BookPDF Available

Lee-Rosemary.-Molten-Media

July 2014

Publisher: transmediale

Authors:

University of Porto

This book is an aggregate, formed through processes of artistic research: a collection and compaction of fragments of texts, images, and ideas. Parts are volcanic, others in the gradual process of sedimentation, tectonically shifting and recrystallising over time. The images and text of which this book is comprised are artefacts of a still ongoing study of the interconnection between the methods by which information is encoded in matter, and the deep temporality of data-storage and transmission. Combining investigative art making and writing practice with visual and theoretical analysis, the method of research is reflective of its multifaceted subject. Its parallax view draws together knowledge from various fields of media philosophy, geology, computer programming, chemistry, and poetry with the aim of developing a better understanding of the inter-relation between different kinds of codes and how they effect a sense of our time. Reframing media technology’s relation to natural history, considering the effect of the traces left by humanity, shifts out of the short-sighted view often taken of techno culture, at the same time as brushing a bit of dust off the contents of the distant past.

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MOLTEN MEDIA

ROSEMARY LEE

Vilém Flusser

Residency

for Artistic

Research 2014

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Molten Media

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This book is an aggregate, formed through

processes of artistic research: a collection and

compaction of fragments of texts, images, and

ideas. Parts are volcanic, others in the gradual

process of sedimentation, tectonically shifting and

recrystallising over time. The images and text of

which this book is comprised are artifacts of a

still ongoing study of the interconnection between

the methods by which information is encoded in

matter, and the deep temporality of data-storage

and transmission. Combining investigative art making

and writing practice with visual and theoretical

analysis, the method of research is reflective of its

multifaceted subject. Its parallax view draws together

knowledge from various fields of media philosophy,

geology, computer programming, chemistry, and poetry

with the aim of developing a better understanding

of the inter-relation between different kinds of

codes and how they effect a sense of our time.

Reframing media technology’s relation to natural

history, considering the effect of the traces left by

humanity, shifts out of the short-sighted view often

taken of techno culture, at the same time as brushing

a bit of dust off the contents of the distant past.

CONTENTS

Introduction

Terramnemonics

Anthropocene Geology

Designing Obsolescence

Writing in Rocks

Magnitudes of the Infinitesimal

Mineral Makeup of Electronics

Mineral Computer Sonnet

Kinds of Codes

Post-Turing Chronicles

discrot

opal

Terramnemonics

Earth keeps a record of what has been. Through its physical

structure and composition, one may read the earth’s stories

of the processes and beings which shaped it. Fossil and

mineral records tell the history of the earth from a time

preceding the historical subject, and they will contain

our remnants long after the last historian has perished.

When the crust of our planet congealed, none of our kin was

present to record it1, but a miniscule sample of the mineral

zircon is enough to serve as a recording of those instants:

holding within it information about the conditions present

when the earliest rocks crystallized on the surface of the

planet2. Archaeological digs have revealed traces of the

heretofore-inconceivable: fossilized unicorns3, imprints

1 On Ancestrality, see Meillassoux, Quentin. trans. Brassier, Ray. After

Finitude: An Essay on the Necessity of Contingency. (2008). pp 7-48.

2 From their chemical content, geologists are able to tell the age and at

what temperature rocks formed. The levels of titanium in grains of zircon, the

oldest rocks on the planet earth, indicate that they crystallized in the presence

of water. This tiny crystal, approximately the size of a grain of sand, goes a

long way in telling us about the early stages of our planet. < h t t p : / / w w w .

npr.org/blogs/krulwich/2013/01/10/169047159/the-oldest-rock-in-the-world-tells-

us-a-story>

3 [xxxv. The unicorn’s horn, and an enormous animal unearthed in Quedlinburg],

see Leibniz, G. W., trans. Cohen, Claudine. Waker, Andre. Protogaea, (Chicago/

London: Univeristy of Chicago Press, 2008), 101.

of fish, our origins in algae4, dinosaurs. We have also exhumed

relics of our distant ancestors: their fossilized bodies, stores

of food, utensils, dwellings, and art.

Anthropocene Geology

In the present, geographical features are reshaped by human

intervention and the earth’s composition is not only mechanically

but also chemically reorganized, affecting land, sea, and sky. We

cannot predict the full consequences our current way of life will

have on the future, but we can already project what geologists of

the future would uncover in their studies from the remnants of our

civilization already incorporated into the earth’s composition.

Archaeology reads the striations of the earth vertically, depth

equivalent to time. Cities are consumed by the ground. “At a depth

of ten feet, they encounter the debris of the old city, unearthing

the paving stones of forgotten avenues and other vestiges of

antiquity. So far did the city rise on hauled earth and its own

ruins. Next come four or five feet of simple earth; then debris

again twelve feet lower, as if the city had been destroyed more

than once.”5 The bones of old buildings are turned to rubble

and reclaimed by earth, plants and animals. Roads are erased

4 The striated layers of a stromatolite stands as a physical record of early life on

earth, a rock formation from ancient cyanobacteria colonies.

5 Leibniz, G. W., trans. Cohen, Claudine. Waker, Andre. Protogaea, (Chicago/London:

Univeristy of Chicago Press, 2008), 123-125.

the scattered

vestiges of old

things, of plants,

animals, and

artifacts wrapped in

a new coat of stone.

W. G. Leibniz

neurons1

(tinted for visibility)

tree

roots

fossilized

Calyx of a Sea Lily

(Platycrinus hemisphaericus)

natural formation

of silver ore

by deluges, landslides, and erosion. but in

Chernobyl and in Fukushima, the marks of man are

not so easily forgotten. Residual radioactivity6

from these disasters is expected to remain for

millennia. More intentionally, at Onkalo, the

strategy to inter nuclear waste in a geologic

repository acknowledges the need to consider

very long-term storage of hazardous material.

At Svalbard, seed storage hopes to avert future

crisis of a different kind by preserving the

genetic data of plants. Though these facilities

have vastly different aims, one to contain danger

within, and one to protect from danger without,

their construction has similar motives. Each is

an attempt to prepare for the unforeseeable by

storing materials in a stable state.

