gender equity initiative designed to strengthen programming for minority girls at a BGCA affiliate in a major urban center was examined. Drawing on initial qualitative findings, a conceptual framework is presented for understanding the ways in which the clubs can affect urban early adolescent girls' self-esteem. Several strategic choices confronting this initiative then are considered. The authors emphasize the creation of a "home place" that enables the development of self via organizational responsiveness to girls' voices, strong bonds between girls and staff, adaptive peer friendship cliques, and the development of programs that fuse the interests of girls and adult staff.
Reviews research on the relationship between social support and divorce. The review is organized around 3 issues: (1) the structure and function of social networks among divorced persons, (2) effects of social support on the way in which men, women, and children adjust to divorce, and (3) the effects of support groups on divorce adjustment. Overall, data indicate that after divorce, contacts with in-laws decrease substantially but contacts with close friends and family do not change. The receipt of social support is affected by education, occupational status, and socioeconomic status (SES). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a review of literature on adolescent perceptions of significant adults, noting that theory surrounding significant others is still in its formative stages. Research is presented according to the following topics: identity of significant adults with whom adolescents voluntarily associate, characteristics of significant adults as identified by adolescents, the point at which adolescents notice that particular adults are significant, settings to which teachers are perceived as significant adults, and relationships between adolescents' perceptions of adults and alienation. The concept of
alienation as it applies to adolescents' perceptions of significant adults did not appear in the literature per se, and no clear patterns exist in research regarding when adolescents first noticed a significant adult, settings youths associated with these adults, and specific qualities of significant adults. It is concluded that existing research data does not provide a comprehensive account of the significance of adults in adolescents' lives. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The perceived significance of grandparents in the lives of teenagers was explored. A sample of 225 predominately working class adolescents aged 13–18 years (X=15.48; SD=2.54) responded to a survey instrument that assessed the nature of their voluntary interaction with grandparents. Results challenged the assumption that teenagers view grandparents as playing confidant and companion roles in their lives. Adolescents were found to share regularly a variety of recreational activities with grandparents and expressed positive feelings about spending leisure time with grandparents. Findings also suggested that the onset of adolescence may result in a positive change in the nature of the grandchild-grandparent relationship. Future research was suggested which views the family as a system and explores the role parents play in determining the quality of teenagers' relations with grandparents.
Studied the influence of natural mentors (i.e., supportive nonparent/nonpeer support figures) on the psychological adjustment of 129 young, African American mothers. Women with mentors reported lower levels of depression than those without mentors. In addition, both the amount of network support (excluding mentor support) utilized by women with mentors and their satisfaction with this support were negatively related to depression; those who utilized more support and were more satisfied with this support were less depressed. Problems with network members did not predict depression in this group. For women without mentors, both the amount of network support and satisfaction with this support were unrelated to depression. Moreover, those who reported greater problems in relationships from which they received intangible support, reported higher levels of depression. Mentors may help young mothers to make better use of their networks and serve as a buffer against the negative effects of relationship problems.
This research focuses on the significance of grandparenthood to a sample of young adult grandchildren as detailed from their responses to a series of Likert type, range of choice, and yes no items in five distinct areas of inquiry. Two general conclusions emerge from the study: (1) grandchildren do not see grandparents as old fashioned or out of touch and feel they are an important source of influence on them; and (2) grandchildren feel definite responsibilities toward their grandparents, especially in doing such things as providing them emotional support, tangible help when needed, and qualitative as opposed to ritualistic visiting.
Findings from research in which a sample of 132 late adolescents completed questionnaires about their relationships with each of their living grandparents are reported. The grandchildren were most likely to describe their relationships with their maternal grandmothers as close and least likely to describe their bonds with the paternal grandparents in this way. Grandchildren's current evaluations of relationships with their grandparents were affected by access to the particular grandparent in childhood and their perceptions of each of their parents' relationships with the specific grandparent. The findings demonstrate empirically the importance for future research of conceptualizing the grandparent-grandchild tie as both particularistic and mediated through a biological and an in-law-child.
Kinship support and maternal and adolescent well-being in economically disadvantaged African American families
- Taylor
Natural mentor relationships among Latina adolescent mothers
- Rhodes