Understanding Syntax
... 3) structural language unit -communicative speech unit [7]; 4) potential staterealization of a potential state [8]; 5) structural model, schemefor a specific speech unit [9], [10]. Sometimes the term "sentence" is used in both cases: both to denote the sentence itself and to denote a statement, write French language experts, for example, [9], [10]. ...
... 3) structural language unit -communicative speech unit [7]; 4) potential staterealization of a potential state [8]; 5) structural model, schemefor a specific speech unit [9], [10]. Sometimes the term "sentence" is used in both cases: both to denote the sentence itself and to denote a statement, write French language experts, for example, [9], [10]. ...
... For example, A. Delacroix writes that the subject may not be expressed, but implied, if a person knows who or what is being discussed [10]. ...
... Teaching grammar rules train learners to put together appropriate lexical units (word classes: parts of speech) and syntactic constituents (grammatical classes: phrases and clauses) properly to construct grammatical meaningful sentences. These sentences can be analyzed in terms of word order to be categorized into arrangements of correct syntactic units (phrases, clauses or sentences of the language (Folse, 2012;Tallerman, 2011). Syntactic structures (patterns or constructions) are analyzable into sequences of "syntactic categories or syntactic classes which are analyzed by its turn as sets of syntactic features. ...
... Some other adverbs cannot be easily recognized by their form because they do not have a specific suffix. Besides, "they may modify almost any kind of construction in English: verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and even whole sentences" (Hernández, 2006, p. 272;Tallerman, 2011). ...
... They are introduced by certain subordinate conjunctions which link the clauses with each other and decide the relationship among them as well. For example, ʻAfter the project has been opened, the president rewarded the distinguished workersʼ (Murphy, 2015;Tallerman, 2011). ...
... In fact, the heads of the respective phrases regulate the syntactic or grammatical category of the phrases, thereby determining the internal grammar of each of the phrase (Delahunty and Garvey, 2010). Since heads of phrases make the phrase to be what it is, they can, therefore, not be omitted (Tallerman, 2014). ...
... Evidence of a rich agreement system can be found in languages such as Xitsonga and Sepedi, which are characterised by the noun class system, whereby each noun class (noun classes 1-21 in Xitsonga and 1-24 in Sepedi) has its own inflection marker for subject agreement. As in the case of (19d) above, when used alone without NP subjects in sentences, inflectional elements of noun classes 1, 2, 3 and 4 in both Xitsonga and Sepedi can be summarised as follows: The examples in (20) above suggest that the inflectional elements u/o, va/ba, wu/wo and yi/ye are able to occupy NP subject positions because they contain the features noun class, number and person. In other words, inflection, which is one of the three types of categories, that is, apart from lexical and empty categories (Kayne, 1994), is able to function as a subject NP on its own without the assistance of lexical categories such as nouns, adjectives, numerals and demonstratives. ...
The aim of this article was to compare and describe the phrase in Xitsonga and Sepedi. The article also discusses the implications of the phrase for the learning of one language by speakers of the other language. Data was collected through autoethnography, which allowed the researchers to self-collect data as native speakers of the two languages. The article is underpinned by the head parameter, the X-bar model and the pro-drop theory, which account for the properties of phrases. The results of the study reveal that the two languages exhibit two internal structures of the headship of phrases: the phrasal, and the head levels; and that both are headfirst languages. It is also found that in both languages, the phrase, which is manifested through lexical categories, take the form of either single words or groups of related words. Furthermore, data shows that the head-modifier dichotomy in the phrases of both languages can be examined in terms of distributional, morphosyntactic, technical and semantic features. In addition, nominal and locative phrases are identified as special kinds of phrases; and that the head-modifier distinction of phrases agree in both noun class and number in both languages. It is also observed that it is possible to identify headless noun phrases; and that the noun class system is at the heart of the unity of phrases in both languages. Finally, the results show that the similarity in the structure of the phrase in Xitsonga and Sepedi has implications for language learning.
... In imperative formation, there is a deletion and interpretation of the second-person subject as the addressee, and the form of the verb is tenseless (Van Valin, 2004, p. 41). Tallerman (2015) states that in imperative constructions, subjects function as the missing argument. For instance, a command such as "Sit!" or "Eat your greens!" is an imperative, which includes both intransitive and transitive verbs that function as (or overt in some languages) second-person subject pronouns ('you') (p.208). ...
... According to Tallerman (2015), there is a construction that is likely to be found in all languages in one form or another, which is known as the relative clause. A relative clause is a sort of subordinate clause that modifies (= explains something about) the head noun in the matrix clause. ...
The grammatical relations are one part of traditional grammar that deals with important concepts such as subject, direct object, and indirect object. The main aim of this paper is to give a descriptive account of the term "grammatical relations hierarchy" in the English language depending on the theory of "Relational Grammar" as it demonstrates the relationship between these syntactic categories. Relational grammar predicates the hierarchy of these syntactic phenomena as subject > direct object > indirect object > non-terms. This paper attempts to describe the importance of these concepts and the hierarchy in the occurrence of these arguments in different constructions in order to identify the most privileged syntactic phenomena. This paper is concerned with giving general information about the concept of grammatical relations and the grammatical relations hierarchy. Then it attempts to show whether the word order of the grammatical relations in the English language obeys this hierarchy. Various constructions have been investigated for the purpose of demonstrating the position of these grammatical relations and the syntactic environments they are privileged to occur. The research has concluded that in the majority of the analyzed linear orders, the subject lies at the top of the hierarchy, and is the most privileged syntactic argument in English sentence constructions. However, in certain syntactic transformations like reflexivization and
... Wh-questions are so called because in English they typically involve the use of an interrogative word beginning with a wh-such as who, what, when, where, which, why and how (Radford, 1981;Tallerman, 2005;Carnie, 2007). In such questions, the speaker is requesting information about the identity of some entity in the sentence. ...
... The present paper aims to describe the types of proverbs and pro-sentences in modern Mongolian. Proforms were defined by scholars Halliday M. [8], Schachter P. [16], Deborah S. [6], Bernini G. a Ramat P. [9], Schachter P. and Shopen T. [16], Tallerman M. [19] and many others. The term pro-form is a cover term for several closed classes of words which, under certain circumstances, are used as substitutes for words belonging to open courses, or for larger constituents. ...