Encoding the earth7 with piles of technical waste

could be our equivalent to the rings of stones

and bones of Paleolithic people8, the lasting art

of our civilization. Expeditions will need to be

6 Make your own Geiger Counter: <http://casepyhajoki.info/

casepyhajoki_geiger.zip>.

7 Martin Howse: Earthcodes: <http://1010.co.uk/>

8 Flusser, Vilém, Writings, ed. Ströhl, Andreas, trans. Ei-

sel, Erik. (University of Minenesota, Minneapolis/London:

2002), 37.

Digging through garbage in Lagos, Nigeria2

taken to rechart the maps for territories where new mountains have

grown.9 Already becoming a source ripe for reclamation of useful

materials, man-made geological features are mined for precious

minerals from the glass and plastic shale.

What people in the distant future will make of our traces remains

unknown, but they serve as a strange kind of time capsule to

leave behind. Having reshaped the earth with our desire for its

contents, piling them up together when they are through, it is

hard to know whether “anthropocene” or “misanthropic” is more

accurate. From its production, to its return to the earth, the

electronics industry bears a harsh toll.

Technological wastelands are no longer the territory of science

fiction and dystopian fantasy; they are a present and pressing

reality. It becomes more and more common to come across internet

pictures of the mountains of electronic debris growing in

impoverished landscapes, children playing among the dangerous heaps

or burning toxic materials. But they are relegated to that sphere,

of foreign-ness, always “elsewhere”: disappearing the by-products

of technological hyperconsumption into the places of the world

with limited visibility. Mountain ranges of garbage sprout up in

China and Africa. In other places waste is entombed in the ground,

makes its way into marine ecosystems, and modifies the atmospheric

conditions. A particularly prevalent and lasting form of such

environmental modification and pollution is e-waste, with problems

9 BLDGBLOG, TV Mine <http://bldgblog.blogspot.de/2007/03/tv-mine.html>. 22/05/2014.

AMBER

deeply entrenched in the practices of mining, manufacturing, and

pollution. In spite of the conspicuously devastating effects

involved in the industry, lack of transparency in the chains of

supply, production, and disposal disallows attempts to create and

enforce regulations to end the exploitation of workers and the

environment.

Designing Obsolescence

Although some parts of the process of the life cycle of electronic

goods are rendered into obscurity, shaking off the overconsumptive

tendencies to rapidly cycle through and dispose of technology is a

point where individuals may take personal responsibility. Contrary

to the short-sighted perspective endemic in media cultures,

apparatuses are not born as they emerge from their swaddling

packaging, nor do they “die”10 when they are outshone by the next

new invention. They do not decompose nor evaporate when disposed

of on the street with a sign: “zu verschenken”.

What is important to recognize are the processes by which

technological devices come to be considered outmoded, antiquated,

or unusable. Quite often the cause of death is obsolescence as

a technique, used systematically. On a mechanical level, the

design schemes of consumer electronics are geared precisely

toward the aim of consumption. Designing obsolescence works with

10 Sterling, Bruce. “World Power Systems: Dead Media Project: A Modest Proposal.” Web.

21 Oct. 2013. <http://www.deadmedia.org/modest-proposal.html>.

the goal of providing models which “expire”, requiring

their replacement at regular intervals. Lasting goods

are bad for business, so companies are careful to design

electronics for failure, rather than survival, in order

to stay commercially viable. Some create never-ending

lineages of upgrades to supplement the innate shortcomings

of the product’s design, provoking a need and desire to

buy anew in order to keep up to date. Engineering the

scheduled demise of machines is another popular method,

embedding fatal design flaws in products with the potential

to function for decades without problems. Other factors

make longevity and recycling of technological goods

difficult and unsustainable, for instance, poor quality

manufacturing, low standard of materials, and planning

toward non-intervention. Some appliances are engineered

to be unable to be fixed in the case of malfunction,

ensuring their destiny as filler for landfills. Some are

simply more costly to fix than they are to replace. The

light bulbs in video projectors are a notorious example

for being so expensive that a new projector is cheaper

than the replacement part.

Aside from intentional or negligent design, it is not

always the material death of an appliance which signals

its end, so much as the slew of other factors stacked

against it: shifts in dominant forms of technology, ever-

changing protocols, fashion, cultural expectations of

acquisition of the new. A fully functional machine can meet its

end merely by being deemed unfashionable. Utility in this sense

is not intrinsically tied to functionality.

The cult of the new is the fire which consumes the present in

order to drive the machine which produces the future. It projects

with it the impression of an inverted temporality, supposing

that futuristic gadgets originate in the future they herald,

and culminate their trajectory in the rubbish bins and dumpsters

of the present and past. Expectations for technology to provide

solutions for the future plays upon a combination of desire

and disappointment, each gadget loaded with impossible promises.

It is no wonder that these devices inspire resentment, quickly

outgrowing their appeal, and hastily dissociated and disposed of,

only to be replaced by something else.

MACHINES ARE MADE OF MINERALS

Fragment of marble stele with library regulations

100 A.C. Agora museum, Athens

Writing in Rocks

Rather than contradicting the relation of futurity

to the present, the dinosaurian features of media

technology reveal the fact that we are not as

distant from the past as we desire to believe.

Certain forms have persisted with minimal change

since ancient times, the stylus, for instance,

has gone through many transmogrifications,

evolving continuously but keeping its central

features. The stone carver has more in common

with the computer engineer than one might expect.

Stone has been and remains the prime carrier of

information. Much of pre-history and knowledge

of ancient civilizations comes to us through

reading rocks, and minerals are still heavily

relied upon as substrates. Chiseled stone tablets

are transmuted into silicon chips11.

11 From sand to silicon chip, how its made. <http://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=Dr9QitCFUlQ>

microscopic image of

an e-reader screen

patterns inside a stromatolite3

Magnitudes of the Infinitesimal12

In the past, it has been the sheer resilience of stone that

allowed it to remain unchanged and to carry messages through

millennia. Information, with emphasis on form, needed to be locked

in so tightly to the structure of the rock that it would endure:

hardness (dureté13) determining duration (durée). Now matter is

championed instead for its volatility and velocity in order to

store, access, and transmit at increasing speed. Devices “grow”

ever more diminutive in converse relation to their capacities.

Made ever more minute and ethereal, smaller machines capable of

doing more with less. Components shrink in size by orders of

decimal magnitude.