The article considers proverbs and pro-sentences of the modern Mongolian language. Many scientists have devoted their research to studying the pronouns of the modern Mongolian language at the sentence level. Pro-forms were not studied enough at the sentence and discourse levels. In the first part, the proverbs in sentences of the modern Mongolian language are explained. We argue that positive and negative modal particles in modern Mongolian could be used as proverbs. In the second part, we consider that modern Mongolian particles, nouns, verbs, and adverbs could be utilized as pro-sentences at the discourse level. All examples were taken from modern Mongolian literature and dramas. Finally, the conclusion is made. АННОТАЦИЯ В данной статье рассматриваются "pro-verb" и "pro-sentence" современного монгольского языка. Исследования многих учёных были посвящены изучению местоимения современного монгольского языка на уровне предложения. Про-формы недостаточно были изучены на уровне предложения и дискурса. В первой части объясняется "pro-verb" современного монгольского языка в предложениях. Мы утверждаем, что положительные и отрицательные модальные частицы современного монгольского языка могут использоваться в качестве "pro-verb" в предложениях. Во второй части обсуждается "pro-sentence" в современном монгольском языке. Мы считаем, что частицы, существительные, глаголы, наречия современного монгольского языка могут использоваться в качестве "pro-sentence" на уровне дискурса. Все примеры были взяты из современной монгольской художественной литературы и драм. В заключение делается вывод.
... The present paper aims to describe the types of proverbs and pro-sentences in modern Mongolian. Proforms were defined by scholars Halliday M. [8], Schachter P. [16], Deborah S. [6], Bernini G. a Ramat P. [9], Schachter P. and Shopen T. [16], Tallerman M. [19] and many others. The term pro-form is a cover term for several closed classes of words which, under certain circumstances, are used as substitutes for words belonging to open courses, or for larger constituents. ...
... He argues that in language, a clause or sentence must have at least an S (subject) and a P (predicate). It is worth noting that P, which is the lexical role of the verb, serves as the core or nucleus of a sentence or clause, making S and P obligatory elements (Tallerman, 2014). ...
The investigation of the grammatical level of syntax, particularly Indonesian, focuses exclusively on sentence formation and does not include the corpus. This renders Indonesian grammatical corpus data less relevant in corpus-based grammatical investigations. The study offers a detailed overview of the utilization of Android applications based on POS Tagging data. The method in this study was qualitative focusing on the development of an application that utilizes Rule and Probability-based POS Tagging data from Leipzig Indonesian Mix_2013 to determine the categories, functions, and roles of Indonesian syntax with lexical categories including V (copula, existence, and equative) as the predicate potential on function. The application was designed to be compatible with the Android system by Integrating POS tagging into the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC), enabling wider accessibility to a larger user base. The result of this research introduces a program designed as a tool to search syntactic categories in Indonesian. The program uses a sequential search technique, which is a linear search method, to make it easier for users to find specific syntactic functions. By applying syntactic categories and functions using POS Tagging data from the Leipzig Indonesian Mix_2013 corpus, the study achieved significant insights into the roles of Indonesian syntax. POS Tagging based on the generated rules and probabilities achieves an accuracy rate of 92.53% for category tags and functions.
... This unique attribute of language to shape opinions is made possible by the manipulation of certain aspects. One of which is syntax, which according to Tallerman (2014), investigates word classifications as well as order and structure in phrases and sentences in a language. This aspect of language, according to Van Valin (2001), is the centre of human language as it conditions and determines the different ways how words (i.e., meaning-bearing elements) can be put together to bring about different meanings. ...
This study compared the syntax of journalistic pieces,
particularly the features and syntactic patterns of newspaper
editorials. Four English newspaper editorials were analysed via
the two research questions: (i) How are the sentences in The
Star, The Straits Times, The Sun, and The Wall Street Journal
editorials syntactically structured? and (ii) How do the
syntactic structures of the sentences from the four editorials
written in different contexts compare to one another? A total
of 100 clauses from The Star (Malaysia), The Straits Times
(Singapore), The Sun (the United Kingdom), and The Wall
Street Journal (The United States) were qualitatively analysed
using by Morenberg's syntactic model. The results revealed
that the syntactic patterns of the clauses were highly varied
and not at all formulaic, indicating considerable originality as
the writers went beyond the basic patterns via the
employment of dissimilar optional syntactic constituents.
Several notable similarities were observed in sentence voice,
sentence mood, and the expansion and recurrence of the
syntactic patterns identified. The comparison has also yielded
two dissimilar features namely, the use of subject ellipsis and
the use of conjunctions placed at the beginning of sentences.
These features highlight the potential consistency and
distinctiveness between the newspaper editorials.
... Sense verbs (see, hear, etc.) that take the bare infinitive have structural resemblance in English and Arabic (Tallerman, 2005;Wekker and Haegeman, 1985;Miller, 2002;Radford, 2004;Roberts, 2016) go for the option that a bare infinitive is an instance of complementation, where the main verb of the matrix clause selects a non-finite subordinate clause. From a transformational-generative-grammar view (Luraghi and Parodi, 2008, p. 156), the non-finite verb (bare infinitive, gerund, participle) has a nonovert or null subject which is syntactically represented and referred to as (PRO), standing for pronoun, which is referentially anaphoric with the antecedent subject of the matrix clause. ...
This article is claimed to be the first that helps bridge the gap left unfilled in the analysis of serialization basically in classical Arabic of pre-Islamic period and what follows it on the one hand, and between English and classical Arabic on the other. The premise this article is based on is that serialization can be hypotactic as well as paratactic, where the clausal structure in both types is different. Under the theoretical concept of Raising, adapted from the generative transformational model, this feature is treated, in a comparative/ contrastive fashion, in both English and Arabic to figure out the points of convergence and divergence, and how the referential and co-referential interpretation is conducted via applying the PRO element. Theoretical analysis is maintained by traditional examples from Qur'anic text and other devised examples that serve the purposes of relevant analysis.
... Formal linguistics work defines linguistic constituents based on constituency tests (Carnie, 2002;Adger, 2003). For example, with a substitution test, one can delete a constituent from a sentence and fill in its position with a pro-form (Radford, 1997;Tallerman, 2005). In the current word deletion task, however, the deleted constituent is not filled in and in general the remaining words no longer form a well-formed sentence. ...
Understanding how sentences are internally represented in the human brain, as well as in large language models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT, is a major challenge for cognitive science. Classic linguistic theories propose that the brain represents a sentence by parsing it into hierarchically organized constituents. In contrast, LLMs do not explicitly parse linguistic constituents and their latent representations remains poorly explained. Here, we demonstrate that humans and LLMs construct similar latent representations of hierarchical linguistic constituents by analyzing their behaviors during a novel one-shot learning task, in which they infer which words should be deleted from a sentence. Both humans and LLMs tend to delete a constituent, instead of a nonconstituent word string. In contrast, a naive sequence processing model that has access to word properties and ordinal positions does not show this property. Based on the word deletion behaviors, we can reconstruct the latent constituency tree representation of a sentence for both humans and LLMs. These results demonstrate that a latent tree-structured constituency representation can emerge in both the human brain and LLMs.
... r form, their (external) positioning in respect to other constituents, and their function. Constituents can be complex, they can contain other constituents, thus, the structure of a sentence is hierarchal. They are a set of words forming a phrase in a sentence. A sequence of words does not always function as constituents, it depends on the context.Tallerman (2011) andBrinton & Brinton (2010) suggests several different constituency tests that "are based on the principle that only entire constituents may be manipulated by syntactic operations."(Brinton, &Brinton 2010, p.187) That means, they can be replaced by pro-forms, they can be moved and conjoined and they can stand alone.Greenbaum, & Quirk pr ...
The thesis deals with marked word order and its variants in a selected literary work which is the book called Clockwork Angel from Cassandra Clare's trilogy, The Infernal Devices. The research is focused on the interpretation of the function and contribution of each variant of marked word order to the literary work and the reading experience.
... The subject we is a phrase which is composed of only one word and the object is also another phrase the people in the city which contains two smaller phrases which are the people and in the city. Tallerman (2015) acknowledges that so as to have a phrase of any kind the presence of a head is required at least; and a phrase may include some optional or mandatory dependents. Each of the abovementioned phrases is headed by a single lexical word which indicates the syntactic category of that phrase. ...
... Generalmente, expresan papeles temáticos de beneficiario, instrumento, locación, compañía, tiempo, manera y propósito. Esta categoría gramatical no es homogénea (Kroeger 2008;Tallerman 2009). ...
Se presenta una descripci.n contrastiva de las adposiciones del amuzgo, mazahua y mazateco (familia otomangue). En particular, se discute la categorización gramatical de las adposiciones, así como la etiqueta ‘adjunto’. Se destaca que los adjuntos son unidades sintácticas de diferentes clases, por lo que están en capacidad de compartir propiedades con los argumentos centrales, ampliar el sentido del predicado y formar parte del evento. La propuesta se basa en reconocer tres tipos de frases adpositivas: las no predicativas, las predicativas y las especificativas, las cuales evidencian propiedades gramaticales propias. Con lo anterior se observa que la categoría gramatical ‘adposición’ cubre los diferentes niveles de análisis de la lengua al estar en varias capas de la cláusula. Morfológicamente se detecta una inestabilidad en los sistemas de estudio porque varían las realizaciones de las adposiciones: en algunos casos se realizan como morfemas ligados y en otros, como morfemas libres. En cuanto a su sintaxis se concluye que las adposiciones revisadas codifican la naturaleza semántica de los papeles temáticos que se realizan como argumentos-adjuntos. Semánticamente, las adposiciones presentan restricciones en cuanto a roles temáticos, tienen alcance sobre el predicado y sus argumentos, o bien, solo sobre el predicado. A nivel de la cláusula, marcan caso como resultado de la rección del predicado matriz, esto en verbos intransitivos, transitivos o ditransitivos.
... One possible reason involves the syntax and semantics of a head in a phrase structure. Since the head noun is regarded as the most important element that carries the core meaning of a noun phrase (Tallerman, 2020), the presence of a head noun that is nonspecific in reference provides the structure with which it occurs with an overall interpretation of a general description about a certain entity, which is the basic meaning that allows relative marker omission in Thai. ...
Relative clauses are a well-studied phenomenon in linguistics, giving rise to discoveries about human language. In this study, we consider thîi-less relative clauses in Thai, in which a relative marker may be omitted under certain circumstances. The objectives of the study are to identify native speakers’ conditions of thîi omission and to explore whether knowledge of the conditions is transferred to their relative marker omission in English. Two parallel acceptability judgment tasks in Thai and English were conducted: 437 students from various faculties at Kasetsart University judged the acceptability of thîi-less relative clauses while 233 non-English major students and 83 English major students at the same university judged the acceptability of English marker-less relative clauses. Results showed the most favorable condition for thîi omission is a subject relative clause that modifies a general head noun and contains a non-eventive predicate. Such a structure of a thîi-less relative clause resembles the basic construction of nominal modification, i.e., a noun modified by a phrase. Results also showed the transfer of the thîi omission pattern into English, particularly among students with lower English proficiency. With L1 and L2 supporting data, the study demonstrated that syntax and semantics are determinants of relative marker omission in Thai.
... Syntax, which is one aspect (apart from morphology, semantics, pragmatics and phonology) that makes up the English language, encompasses word classification, word order in phrases and sentences, phrase and sentence structure as well as sentence construction (Tallerman, 2014). Of the components making up language, Van Valin (2001) argues that syntax remains at the centre of human language enabling different meanings to be expressed via various possible combinations of words. ...
This paper puts forward the aspect of syntax as one determining factor of readability for consideration when writing a text, to ensure the understanding of the target audience or readers. In doing so, this paper also hopes to reinforce the need for understanding syntactic builds of a text, as a factor determining its readability in English language teaching. In line with the theme of shaping new understandings in English language teaching, this paper highlights the need to incorporate the teaching of syntax in teaching text comprehension and writing in English to non-native speakers of English. This paper asserts that students’ understanding of syntax can be enhanced through text simplification, as research findings have indicated that text simplification makes texts more accessible to learners of English, and makes their writing more manageable.
... This argument is in line with Burton-Roberts (2011) who contends that syntax is the term used to describe the study of the shape, placement, and grouping of the elements that make up sentences. In addition, according to Tallerman (2011), the term syntax refers to the way words are put together to form phrases and sentences. Based on the above arguments, it can be concluded that syntax is a study of how to combine words in the formation of sentences. ...