On a positive note, this decreases dependence upon scare, toxic,

pricy, or otherwise problematic materials. A primary motive in

this movement is cost, helping to push development in a more

ecologically friendly direction through the fact that it is simply

more expensive to use more materials. As a side effect, it renders

DIY electronics virtually impossible. Components verging on the

cusp of invisibility drop out of the range of manageability for

non-professionals, requiring specialized equipment to solder.

12 see Ginosatis, Dimitris, Kavvathas, Dionzsis. trans. Golemi, Anastazia. Microphysics

of hardware or the gigantism of the immeasurably small.

13 Deleuze, Gilles. Le Pli: Leibniz et le Baroque. (Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit,1988).

Comparison of Components: exponentially decreasing in size

Mineral Makeup of Electronics

Minerals’ structural properties determine their

application in electronics production. a few of

the most notable substances are catalogued below,

with relevant information about their chemical

makeup and applications. This is by no means

an exhaustive account, as such an incredible

multitude of materials are used in electronics,

but is intended to serve as an introduction.

Silicon (Si)

The tendency of silicon molecules to arrange

themselves in orderly lattice formations make

it ideal substrate for microchips. Lab-grown

monocrystals formed from purified quartz sand

have an almost perfect cubic molecular structure

with planar crystal faces, allowing the material

to be easily sliced into thin wafers, into which

circuits are printed. It structure also gives it

a specific resonant frequency, suited well for

quartz’s application in piezoelectric sensors

and oscillators. Another factor, price, makes it

unsurprising that cheap, abundant14 silicon is so

14 “the Earth’s crust consists principally of silicates” from

Ernst, W. G. Earth Materials. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,

1969). 60.

quartz crystal oscillator5 from

“Mining the Arbitrary”

with Jens Jørgensen

lab-on-chip created using

Photo-patternable Adhesive4

microscopic image of cd-film flakes in a suspension of ethanol1

1 Microscopic image produced using open-source MiCAM Webcam

Microscope: <http://lifepatch.org/index.php?search=micam&title=Spec

ial%3ASearch&go=Go>, via: <http://Hackteria.org>.

time, and money, and those artificially produced

stones are shown to be far less structurally sound

than their naturally formed counterparts.15 There

are now even companies offering the transformation

of a loved one’s ashes into diamond, so they can

be commemorated in stone.16

Graphite, another allotrope of carbon, translates

to “writing stone” in Greek.

Copper (Cu)

highly conductive, so it is used in circuitry and

contacts of microchips

Lithium (Li)

used in lithium ion batteries, it has a high

energy density, allowing lightweight portable

devices to hold a charge for a long time. THe

downside of these batteries is that they degrade

quickly, having only a 2-3 year lifespan.

15 “A test matched six gems in a tank against six industrials,

beach gravel, 265 pounds of steel balls, and water. After seven hours

of tumbling, the industrials were gone, but after 950 hours, the

gems had lost only one-hundredth of one percent of their weight.”

from Ward, Fred. The Incredible Crystal Diamonds, in The National

Geographic Magazine, vol. 155, no. 1. 100.

16 http://www.lifegem.com/

coordination models of

diamond (top) and graphite

(bottom)7

often used in electronics.

Silicon oxide is semi-conductive, and it is used in capacitors,

transistors, and IC’s to create transitions between conductors

and insulators.

Diamond (C)

densely-packed carbon molecules, low entropy, and consequent

hardness warrant diamond’s usage in everything from cutting

tools, temperature sensors, heat sinks, telephone and television

transmitters, and styluses.

Industrial diamonds avoid some of the problems of mining, but the

process of transforming graphite to diamond is costly in energy,

trigon formations within natural diamond structure6

steel, Alloys (bronze, brass, pewter)20

Tungsten (w, extracted from Wolframite)

Used in Metal wires, electrodes, electrical

contacts, Heating, and welding applications,

vibration mechanism in mobile phones21

Tantalum (Ta, extracted from “Coltan”)

“The properties of refined coltan is a vital

element in creating devices that store energy or

capacitors, which are used in a vast array of

small electronic devices, especially in mobile

phones, laptop computers, pagers, and other

electronic devices.”22

20 ibid.

21 ibid.

22 <http://conflictminerals.org/coltan-learning-the-basics/>

Gold in a circuit board (above)

and in nugget form (below)

The Conflict Minerals:

The term “conflict minerals” is used to describe certain minerals

such as gold, wolframite, casserite, columbite-tantalite and their

derivative metals, which include tin, tungsten, and tantalum

that are mined in the DRC [Democratic Republic of Congo] or its

adjoining countries.17

The United Nations has been raising awareness of mining of conflict

minerals as a source of revenue for armed militias committing

atrocities in the DRC for at least the past 10 years.18

Gold (Au)

an almost perfect conductor, gold rapidly transmits electricity

without giving off much heat. This makes it an excellent mineral

for Electric plating and IC wiring19

Tin (Sn, extracted from Cassiterite)

Used in solders for joining pipes and circuits, Tin plating of

17 SEC Release No. 34-63547; File No. S7-40-10 <http://www.sec.gov/rules/

proposed/2010/34-63547.pdf>

in Conflict Minerals Provision of Dodd-Frank, page 3. <kpmg.com>

18 “A Comprehensive Approach to Congo’s Conflict Minerals - Strategy Paper” by The

Enough Project <http://www.enoughproject.org/publications/comprehensive approach-conflict-

minerals-strategy-paper>

ibid.