The syntactic category is known as part of speech or word class, and it tells about the words in the sentence function. This study examined the syntactic categories used in English slogans in automotive advertisements. Practically, this study examined the types of syntactic category and how it is used in English slogans in automotive advertisements. By employing a descriptive qualitative method in which the data were analyzed using Carnie’s (2013) theory of syntactic category, the researcher took the data from the official website of several automotive brands. The researcher chose ten English slogans of automotive advertisements from America and Asia consisting of phrases and sentences which became the data of this study. The results of this study revealed that there are two kinds of phrases and sentences, including five noun phrases, one adjective phrase, three imperative sentences, and one interrogative sentence in the automotive commercials. To investigate the word function and position in English slogans, the data were described by using a tree diagram. Furthermore, it could be concluded that the mostly used phrases and sentences in English slogans in automotive advertisements were noun phrases and imperative sentences. Through the results of this study, it is suggested that the next researchers can use other objects of the study besides the automotive commercials from America and Asia. Further studies can also be conducted in English advertising slogans in other products, such as motorcycle, food, cloth, tourism, phone, beauty and other commercials. Keywords: Syntax, Syntactic Category, Slogans
... zu nennen (z.B. Bloomfield 1933, Algeo 1973, Алёкшина 1997, Tallerman 1998, Matthews 2000, Van Langendonck 2000. Keiner von ihnen hat jedoch gezielt die inneren grammatischen Beziehungen der Eigennamen behandelt. ...
... Contohnya diperturunkan semula dalam (6). Walau bagaimanapun, dalam kajian bahasa Inggeris, ayat kewujudan terbina dengan kehadiran ekspletif there di pangkal ayat (Radford, 2009;Haegeman, 1994;Tallerman, 2011;Carmie, 2006;Eltern, 2008;Heusinger, 2011;Sabbagh, 2009;Cruschina, 2012). Contohnya diperturunkan dalam (7). ...
The transitivity of ada has been discussed by past scholars as a monotransitive verb. However, the variation of sentence structure used by native speakers shows that ada is not always transitive in the various structures. This is because this lexis shows different transitivity especially in existential sentences. Therefore, this study aims to present a new analysis of transitivity of ada that functions as existential verb from a theoretical perspective. This study uses the DBP Corpus as a data source, applying digital text analysis. The selected data is limited to existential sentences structured Ada- DP-FPrep and analyzed using a Minimalist approach. Through descriptive analysis, the Argument Dropping Test proves that DP and FPrep in the Ada-DP-FPrep structure function as complements to produce grammatical existence sentences. From a theoretical perspective, vP shell analysis proves that ada is a ditransitive in the Ada-DP-FPrep construction. This study also denies Carnie (2006) who claims that all existential lexical does not distribute the q-role universally like the expletive there in English language studies. On the other hand, the q-marking in the vP shell finds that the head V in the Ada-DP-FPrep structure assigning the q-role to its complement, i.e. DP marked THEME and FPrep marked LOCATIVE. This study has an impact on existing transitivity research from a Minimalist perspective, especially as V dicomplement that can be used by linguistic researchers and students of generative syntax.
... An unbounded number of modifiers can often be added to a constituent (finiteness vs. iterability); modifiers tend to be optional (obligatoriness vs. optionality); and modifiers often occur in a greater variety of structural relationships with their head (structural fixity vs. structural flexibility). These three dimensions of variation summarize a large number of properties and linguistic tests that have been discussed in the literature (Borsley 1999;Comrie 1993;Creissels 2014;Croft 2001;Forker 2014;Haegeman 1994;Haspelmath 2014;Hornstein and Lightfoot 1981;Koenig et al. 2003;Kroeger 2004;Matthews 1981;Przepiórkowski 1999a,b;Radford 1988;Rákosi 2006;Schütze 1995;Schütze and Gibson 1999;Tallerman 2015;Tutunjian and Boland 2008;Vater 1978;Wichmann 2014;Zwicky 1993). 4 We emphasize that these properties are not definitional and do not represent necessary and sufficient conditions on argumenthood. ...
We present a learnability analysis of the argument-modifier distinction, asking whether there is information in the distribution of English constituents that could allow learners to identify which constituents are arguments and which are modifiers. We first develop a general description of some of the ways in which arguments and modifiers differ in distribution. We then identify two models from the literature that can capture these differences, which we call the argument-only model and the argument-modifier model. We employ these models using a common learning framework based on two simplicity biases which tradeoff against one another. The first bias favors a small lexicon with highly reusable lexical items, and the second, opposing, bias favors simple derivations of individual forms – those using small numbers of lexical items. Our first empirical study shows that the argument-modifier model is able to recover the argument-modifier status of many individual constituents when evaluated against a gold standard. This provides evidence in favor of our general account of the distributional differences between arguments and modifiers. It also suggests a kind of lower bound on the amount of information that a suitably equipped learner could use to identify which phrases are arguments or modifiers. We then present a series of analyses investigating how and why the argument-modifier model is able to recover the argument-modifier status of some constituents. In particular, we show that the argumentmodifier model is able to provide a simpler description of the input corpus than the argument-only model, both in terms of lexicon size, and in terms of the complexity of individual derivations. Intuitively, the argument-modifier model is able to do this because it is able to ignore spurious modifier structure when learning the lexicon. These analyses further support our general account of the differences between arguments and modifiers, as well as our simplicity-based approach to learning.
... The inter-sentence connectors used in this study facilitate the construction of compound sentences (Tallerman, 2011) and relate two contiguous events to each other in a text (Gómez & Ramos, 2016), creating a subordinative or coordinate relation, but in terms of cognitive processing, this is not relevant (Zunino, 2017). Likewise, the connectors have an instructional meaning (Montolío, 2001) activating information in the reader's lexicon and operating with the information that appears later (Givón, 1992). ...
Recent studies prove a strong association between reading and eye movements. Few investigations report the role of connectors and prior knowledge during reading in Spanish, as well as their association with eye movements. The present study aims to evaluate the effects of the presence absence of connectors in two argumentative texts on cognitive effort and reading comprehension. Forty-one psychology undergraduate students participated in a reading comprehension task, while their eye movements were recorded. The condition with connectors was related to prior knowledge, the slide time fixation, the slide number fixations, and the slide return fixations. The condition without connectors was related to the return fixations, the time fixation, and the number of fixations. Prior knowledge was correlated with the total time fixation, the total return fixations, and comprehension. This suggests that during reading without connectors more cognitive effort is required, observed in the return fixations; moreover, prior knowledge has an important role in the visual strategies required to process and obtain a representation of text. But participant performance was still good as observed in the scores of the reading comprehension task
... The inter-sentence connectors used in this study facilitate the construction of compound sentences (Tallerman, 2011) and relate two contiguous events to each other in a text (Gómez & Ramos, 2016), creating a subordinative or coordinate relation, but in terms of cognitive processing, this is not relevant (Zunino, 2017). Likewise, the connectors have an instructional meaning (Montolío, 2001) activating information in the reader's lexicon and operating with the information that appears later (Givón, 1992). ...
Recent studies prove a strong association between reading and eye movements. Few investigations report the role of connectors and prior knowledge during reading in Spanish, as well as their association with eye movements. The present study aims to evaluate the effects of the presenceabsence of connectors in two argumentative texts on cognitive effort and reading comprehension.Forty-one psychology undergraduate students participated in a reading comprehension task, while their eye movements were recorded. The condition with connectors was related to prior knowledge, the slide time fixation, the slide number fixations, and the slide return fixations. The condition without connectors was related to the return fixations, the time fixation, and the number of fixations. Prior knowledge was correlated with the total time fixation, the total return fixations, and comprehension. This suggests that during reading without connectors more cognitive effort is required, observed in the return fixations; moreover, prior knowledge has an important role in the visual strategies required to process and obtain a representation of text. But participant performance was still good as observed in the scores of the reading comprehension task.
... He ran as fast as he could. 9. Some students like to study in the mornings. ...
تختبر هذه الدراسة قابلیات طلبة المرحلة الأولى فی کلیة التربیة الریاضیة بجامعة الموصل فی تکوین الجمل باللغة الانکلیزیة. یجری ذلک من خلال اختبارهم أثناء المحاضرات وإخضاعهم لکتابة کل أنواع الجمل الانکلیزیة بصورة صحیحة لتمکینهم من التغلب على الصعوبات التی تواجههم فی تکوین هذه الأنواع من الجمل.ومن فروض هذا البحث التی ینبغی التنبه لها هو أن هؤلاء الطلبة لا یمتلکون أدنى معرفة بقواعد اللغة الأساسیة ومعرفة الأجزاء التی تتألف منها الجملة. لذا وجب علینا إتباع بعض الخطوات لتمکینهم من معرفتها والتی هی مهمة جداً فی تکوین الجمل. ومن هذه الخطوات إخضاع الطلبة إلى تمرینات وتدریبات على کتابة کل أنواع الجمل، ومن ثم التمییز بین أنواع تلک الجمل التی هی البسیطة والمرکبة والمعقدة لیتسنى لهم الوقوف على عموم الهدف الذی لأجله قمنا بهذه الدراسة ولأجل أن یعوا أبعاد ما نطمح إلیه فی الارتقاء بمستویاتهم العلمیة.
Makala hii inalenga kuchambua michakato ya kisintaksia ya uundaji wa sentensi changamani za Kiswahili kwa kubainisha namna kishazi kikuu na kishazi bebwa vinavyowekwa pamoja kuunda sentensi hizo. Ili kufanikisha lengo hilo, makala imeongozwa na Nadharia Rasmi ya Chomsky (1965). Data za makala hii ni sentensi changamani za Kiswahili ambazo zilikusanywa kwa njia ya usomaji wa matini kutoka katika riwaya na magazeti. Matini hizi ziliteuliwa kwa kutumia mbinu ya usampulishaji nasibu sahili. Uchambuzi wa data ulifanyika kwa mkabala wa kitaamuli kwa kutumia mbinu ya uchambuzi wa kimaudhui. Makala hii imebaini kwamba kuna michakato mitatu inayotumika kuunda sentensi changamani ambayo ni uchopekaji, udondoshaji-chopezi na udondoshaji-chopezi hamishi. Kwa kutumia Nadharia Rasmi, imebainika kwamba kila mchakato una hatua zake katika kuunda sentensi changamani.
Philosophical action theory seems to be in pretty good shape. The same may not be true for the study of human action in economics. Famous is the rant that the study of human action in economics gives reason to tremble for the reputation of the subject. But how does this come about? Since economic action is about action, the broader study must surely have a strong impact on the more specific field. The paper sets out, from the ground up, how an essential concept in economic theory–the concept of competition–can fundamentally benefit from insights derived exclusively from analytical action theory broadly conceived. In doing so, the paper delivers on an old Austrian promise: it is sometimes claimed that Austrian economists understand competition better than most economists. This may be a bold claim, since Austrian economists have neither traced the understanding of subjectivity to its very origin (the theory of intentionality), nor have they traced their sympathy for methodological individualism in relation to market processes to its very ground (the theory of (human) action). This paper aims to fill this gap. Moreover, by grounding an Austrian view of competition in analytic action theory, it succeeds in avoiding the serious problems of the dominant equilibrium approach. By explaining competition as rivalry, the paper draws on the philosophy and logic of human action to bring the (economic) agent back into play. In this way, a case is made for an integrated view of Austrian theory as an amalgam of Austrian economics and analytic action theory.
In this chapter the authors argue that syntacticians and the field of syntax have for too long avoided engaging with the colonial legacies and the implicit racist assumptions that have shaped the discipline. They take three key areas which relate to syntax—teaching, research, and citation practices—and explore the ways in which these have been intricately tied up with, or curtailed as a result of, dominant narratives about language, global hierarchies, the idealised “native-speaker,” and language as a disembodied object. The authors present a case study of citation practices in Bantu linguistics, where there is an underrepresentation of African scholars in the literature. Beyond the critiques that can be directed at the discipline, as scholars who work in this field, the authors argue that there can and must be a decolonial syntax. They provide practical steps for action in the form of provocations which they urge scholars to engage with, reflect on, and implement within their praxis.
There are broad disagreements between existing models regarding the mental representations and processes involved in the "DEGREE ADVERB + PROPER NAME" construction, including divergences regarding the semantics of the degree device, the category status of the proper name, the construction's expressed meaning, its compo-sitionality, and, crucially, the operation holding between the degree device and the proper name. Our corpus-based investigation of two competing models from Construction Grammar and Formal Semantics shows that while both make useful contributions to the scientific understanding of the construction, neither is empirically adequate. Most importantly, we find that the construction participates in several non-predicted expressed meanings; multivariate analyses show that the three meanings amenable to statistical analysis cluster with different semantic usage-features. We argue that the best way to account for the construction's semantics/pragmatics is via a previously-dismissed cognitive mechanism: an enrichment/strengthening-type operation whereby a pragmatically-supplied scale is added to the message.