19 ibid.

int H = 1, He = 2, Li = 3, Be = 4, B = 5, C = 6, N = 7, O = 8, F = 9, Ne = 10, Na = 11, Mg = 12, Al = 13, Si = 14, P = 15, S = 16,

Cl = 17, Ar = 18, K = 19, Ca = 20, Sc = 21, Ti = 22, V = 23, Cr = 24, Mn = 25, Fe = 26, Co = 27, Ni = 28, Cu = 29, Zn = 30, Ga

= 31, Ge = 32, As = 33, Se = 34, Br = 35, Kr = 36, Rb = 37, Sr = 38, Y = 39, Zr = 40, Nb = 41, Mo = 42, Tc = 43, Ru = 44, Rh =

45, Pd = 46, Ag = 47, Cd = 48, In = 49, Sn = 50, Sb = 51, Te = 52, I = 53, Xe = 54, Cs = 55, Ba = 56, La = 57, Ce = 58, Pr = 59,

Nd = 60, Pm = 61, Sm = 62, Eu = 63, Gd = 64, Tb = 65, Dy = 66, Ho = 67, Er = 68, Tm = 69, Yb = 70, Lu = 71, Hf = 72, Ta = 73,

W = 74, Re = 75, Os = 76, Ir = 77, Pt = 78, Au = 79, Hg = 80, Tl = 81, Pb = 82, Bi = 83, Po = 84, At = 85, Rn = 86, Fr = 87, Ra

= 88, Ac = 89, Th = 90, Pa = 91, U = 92, Np = 93, Pu = 94, Am = 95, Cm = 96, Bk = 97, Cf = 98, Es = 99, Fm = 100, Md = 101,

No = 102, Lr = 103, Rf = 104, Db = 105, Sg = 106, Bh = 107, Hs = 108, Mt = 109, Ds = 110, Rg = 111, Cn = 112, Uut = 113, Fl =

114, Uup = 115, Lv = 116, Uus = 117, Uuo = 118;

StringList elements;

void setup() {

size(500, 500);

loop();

colorMode(RGB, 118);

ll(0);

textAlign(CENTER);

elements = new StringList();

elements.append("0");

elements.append("hydrogen"); elements.append("helium"); elements.append("lithium"); elements.append("beryllium");

elements.append("boron");

elements.append("carbon"); elements.append("nitrogen"); elements.append("oxygen"); elements.append("uorine");elements.

append("neon");

elements.append("sodium"); elements.append("magnesium"); elements.append("aluminum"); elements.append("silicon");

elements.append("phosphorus");

elements.append("sulfur"); elements.append("chlorine"); elements.append("argon"); elements.append("potassium");

elements.append("calcium");

elements.append("scandium"); elements.append("titanium"); elements.append("vanadium"); elements.append("chromium");

elements.append("manganese");

elements.append("iron"); elements.append("cobalt"); elements.append("nickel"); elements.append("copper"); elements.

append("zinc");

elements.append("gallium"); elements.append("germanium"); elements.append("arsenic"); elements.append("selenium");

elements.append("bromine");

elements.append("krypton"); elements.append("rubidium"); elements.append("strontium"); elements.append("yttrium");

elements.append("zirconium");

elements.append("niobium"); elements.append("molybdenum"); elements.append("technetium"); elements.

append("ruthenium"); elements.append("rhodium");

elements.append("palladium"); elements.append("silver"); elements.append("cadmium"); elements.append("indium");

elements.append("tin");

elements.append("antimony"); elements.append("tellurium"); elements.append("iodine"); elements.append("xenon");

elements.append("caesium");

elements.append("barium"); elements.append("lantanum"); elements.append("cerium"); elements.append("prasodymium");

elements.append("neodymium");

mineral_computer_sonnet elements.append("promethium"); elements.append("samarium"); elements.append("europium"); elements.

append("gadolinium"); elements.append("terbium");

elements.append("dysprosium"); elements.append("holmium"); elements.append("erbium"); elements.append("thulium");

elements.append("ytterbium");

elements.append("lutetium"); elements.append("hafnium"); elements.append("tantalum"); elements.append("tungsten");

elements.append("rhenium");

elements.append("osmium"); elements.append("iridium"); elements.append("platinum"); elements.append("gold");

elements.append("mercury");

elements.append("thallium"); elements.append("lead"); elements.append("bismuth"); elements.append("polonium");

elements.append("astatine");

elements.append("radon"); elements.append("francium"); elements.append("radium"); elements.append("actinium");

elements.append("thorium");

elements.append("protactinium"); elements.append("uranium"); elements.append("neptunium"); elements.

append("plutonium");elements.append("americum");

elements.append("curium"); elements.append("berkelium"); elements.append("californium"); elements.

append("einsteinium"); elements.append("Fermium");

elements.append("mendelevium"); elements.append("nobelium"); elements.append("lawrencium"); elements.

append("rutherfordium"); elements.append("dubnium");

elements.append("seaborgium"); elements.append("bohrium"); elements.append("hassium"); elements.

append("meitnerium"); elements.append("darmstadtium");

elements.append("roentgenium"); elements.append("copernicium"); elements.append("unutrium"); elements.

append("erovium"); elements.append("unupentium");

elements.append("livermorium"); elements.append("ununseptium"); elements.append("Ununoctium");

println(elements);

}

void draw() {

for (int i = 1; i<119; i = i+1) {

ll(i, (i*i)/118, 118/i);

String mineral_computer_sonnet = elements.get(i);

text(mineral_computer_sonnet, 120 + (2 * i), 50 + (2 * i));

}

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which, as we know from Barry McGuire and A. F. N. Dahran, coincides with the so-called Western world, is instead an implosion. e bulk of written texts--

including the paper I am actually reading to you-- no longer exist in perceivable time and space, but in a computer memory’s transistor cells. And since these

cells, in the last three decades of Silicon Valley exploits, have shrunk to spatial extensions of less than one micrometer, our writing scene may well be dened by

a self-similarity of letters over some six orders of decimal magnitude. is state of aairs does not only make a dierence to history, in which, at its alphabetical

beginning, a camel and its hebraic letter game1 were just two and a half orders of decimal magnitude apart. It also seems to hide the very act of writing.

As one knows without saying, we do not write anymore. e crazy kind of soware engineering that was writing suered from an incurable confusion between

use and mention. Up to Holderlin’s time, a mere mention of lightning seems to have been sucient evidence of its possible poetic use. Nowadays, aer this

lightning’s metamorphosis into electricity, manmade writing passes instead through microscopically written inscriptions, which, in contrast to all historical

writing tools, are able to read and write by themselves. e last historical act of writing may well have been the moment when, in the early seventies, the Intel

engineers laid out some dozen square meters of blueprint paper (64 square meters in the case of the later 8086) in order to design the hardware architecture

of their rst integrated microprocessor. is manual layout of two thousand transistors and their interconnections was then miniaturized to the size of an

actual chip and, by electro-optical machines, written into silicon layers. Finally, this 4004-microprocessor found its place in the new desk calculators of Intel’s

Japanese customer, and our postmodern writing scene could begin. Actually, the hardware complexity of microprocessors simply discards such manual design

techniques. In order to lay out the next computer generation, the engineers, instead of lling countless meters of blueprint paper, have recourse to Computer

Aided Design, that is, to the geometrical or autorouting powers of the actual generation.