Fiillere başta yön ilişkisi olmak üzere amaç, niyet, zamansal sıralama, görünüş vb. anlam ilişkileri yükleyen ilişkili hareket; zaman, görünüş, kip gibi evrensel bir kategori olarak kabul edilmektedir. İlk olarak Avustralya dillerinde tespit edilen ilişkili hareket, genel olarak morfolojik bir kategori olarak kabul edilmiş ve bu görüş, uzun yıllar kabul görmüştür. Ancak son zamanlarda yapılan çalışmalar, evrensel özellikler gösteren dil bilgisel bir kategorinin sadece bütün dillerde morfolojik yollarla karşılanmasının oldukça genel bir ifade olduğunu, bu tür kategorilerin başka dil bilgisel yollarla (söz dizimsel, sözlüksel) kodlanabileceğini göstermiştir. İlişkili hareket üzerine yapılan çalışmaların sayısı arttıkça bu kategorinin yalnızca morfolojik bir kategori olmadığı görüşü ağırlık kazanmıştır. Bu çalışma, evrensel bir kategori olarak kabul edilen ilişkili hareketin Türkçede de bulunduğunu ve morfo-sentaktik ve sözlüksel yollarla kodlandığını ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. Türkçedeki ilişkili hareket üzerine yapılan ilk çalışma olması sebebiyle önem arz eden bu çalışmada ilişkili hareketin çok fiilli yapılar (seri fiil yapıları, birleşik fiil) ile kodlandığını ve bu yapıların oluşumunda kullanılan zaman ekleri ve zarf-fiil eklerinin morfolojik bir rol üstlendiği görüşü savunulmaktadır. Çalışmada, Türkçedeki ilişkili hareket örnekleri yazılı kaynaklardan ve konuşma dilinden tespit edilmiş, işlevlerine göre iki sınıfa (birleşik fiil şeklindeki ilişkili hareket, seri fiil şeklindeki ilişkili hareket) ayrılmıştır. Bu çalışma, Türkçedeki ilişkili hareket üzerine yapılacak çalışmalar için bazı veriler sunacağı gibi karşılaştırmalı dil araştırmalarında Türkçeyi ilişkili hareket özelliklerine göre değerlendirme imkânı sağlayacaktır.
This article contributes to the cross-linguistic discussion of causation in language. It proceeds on the note that causation is a significant notion, both cognitively and grammatically. The Mabia (Gur) languages of West Africa are severely under-represented in the literature on causative structure. Drawing on naturalistic data, I focus on an analysis of causatives in Likpakpaanl, an under-researched Mabia language spoken in Ghana and Togo. Secondary data from thirteen other (related) West African languages are also presented to establish the typological correlates. Likpakpaanl deploys all the traditional causativising strategies- lexical, morphological, serialising and analytic. But notably, the use of nasals, especially vowel nasality as a causativising mechanism is novel and uniquely places Likpakpaanl among its genetic and areal relatives. The Likpakpaanl analytic causative is the balanced biclausal structure and, therefore, aligns well with the biclausal causative structure described for the West African linguistic area, contra the deraked structure of Indo-European languages. A thorough investigation of the constellation of causatives in the Mabia languages promises new insights into causative typology.
What is the remit of theoretical linguistics? How are human languages different from animal calls or artificial languages? What philosophical insights about language can be gleaned from phonology, pragmatics, probabilistic linguistics, and deep learning? This book addresses the current philosophical issues at the heart of theoretical linguistics, which are widely debated not only by linguists, but also philosophers, psychologists, and computer scientists. It delves into hitherto uncharted territory, putting philosophy in direct conversation with phonology, sign language studies, supersemantics, computational linguistics, and language evolution. A range of theoretical positions are covered, from optimality theory and autosegmental phonology to generative syntax, dynamic semantics, and natural language processing with deep learning techniques. By both unwinding the complexities of natural language and delving into the nature of the science that studies it, this book ultimately improves our tools of discovery aimed at one of the most essential features of our humanity, our language.
Literary works are rich in themes due to their intense language. Alamgir Hashmi is a contemporary Pakistani poet whose themes are akin to mundane life. It is challenging to grasp the deep and true meaning of his poems because he talks about nature and everyday elements to tackle with highly complex themes like happiness and life. Therefore, it is important and essential to identify the most common themes in Alamgir Hashmi’s poem: Children at Lesson in order to understand his poetry better. This research article tries to interpret the poem on the basis of thematic analysis (TA) that is a comprehensive and qualitative method for analysis of a literary text. From educational perspective, this poem is very rich as it delineates the studying norms of children. Selection of this poem, Children at Lesson has been made for multiple reasons: it certainly manifests the Pakistani culture but its structure also speaks of its complex narrative beauty, thematic meaningfulness and unique diction. All these elements combine to augment the artistic beauty of this narrative piece of writing.
Communication is the main function of the human language as a social institution. It is constantly changed in order to meet the communication needs of the speakers. Due to the specific characteristics of sport media, innovations occur mainly in this type of text. In this study, we tried to investigate the innovations in contemporary Persian sports media. These innovations are studied and analyzed in the framework of the Functional Grammar. The findings of this research show that in the contemporary sports media many sorts of grammatical changes have taken place. Valency reduction, changes in word order, aspectual innovations, analogical constructions, creating new derivations and slang word formations are the most common innovations in this genre. These innovations should not be regarded as mere mistakes, but they show the process of grammatical changes that are in progress in the language.
A common diagnostic for distinguishing between arguments and adjuncts is obligatoriness/optionality : as a rule of thumb, arguments are obligatory and adjuncts are optional. However, there are many examples of optional arguments, which have led researchers to question the usefulness of this diagnostic and sometimes even the very distinction between arguments and adjuncts. This paper aims to show that arguments are not simply optional; they are omissible only under identifiable grammatical and pragmatic conditions. By contrast, there are no conditions on when adjuncts can be omitted. There are instead pragmatic conditions that dictate the inclusion of adjuncts.
This paper examines relativization in Ikwuano Igbo. The problem of word order and the selectional rule for grammaticality in the realization of semantic affinity that exist in sentence construction cannot be ignored. This study investigates the embedding features that make sentential structures to be embedded in other sentences. The relative pronouns found in Ikwuano Igbo include; “ónyé- who,whom”, “nkè- which”, “nà- that”, “mà- whether”, “kà- that”. The relative pronoun occurs as the subject of a relative clause making it to be grammatical. The theoretical framework adopted by this study is the embedding principle of “Principles and Parameters”. This theory is a brain child of Noam Chomsky. This study takes a descriptive approach of language analysis. The data for this paper is elicited utterances by adult native speakers and intuition from the researcher. The aim of this paper is to examine relativization in Ikwuano Igbo with a view to establishing the Ikwuano strategy. This paper explains the motivation for the relative pronoun strategy and its behavior in the language. This study reveals that relativization in Ikwuano Igbo remains the most productive strategy in Igbo and many other languages for grammaticality. The study shows that relativization performs an emphatic function in the grammatical structure of Ikwuano Igbo.
This study is a pragmatic analysis of passivized English proverbs.The analysis investigates the Directive Speech Act used in the data bydescribing their pragmatic identification through their felicity conditionsbesides the intended meaning or the Conversational Implicature. Directivespeech act refers to the functions that direct the acts of people. The dataconsists of ten English proverbs taken from The facts on File Dictionary ofProverbs used in the passive voice, and they are analyzed in terms ofSearle's classification of speech act (Directives). In addition to Grice'sconcept of Conversational Implicature. The first section deals with thetheoretical review concerning proverbs, speech act theory andconversational Implicature. The second one deals with data analysis, thethird deals with conclusions and references.
English fulfils important intra- and international functions in 21st century India. However, the country's size in terms of area, population, and linguistic diversity means that completely uniform developments in Indian English (IndE) are unlikely. Using sophisticated corpus-linguistic and statistical methods, this Element explores the unity and diversity of IndE by providing studies of selected lexical and morphosyntactic features that characterise Indian English(es) in the 21st century. The findings indicate a degree of incipient 'supralocalisation', i.e. a spread of features beyond their place of origin, cutting through the typological Indo-Aryan vs. Dravidian divide.
The objective of this study was to analyze the syntactical construction differences between English and Wawonii language using a contrastive analysis approach. To carry out this analysis, a descriptive qualitative has been used to investigate the syntactical structure of the English and Wawonii language. In gaining the English syntactical construction data, this study used article journals and online books that centralized on English syntactical construction topics. Meanwhile, in eliciting the Wawonii syntactical construction data, this study employed a non-probability sampling that was drawn purposively. In other words, the data was collected through participant observation and in-depth interviews with seven (7) informants of Wawonii language speakers. The 7 informants were the leaders of each district in the Konawe Archipelago, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia, which were known, have better comprehension of Wawonii language syntactical construction features. The results of this contrastive analysis study showed that English and Wawonii language have differences in the sense of one word in Wawonii form indicates one sentence form in English, possessive construction form, plural form, comparative sentence form, question formation form, verbal sentence form, negative sentence form, and simple past tense form. This study contributed into the sociolinguistics field in order to enrich the speakers (or foreigners) of English and Wawonii language comprehension of both language syntactical structures.
Punjabi is one of the major languages spoken in Pakistan, India, and many other parts of the world. Despite its popularity, Punjabi has not been studied and explored extensively, especially with respect to its syntax. In this study, the open-ended syntactic constructions of Punjabi were looked at using the revised extended standard transformational (REST) generative theory. This was done to find out how the surface structures of open-ended interrogative syntactic constructions in Punjabi are made from their deep structures. Subsequently, the Punjabi constructions are compared to their English counterparts with respect to REST to figure out syntactic similarities and dissimilarities between the open-ended syntactic constructions of both languages. The data for this qualitative study has been taken from a ‘Punjabi book, Descriptive Grammars by Bhatia (2013). The selected data has been analyzed through X-bar tree diagrams. The exploratory research design has been used to conduct this study. The findings of this study reveal that Punjabi and English are syntactically distinct languages. Punjabi is an in-situ language since the question words do not move to generate surface structures, while English is an ex-situ language as the question words move to form surface structures through the transformational rules of ‘Wh’ movement and operator movement. Also, English uses dummy auxiliaries, whereas no such dummies are used in Punjabi. Finally, Punjabi interrogative constructions have reduplication features, unlike English open-ended constructions. The syntactic disparities between these two languages have implications for SOV language learners who aspire to learn English and for those enrolled in undergraduate and graduate programs.
Syntax is one of the important branches of theoretical linguistics that deals with the study of structural constructions of various languages. However, learners often find studying and internalizing the contents of syntax a challenging and daunting task. To address this issue, mixed-method research was conducted to evaluate the perceptions of fifty non-randomly selected sixth-semester undergraduate ESL students with reference to the course contents and teaching methodology. The survey research design was employed, and the data were collected through a comprehensive questionnaire. Findings reveal that most learners studied grammar at schools and colleges through the deducted approach. This grammar background has enabled them to grasp course contents of syntax rather effortlessly. Moreover, the learning process was facilitated by comparing English syntactic constructions to those of the Urdu language in addition to the structures of other languages. However, there are some topics that learners find somewhat laborious and challenging to internalize. These contents include tree diagrams, structural ambiguity, forms and functions, phrase structure rules, and X-bar rules. Personalized instruction and extensive practice can make these course contents less challenging. The learners generally have felt their overall satisfaction with the teacher's interactive and learner-centered teaching methodology.
As we all know, the studying EFL is a tough job that entails mastering a variety of activities in a variety of areas. The purpose of this study is to examine the difficulties encountered by the majority of English learners when it comes to grammatical rules. They know the English language's grammatical rules instinctively, allowing them to create an unlimited number of phrases. As a result, these grammatical structures seem to be very complex. Non-finite verbs are those that lack the capacity to function as the only verb in a simple phrase and the ability to be marked for tense/or to be in harmony with the subject. Today, there is a need to examine non-finite forms since they represent one of the most significant issues in which forms may influence the grammatical behavior of other forms. Additionally, English language learners benefit from a working understanding of non-finite verb forms. As such, the researcher here employs a diagnostic exam to accomplish the study's objectives. Additionally, the findings of this study indicate that error analysis, as a branch of applied linguistics and methodology, has a significant impact on the learning of non-finite verbs due to the variety of errors that occur in their form (i.e. this study establishes that non-finite verbs are extremely difficult). That is why non-native English speakers such as Iraqis, Algerians, and Syrians score poorly in comparison to their capacity to acquire a language. According to Mala,
Fungsi gramatis objek sering menimbulkan kekeliruan dalam kalangan pengguna bahasa Melayu walaupun penjelasan telah diberikan dalam buku tatabahasa pegangan, Tatabahasa Dewan. Bertitik tolak daripada isu kekeliruan objek, kajian ini bermatlamat untuk memberikan huraian secara teoretis tentang fungsi gramatis objek dalam ayat bahasa Melayu dengan meneliti perilaku sintaksis empat kata kerja, iaitu kata kerja “mencari”, “mencarikan”, “menderma” dan “mendermakan”. Penjelasan teoretis adalah berlandaskan Program Minimalis. Dari aspek metodologi, kajian ini menggunakan data korpus DBP dan korpus dibuat individu dengan yakin (DIY) daripada akhbar Berita Harian Online. Di samping itu, soal selidik juga dilakukan untuk memperoleh penilaian kebolehterimaan ayat berdasarkan intuisi penutur natif bahasa Melayu. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa penutur natif bahasa Melayu menerima bahawa ayat “mencari” dan “menderma” mempunyai dua argumen yang berfungsi sebagai subjek dan objek langsung. Bagi kata kerja “mencarikan”, didapati bahawa penutur natif bahasa Melayu cenderung terhadap binaan dua objek yang diwakili oleh frasa nama. Walau bagaimanapun, dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa bagi kata kerja “mendermakan”, subjek kajian cenderung memilih binaan datif, iaitu FN+ kata kerja + FN + FP. Kajian ini berpendirian bahawa objek tak langsung dalam bahasa Melayu perlu diberikan pilihan, sama ada ada frasa nama atau frasa preposisi yang terdiri daripada kontruksi FN + FN atau FN + FP. Binaan datif ini selari dengan intuisi penutur natif dan justifikasi secara teoretis.