In constructing the rst integrated microprocessor, however, Intel’s Marcian E. Ho had given an almost perfect demonstration of a Turing machine. Aer

1937, computing, whether done by men or by machines, can be formalized as a countable set of instructions operating on an innitely long paper band and the

discrete signs thereon. Turing’s concept of such a paper machine, whose operations consist only of writing and reading, proceeding and receding, has proven

to be the mathematical equivalent of any computable function. Universal Turing machines, when fed the instructions of any other machine, can imitate it

eectively. us, precisely because eventual dierences between hardware implementations do not count anymore, the so-called Church-Turing hypothesis in

its strongest or physical form is tantamount to declaring nature itself a universal Turing machine.

is claim in itself has had the eect of duplicating the implosion of hardware by an explosion of soware. Programming languages have eroded the monopoly

of ordinary language and grown into a new hierarchy of their own. is postmodern Tower of Babel reaches from simple operation codes whose linguistic

extension is still a hardware conguration, passing through an assembler whose extension is this very opcode, up to high-level programming languages whose

extension is that very assembler. In consequence, far-reaching chains of self-similarities in the sense dened by fractal theory organize the soware as well as

the hardware of every writing. What remains a problem is only recognizing these layers which, like modern media technologies in general, have been explicitly

connived to evade perception. We simply do not know what our writing does.

To wordprocess a text, that is, to become oneself a paper machine working on an IBLMA T under Microso DOS, one must rst of all buy some commercial

les. Unless these les show the le extension names of EXE or of COM, wordprocessing under DOS could never start. e reason is that only COM- and

EXE- les entertain a peculiar relation to their proper names. On the one hand, they bear grandiloquent names like Wordperfect, on the other hand, more

or less cryptic, because nonvocalized, acronyms like WP. e full name, alas, serves only the advertising strategies of soware manufacturers, since DOS as a

microprocessor operating system cannot read le names longer than eight letters. at is why the unpronounceable acronym W, this posthistoric revocation of

a fundamental Greek innovation, is not only necessary, but amply sucient for postmodern wordprocessing. In fact, it seems to bring back truly magical power.

WP does what it says. Executable computer les encompass, by contrast not only to Wordperfect but also to big but empty Old European words such as the Mind

or the Word, all the routines and data necessary to their self-constitution. Surely, tapping the letter sequence WP and Enter on an A T key- board does not make

the Word perfect, but this simple writing act starts the actual execution of Wordperfect. Such are the triumphs of soware.

e accompanying paperware cannot but multiply these magic powers. Written to bridge the gap between formal and everyday languages, electronics and

literature, the usual soware manuals introduce the program in question as a linguistic agent ruling with near omnipotence over the computer system’s

resources, address spaces, and other hardware parameters: WP, when called with command line argument X, would change the monitor Screen from color

A to B, start in mode C, return nally to D, etc. ad innitum.

In fact, however, these actions of agent WP are virtual ones, since each of them (as the saying goes) has to run under DOS. It is the operating system and, more

precisely, its command shell that scans the keyboard for eight-bit le names on the input line, trans- forms some relative addresses of an eventually retrieved

le into absolute ones, loads this new version from external mass memory to the necessary random access space, and nally or temporarily passes execution

to the opcode lines of a slave named Wordperfect.

e same argument would hold for DOS, which, in the nal analysis, resolves into an extension of the basic input and output system called BIOS. Not only no

program, but also no underlying microprocessor system could ever start without the rather incredible autobooting faculty of some elementary functions that,

for safety’s sake, are burnt into silicon and thus form part of the hardware. Any transformation of matter from entropy to information, from a million sleeping

transistors into dierences between electronic potentials, necessarily presupposes a material event called reset.

In principle, this kind of descent from soware to hardware, from higher to lower levels of observation, could be continued over more and more orders of

magnitude. All code operations, despite such metaphoric faculties as call or return, come down to absolutely local string manipulations, that is, I am afraid,

to signiers of voltage dierences. Formalization in Hilbert’s sense does away with theory itself, insofar as “the theory is no longer a system of meaningful

propositions, but one of sentences as sequences of words, which are in turn sequences of letters. We can tell [say] by reference to the form alone which

combinations of the words are sentences, which sentences are axioms, and which sentences follow as immediate consequences of others.”

When meanings come down to sentences, sentences to words, and words to letters, there is no soware at all. Rather, there would be no soware if computer

systems were not surrounded by an environment of everyday languages. is environment, however, ever since a famous and twofold Greek invention,

has consisted of letters and coins, of books and bucks! For these good economical reasons, nobody seems to have inherited the humility of Alan Turing,

who, in the stone age of computing, preferred to read his machine’s outprint in hexadecimal numbers rather than in decimal numbers. On the contrary,

the so-called philosophy of the so-called computer community tends systematically to obscure hardware with soware, electronic signiers with interfaces

between formal and everyday languages. In all philanthropic sincerity, high-level programming manuals caution against the psychopathological risks of

writing assembler code. In all friendliness, ”BIOS services” are currently dened as designed to “hide the details of controlling the underlying hardware

from your program.” Consequently, in a perfect gradualism, DOS services would hide the BIOS, WordPerfect the operating system, and so on and so on

until, very recently, two fundamental changes in computer design (or DoD politics) have brought this system of secrecy to closure. First, on an intentionally

supercial level, perfect graphic user interfaces, since they dispense with writing itself, hide a whole machine from its users. Second, on the microscopic

level of hardware, so-called protection soware has been implemented in order to prevent untrusted programs” or “untrusted users” from any access to the

operating system’s kernel and input/output channels.