In this dissertation, I apply a theory of semantic composition, as introduced by Marcus Kracht, to represent the meaning of Arabic sentences. Kracht’s theory is a modification of Kees Vermeulen’s work on referent systems. In Kracht’s approach, the renaming process of variables is not decided by directionality, as suggested in the original version of referent systems, but by the morphosyntactic information associated with each variable. Arabic morphological constituents are allowed to be discontinuous, which maintains the pure surface treatment on the one hand and proves the possibility to save the concatenative paradigm for Arabic morphology on the other. An empty string is proposed in cases of null-subject or covert copula clauses, specifically challenging constructions of Arabic syntax. The semantics of Arabic temporal morphosyntactic markers is represented depending on Wolfgang Klein’s theory of tense. As a part of my work, I develop a computational lexicon for a fragment of Arabic depending on the proposed analysis.
This study aims at clarifying the definitions, structures ,conditions and uses of Periphrastic Do (PD) in English. PD is an auxiliary , it is an alternative device for using inflection process. It is semantically not intrinsic but syntactically obligatory. It is used to satisfy the needs of the sentence structures. It can be used in verbal negation, negative preposed constituents, inverted questions, anphoric PD and tag questions. In these structures , only the use of PD is correct and necessary . It is a syntactic device that performs a special function. During the years, PD underwent a change and development from zero to obligatory use in specific contexts.
The present article deals with a meaningful unit of a language, i.e. a sentence. Considered in terms of its hierarchical relationship to other units of language structure, a sentence must be placed at the top of the pyramid formed by these units, since the purpose of all other structural units is ultimately the formation of a sentence. A sentence is a concept of wide scope, covering a wide range of sentence structures from single-word to complex polypredicative constructions. The purpose of the investigation is to study a sentence from different points of view. The article explores the three aspects of the sentence: structural, semantic, and pragmatic. They are the main ones since they cover three main aspects of a sentence: form, content, and use. A sentence is the product of the creative activity of the author of the statement. It is the most complex unit in the language system. The complexity of the sentence lies in the multiplicity of its components, the number of which is not structurally limited in the sentence: the sentence can be large and any sentence can be continued indefinitely, although the number of elements making up each sentence is final. The complexity of this unit is connected with the diversity of the mutual relations of the elements making up the sentence. It is a minimal syntactic construction used in acts of speech communication, characterized by predictivity and realizing a certain structural scheme. Intonational design is an essential feature of any sentence. In the language relative features of such design are more important than absolute ones.
A sentence is a grammatically complete string of words expressing a complete thought. ThIs concept means tgat tgere wukk be kujekt varuiys strubg if wirds . This various string of words will cause different kinds of sentence. The kinds of sentence can be studied from syntactic and semantic point of view.This article discusses the kinds of sentence from syntax ad semantic point of view. It tries to discuss what kind of sentence a sentence belongs to. The discussion is based on theory of syntax and theory of semantics and takes a concclussion.A sentence which has one clause and it is ended by a full stop and the speaker asserts its proposition will be a simple sentence, a statement sentence and a declarative sentence as well. Besude these, it may also belong to an analytic sentence if it is necessarily true as the result of the sense of the words in it.
This chapter examines verb juxtaposition with special focus on aspect of serial verb construction in Ibibio (New Benue-Congo). Serial verb construction is construed as consisting of successive independent verbs in a complex sentence without any overt connective or sub-coordinating marker. The aim of this paper is to analyse the syntactic structure of serial verb construction, and highlight the different classes of serial verb construction in Ibibio. Also, the paper analyses the negation of serial verb construction. The theoretical framework adopted in this paper is the descriptive model. The data were gathered from the library, listening to acclaimed speakers of central Ibibio and my intuition as a native speaker of Ibibio. An application of the descriptive model reveals that the order of occurrence of the verbs is paramount to the understanding of the envisaged meaning of the sentence. Since any reversal of the verb-position may result in semantic differences or grammatical ambiguity. Besides, consequential serial verb construction violates the subject-hood hypotheses of the serial verb construction (SVC). Furthermore, we identified two types of negation in Ibibio involving the effect of the scope on it constitute or the entire sentence.
Two positions of Bolinger, about synonymy and meaningfulness of words, point to significance of controlling the referentiality of word forms, from representing them in grammar to their projection onto surface structure, i.e. configurationality. In particular, it becomes critical to control the range of surface substitution for surface syntactic categories of words to maintain referential properties of idiosyncrasy. Categorial grammars as reference systems suggest ways to keep the two aspects in grammar. The first dividend of adopting a categorial perspective is systematically distinguishing metaphorical sense extensions from idioms. The second dividend is procedural. Some tokens can be seen to be types themselves, with distinct referential import. Furthermore, some idiomatic meanings which require a unique phonological word for specific reference to events and participants can be types too. Together they can be thought of as the idiotype. The idiotype as idiosyncrasy’s foot through the door of grammar reveals controllable range of possibilities for referentiality and configurationality of idiosyncrasy. Phrasal and idiomatic meanings can then be treated compositionally, given the proposed added role of paracompositionality arising from event versus predicate distinction at the level of predicate-argument structure, in multiword expression cum idiom and phrasal verb treatment, which we show for English, Mandarin Chinese and Turkish.
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