is ongoing triumph of soware is a strange reversal of Turing’s proof that there can be no mathematically computable problem a simple machine could

not solve. Instead, the physical Church-Turing hypothesis, by identifying physical hardware with the algorithms forged for its computation, has nally gotten

rid of hardware itself. As a result, soware has successfully occupied the empty place and proted from its obscurity. e ever-growing hierarchy of high-

level programming languages works exactly the same way as one-way functions in recent mathematical cryptography. Such functions, when used in their

straightforward form, can be computed in reasonable time, for instance, in a time growing only in polynomial expressions with the function’s complexity.

e time needed for its inverse form, however (that is, for reconstructing from the function’s output its presupposed input), would grow at exponential and

therefore unviable rates. One-way functions, in other words, hide an algorithm from its result. For soware, this cryptographic eect oers a convenient way

to bypass the fact that by virtue of Turing’s proof the concept of mental property as applied to algorithms has become meaningless. Precisely because soware

does not exist as a machine-independent faculty, soware as a commercial or American medium insists on its status as property all the more. Every license,

every dongle, every trademark registered for WP, as well as for WordPerfect, proves the functionality of one-way functions. In this country, notwithstanding

all mathematical tradition, even a copy- right claim for algorithms has recently succeeded. And, nally, BM has done research on a mathematical formula for

measuring the distance in complexity between an algorithm and its output. Whereas in the good old days of Shannon’s mathematical theory of information, the

maximum in information coincided strangely with maximal unpredictability, or noise, the new IBM measure, called logical depth, has been dened as follows:

“e value of a message ... appears to reside not in its information (its absolutely unpredictable parts), nor in its obvious redundancy (verbatim repetitions,

unequal digit frequencies), but rather in what may be called its buried redundancy-- parts predictable only with diculty, things the receiver could in principle

have gured out without being told, but only at considerable cost in money, time, or computation. In other words, the value of a message is the amount of

mathematical or other work plausibly done by its originator, which the receiver is saved from having to repeat.”

us, logical depth in its mathematical rigor could advantageously replace all the old, everyday language denitions of originality, authorship, and

copyright in their necessary inexactness, were it not for the fact that precisely this algorithm intended to compute the cost of algorithms in general is

Turing-uncomputable itself.

Under these tragic conditions, criminal law, at least in Germany, has recently abandoned the very concept of soware as mental property; instead, it denes

soware as necessarily a material thing. e high court’s reasoning, according to which no computer program could ever run without the corresponding

electrical charges in silicon circuitry, can illustrate the fact that the virtual undecidability between soware and hardware by no means follows, as

systems theorists would probably like to believe, from a simple variation of observation on points. On the contrary, there are good grounds to assume the

indispensability and, consequently, the priority of hardware in general.

Only in Turing’s paper On Computable Numbers with an Application to the Entcheidungsproblem does there exist a machine with unbounded resources in

space and time, with an innite supply of raw paper and no constraints on computation speed. All physically feasible machines, in contrast, are limited by these

parameters in their very code. T h e inability of Microso DOS to tell more than the rst eight letters of a le name such as WordPerfect gives just a trivial or

obsolete illustration of a problem that has provoked not only increasing incompatibilities between the dierent generations of eight-bit, sixteen-bit, and thirty-

two-bit microprocessors, but also a near impossibility of digitalizing the body of real numbers formerly known as nature.

According to Brosl Hasslacher of Los Alamos National Laboratory:

is means [that] we use digital computers whose architecture is given to us in the form of a physical piece of machinery, with all its articial constraints.

We must reduce a continuous algorithmic description to one codable on a device whose fundamental operations are countable, and we do this by various

forms of chopping up into pieces, usually called discretization... e compiler then further reduces this model to a binary form determined largely by

machine constraints.

e outcome is a discrete and synthetic microworld image of the original problem, whose structure is arbitrarily xed by a dierencing scheme and

computational architecture chosen at random. e only remnant of the continuum is the use of radix arithmetic, which has the property of weighing bits

unequally, and for nonlinear systems is the source of spurious singularities.

is is what we actually do when we compute up a model of the physical world with physical devices. is is not the idealized and serene process that we imagine

when usually arguing about the fundamental structures of computation, and very far from Turing machines.

us, instead of pursuing the physical Church-Turing hypothesis and “injecting an algorithmic behavior into the behavior of the physical world for which

there is no evidence, one has rather to compute what has been called “the price of programmability” itself. is all-important property of being programmable

has, in all evidence, nothing to do with soware; it is an exclusive feature of hardwares, more or less suited as they are to house some notation system. When

Claude Shannon, in 1937, proved in what is probably the most consequential M.A. thesis ever written that simple telegraph switching relays can implement,

by means of their dierent interconnections, the whole of Boolean algebra, such a physical notation system was established. And when the integrated circuit,

developed in the 1970s out of Shockley’s transistor, combined on one and the same chip silicon as a controllable resistor with its own oxide as an almost perfect

isolator, the programmability of matter could nally “take control,” just as Turing had predicted. Soware, if it existed, would be just a billion-dollar deal based

on the cheapest elements on earth. For in their combination on chip, silicon and its oxide provide perfect hardware architectures. at is to say, millions of

basic elements work under almost the same physical conditions, especially as regards the most critical, namely, temperature-dependent degradations, and yet

electrically all of them are highly isolated from each other. Only this paradoxical relation between two physical parameters, thermal continuity and electrical

discretization on chip, allows integrated circuits to be not only nite-state machines like so many other devices on earth, but to approximate that Universal

Discrete Machine into which its inventor’s name has long disappeared.

is structural dierence can easily be illustrated. “A combination lock,” for instance, “is a nite automaton, but it is not ordinarily decomposable into a base

set of elementary-type components that can be recongured to simulate an arbitrary physical system. As a consequence it is not structurally programmable,

and in this case it is eectively programmable only in the limited sense that its state can be set for achieving a limited class of behaviors.” On the contrary,

“a digital computer used to simulate a combination lock is structurally programmable since the behavior is achieved by synthesizing it from a canonical

set of primitive switching components.”

Switching components, however, be they telegraph relays, tubes, or, nally, microtransistor cells, pay a prize for their very composability. Confronted as they are

with a continuous environment of weather, waves, and wars, digital computers can cope with this real number avalanche only by adding element to element.

However, the growth rate of possible interconnections between these elements, that is, of the computing power as such, has proven to have as its upper bound a

square root function. In other words, it cannot even “keep up with polynomial growth rates in problem size. us, the very isolation between digital or discrete

elements accounts for a drawback in connectivity that otherwise, “according to current force laws” as well as to the basics of combinatorial logics, would be

bounded only by a maximum equalling the square number of all elements involved.

Precisely this maximal connectivity, on the other, physical side, denes nonprogrammable systems, be they waves or beings. at is why these systems

show polynomial growth rates in complexity and, consequently, why only computations done on nonprogrammable machines could keep up with them.

In all evidence, this hypothetical, but all too necessary, type of machine would constitute sheer hardware, a physical device working amidst physical devices

and subject to the same bounded resources. Soware in the usual sense of an ever-feasible abstraction would not exist any longer. e procedures of these

machines, though still open to an algorithmic notation, should have to work essentially on a material substrate whose very connectivity would allow for

cellular recongurations. And even though this “substrate can also be described in algorithmic terms, by means of simulation,” its “characterization is of

such immense importance for the eectiveness ...and so closely connected with choice of hardware,” that programming it will have little to do any longer

with approximated Turing machines.

In what I have tried to describe as badly needed machines that are probably not too far in the future (and drawing quite heavily on recent computer science),

certain Dubrovnik observers’ eyes might be tempted to recognize, under evolutionary disguises or not, the familiar face of man. Maybe. At the same time,

however, our equally familiar silicon hardware obeys many of the requisites for such highly connected, nonprogrammable systems. Between its million

transistor cells, some million to the power of two interactions always already take place. ere is electron diusion; there is quantum-mechanical tunneling all

over the chip. Technically, however, these interactions are still treated in terms of system limitations, physical side eects, and so on. To minimize all the noise

that it would be impossible to eliminate is the price we pay for structurally programmable machines. e inverse strategy of maximizing noise would not only

nd the way back from IBM to Shannon, it may well be the only way to enter that body of real numbers originally known as chaos.

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_@(_

symbols form lines, and they obviously mean the

image they accompany. They “explain,” “recount,”

“tell” it. They do so by unrolling the surface of

the image into lines, by unwinding the tissue of

the image into the threads of a text, by rendering

“explicit” what was “implicit” within the image.

It may be shown through text analysis that the

original purpose of writing, namely, the transcoding

of two-dimensional codes into a single dimension,

is still there: every text, even a very abstract

one, means, in the last analysis, an image.

Vilém Flusser

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image resultant from transcoding Friedrich Kittler’s text

“There is No Software” into a photograph of Fairchild’s

integrated circuit8

Lorem ipsum dolor sit

amet, consectetur ad-

ipiscing elit. Quisque

fermentum phare-

tra rhoncus. Maece-

nas ac molestie tortor.

Praesent quis diam

eget magna auctor ul-

lamcorper. In metus

Code (or, How You Can Write Something Differently)

Friedrich Kittler

Codes—by name and by matter—are what determine us today, and what we must articulate if only to avoid disappearing under them completely. They are the language of our time precisely because the word and the matter code are much older, as I will demonstrate with a brief historical regression. And have no fear: I promise to arrive back at the present.

01100100 01100101

01100011 01101111

01100100 01101001

01101110 01100111

00100000 01101001

the ar-

chi-

tec-

ture of

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q

A A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q

B B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R

C C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S

D D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

E E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U

F F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V

G G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W

H H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X

I I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y

J J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

K K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A

L L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B

M M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C

N N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D

O O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E

P P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F

Q Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G

ello

world

knit patternwikipedia

barcode11

visual

noise

pattern

lorem ipsum

weaving punch

card19

diamond

“finger-

print”23

grain of

photographic

film13

drawing of an

integrated

circuit15

magnetic core

memory of

IBM 36020

rotor wiring

of an enigma

machine24

hexadecimal

braille

morse

code

anomalous

“wow! signal”

from SETI16

square wave21

spike patterns

of neurons9

qr code

magnified

image of

cd surface14

musical score17

semaphore

alphabet22

slow scan

tv signal10

karyotype,

(visualization

of human

genome)12

“zodiac

killer” code18

vigenere

cipher

steganographic

message

(0.1 pt)

Kinds of Codes

cracked e-reader screen

Post-Turing Chronicles

With these Methods of encoding memory into matter, “writing” and

“reading” no longer mean what they have previously. As Friedrich

Kittler reflects, “The bulk of written texts […] no longer exist in

perceivable time and space, but in a computer memory’s transistor

cells.” writing takes on the form of electrical impulses,

representative of binary, which in turn encode the letters of

words. Written language has eaten numerals (or numerals have

become alphabetic), and many forms of code criss-cross the border

between strings of symbols and outright “language”. Human language

infiltrates the syntax of programming, and computer-speak makes

its way into slang. Our Images are produced by machinery and are

veritable palimpsests of alphanumerical information.

The historical instinct has been to lacerate events and wind them

into linear threads, and to store them for the future. There

is something Turing-esque about this linear form of the past,

supposing that any given occurrence may be reduced to a string

of discrete symbols and fed through a computational machine.

Memory distinguishes itself with tendencies toward the structural,

embedding the past into spatial configurations, or into devices

themselves. The temporality of history is that suspension in time,

of accumulation in time. This artificial memory serves as a way to

mediate that temporality, storing information for later access.

“Anamnesis and history keep present what is

forgotten.” (Lyotard)23

Divergence/non-linearity/post-history is a

concurrent turn away from history, from the linear

narrative of events, while retaining some of its

structural memory. Culture after history bears

with it scars from the process of transmutation:

prying out bifurcations from a world reduced to

a line. With nonlinear coding, we enter a much

more interesting territory. History and computing

could learn by taking more inspiration from

neural processes. Multiple methods of encoding

enable the brain’s complex and flexible nature.

Neural information is encoded in different ways,

based on Applying particular strategies to

situations where their advantages are relevant.

such as spatial configuration, similarity space,

structural and functional categories24. In the

rise of network cultures, we witness an increased

biodiversity within media ecosystems, rhizomatic

structures which fork and recombine themselves

23 Jean-François, Lyotard. Anamnesis of the Visible in Theory,

Culture & Society 2004 (London/Thousand Oaks/New Delhi: SAGE), Vol.

21(1): 107–119.

24 Quiroga, Rodrigo Quian. Panzeri, Stefano. Neural Coding of

Visual Objects, in Principles of Neural Coding. (Boca Raton/London/

New York: CRC Press, 2013), 175.

opalized wood

at will. Enter the realm of non-Euclidean geometry, post-

digital, quantum mechanics.

“The second industrial revolution that is currently

beginning constitutes a new reformulation of production

methods: information is no longer stored in tools, but

in cybernetic programs within apparatus which produce

tools.” (Flusser)25

Dispersed into the fabric of the world, technology has

become our natural history. apparatuses no longer maintain

their discrete forms, appearing at once ubiquitous, yet

intangible. There is a sense that they are everywhere,

whether or not they are pereceived: dematerialized or

hidden in plain sight. Electronics are integrated into

clothing, buildings, living things, the land, sea, sky,

and everywhere in between. Employed to mediate or augment

experience, to structure or regulate the functions of

systems, some devices may take on dimensions spanning the

globe, yet exist somehow as unidentifiable and unable to

be localized. Our quantified selves render numerical and

sensible the insensible.

25 Flusser, Vilém, Vampyroteuthis Infernalis, trans. Novaes, Rodrigo Maltez.

(Atropos: New York/Dresden, 2011) 114.

8 First Production Planar IC, 1960. 1960. Fairchild Camera and

Instrument Corporation. <http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/

digital-logic/12/intro/1422>. 04/07/2014.

9 <http://www.ebi.ac.uk/biomodels/ModelMonth/2010-05/figure1.

png>. 12 /06/2014.

10 <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/SSTV_

signal.jpg>, 12/06/2014.

11 <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/

Code_128B.svg/800px-Code_128B.svg.png>. 13/06/2014.

12 <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/

Karyotype.png>, 13/06/2014.

13 <http://www.optics.rochester.edu/workgroups/cml/opt307/spr04/

jidong/tmax1_resize.jpg>. 13/06/2014.

14 <http://www.igcseict.info/theory/3/optic/files/stacks_

image_6920_1.png>. 13/06/2014.

15 <http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6445065-0-large.jpg>.

16/06/2014.

16 <http://cdn0.cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/20100407_

Wow.jpg>. 13/06/2014.

All images courtesy of the Artist,

except where noted with a subscript numeral.

Image Attributions:

1 <http://www.pnas.org/content/100/3/1352/F2.large.jpg>.

19/06/2014.

2 Wozny , Rainer, SA 2.0 License, boellstiftung, <https://www.

flickr.com/photos/boellstiftung/5342610093/sizes/o/>. 9 July, 2014.

3 Stromatolite, Greysonia sp., Vendian, Bolivia - Houston Museum

of Natural Science - DSC01363.JPG - Wikimedia Commons. < http://

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stromatolite,_Greysonia_sp.,_

Vendian,_Bolivia_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01363.

JPG>. 17 June 2014.

4 “Novel Microfluidic Material Breakthrough for Wafer-scale Mass

Production of Lab-on-chip.” Novel Microfluidic Material Breakthrough

for Wafer-scale Mass Production of Lab-on-chip. <http://cdn.phys.

org/newman/gfx/news/hires/2013/novelmicrofl.png> 07 July 2014.

5 Helmy, Diva. img_9339.jpg. 2014.

6 Gump Stump. Diamond Face Trigons Scale. 2009. Wikimedia Commons.

<http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diamond_face_trigons_scale.

jpg>. 4 July 2014.

7 Ernst, W. G. Earth Materials. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-

Hall, 1969). 44.

Additional Reference Texts:

Vilém Flusser:

Does Writing Have a Future? trans. Roth, Nancy Ann. (University of

MInnesota: Minneapolis/London, 2011)

Kommunikologie, Schriften 4, ed. Eckstein, Vera. Bollmann, Stefan.

(Mannheim: Bollmann, 1996)

Kristoffer Gansing:

Transversal Media Practices: Media Archaeology, Art and Technological

Development (Malmö University, Malmö: 2013)

Frank Gillette:

Random Notes on the Special Case of Loop-de-Loop, in Radical Software,

1, 1, (1970) 6.

Friedrich Kittler:

Code (or, How You Can Write Something Differently), in Software

Studies Lexicon. Trans. Morrison, Tom. Cramer, Florian. 40-47.

On the Implementation of Knowledge - Toward a Theory of Hardware.

in ed. Bosma, Josephine. Readme! (nettime): ASCII culture and the

revenge of knowledge. (Automedia, 1999) 60-68.

Jussi Parikka:

“The Atlantic.” The Atlantic. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Nov. 2013. <http://

www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/10/the-geology-of-

media/280523/>.

17 Dahm, Robert. Maps Living Among the Ice of the Room: For Alto

Flute and Accordion. Berlin, 2011.

18 <http://mentalfloss.com/sites/default/legacy/blogs/wp-

content/uploads/2011/06/zodiac.jpg> 13/06/2014.

19 <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/

Hollerith_punched_card.jpg>. 16/06/2014.

20 <http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/core2.jpg>.

16/06/2014.

21 <http://www.swharden.com/blog/images/canned-3.5mhz-525x393.

jpg>. 18/06/2014.

22 Weiner, Hannah. Code Poems. (Barrytown, New York: Open Book

Publications, 1982). 10.

23 <http://www.diamondid.com/images/GemPrint_2.png>. 13/06/2014.

24 <http://brej.org/enigma/Image10.gif>. 23/06/2014.

This publication has come into being

as an outcome of the Vilém Flusser

Archive residency Programme for

Artistic Research 2014, thanks to

the support of the Vilém Flusser

Archive, The Universität der

Kunste Berlin, and transmediale.

Siegfried Zielinski:

Deep Time of the Media: Towards an Archaeology of Hearing and Seeing

by Technical Means. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006) 1-11.

Arts and Apparatus: Plea for the Dramatisation of an Interface. In

Support of a Dramatics of the Difference. presented at the Flusser

Congress 1997. (This paper can be found in the Vilém Flusser Archive.)

Norbert Wiener:

The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society. (London: Free

Association Books, 1989)

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