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Grammatical aspects of speech errors

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Linguistics: The Cambridge Survey is a comprehensive introduction to prevalent research in all branches of the field of linguistics, from syntactic theory to ethnography of speaking, from signed language to the mental lexicon, from language acquisition to discourse analysis. Each chapter has been written by a specialist particularly distinguished in his or her field who has accepted the challenge of reviewing the current issues and future prospects in sufficient depth for the scholar and with sufficient clarity for the student. Each volume can be read independently and has a particular focus. Volume I covers the internal structure of the language faculty itself, while Volume II considers the evidence for, and the implications of, a generativist approach to language. Psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics are covered in Volume III, and Volume IV concentrates on sociolinguistics and the allied fields of anthropological linguistics and discourse and conversation analysis. Several of the chapters in the work concentrate on the interface between different aspects of linguistic theory or the boundaries between linguistic theory and other disciplines. Thus in both its scope and in its approach the Survey is a unique and fundamental work of reference. It undoubtedly fulfils the editor's principal aim of providing a wealth of information, insight and ideas that will excite and challenge all readers with an interest in linguistics.

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... Anwar's paper made a change among speech error investigators. Fromkin and Cutler accepted his claim and started to trace the interest in speech errors back to the Arab linguist Al-Kisa'i in the ninth century (Cutler 1982a;Fromkin 1988). ...
... Researchers, including Fromkin (1973), Fry (1973), Harely (1984, Hockett (1973), Levelt (1983) and Shattuck-Hufnagel & Klatt (1979), investigated speech errors to gain insights into the language. Others were interested in the nature of linguistic performance and evidence drawn from speech errors (among them were Cutler 1980b; Dell 1988Dell , 1990Dell & Reich 1981, Dell & Repka 1992Fromkin 1988;Garrett 1975Garrett , 1980aGarrett , 1980bGoldrick et al. 2011;Humphreys et al. 2010;Jaegar 1992aJaegar , 1992bLevelt 1983;Nooteboom 1973Nooteboom ,1980Nooteboom , 2005Nooteboom & Quene 2008;Shattuck-Hufnagel 1987a, 1987bStemberger 1982Stemberger ,1983Stemberger , 1985Moller et al. 2007) ...
... What they intended of the word 'errors' differed from the sense the term is used to refer to in modern times, though it may have paved the way for speech error reseach in its modern sense. Thus, as it was shown above, the paper has proved that speech errors are truly our windows to the human mind (Fromkin 1988), a window that enabled us to prove the reality of long-hypothesized units and one that will continue to give us insights into other hidden internal workings of the brain. ...
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Since the early 1970s, the field of psycholinguistics has witnessed a surge in speech errors research in English and various European languages. Research work done in Arabic in this respect remains little, however. This study, drawing upon evidence from a corpus of 1102 spontaneous Colloquial Cairene Arabic (CCA) speech errors addresses the psychological reality of various linguistic units on three levels of analysis: phonological, syntactic and lexical. On the phonological level, the study shows that segment or phone (consonants and vowels), phonetic features and the syllable are all psychologically real units of performance, while consonant clusters are not 'unitary units' of performance. On the syntactic and lexical levels, the study showed that the only way one can account for various speech errors that occur on those two levels will be by assuming the existence of syntactic features, syntactic categories morpheme, and the word as real performance units and not just hypothetical descriptive ones. The paper also investigates the controversial issue of the beginning of speech error research.
... Perhaps the richest glimpse into the mental representations comes from the study of vo cabulary errors, based on the study of speech errors, which has provided an in-depth look at the mental representations and relations of symbols in the human mind (e.g., Fromkin, 1988). Humans make primarily categorical errors (substituting foods for other foods, or days of the week for other days of the week), but can also make errors based on the sound of the word, the physical appearance of the referents, and several other error types that point to specific mental associations (e.g., Fromkin, 1971). ...
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... These models codify the main levels of speech production and use a schema to make predictions. The schematic models largely utilized speech error data for motivating the structure of their models (Fromkin, 1988). Speech errors can be segmental, syllabic, morphological, syntactic, and semantic in nature, often occurring as additions, substitutions, omissions, deletions, transpositions, or blends (e.g. ...
... "walk" for a movement behaviour), which in turn activates syntactic and morphological properties of the lemma, and these, in turn, activate its phonological and phonetic properties. The Utterance Generator (Fromkin, 1971(Fromkin, , 1988 and The Theory of Lexical Access by Levelt and colleagues (Indefrey & Levelt, 2000;Levelt et al., 1999;Roelofs & Ferreira, 2019) belong in this class. An overview of such models of speech production can be found in Tucker and Tomaschek (to appear). ...
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Grammatical knowledge has often been investigated in wug tests, in which participants inflect pseudo-words. It was argued that in inflecting these pseudo-words, speakers apply their knowledge of word formation. However, it remains unclear what exactly this knowledge is and how it is learned. According to one theory, the knowledge is best characterised as abstractions that specify how units are combined. Another theory maintains that it is best characterised by memory-based analogy. In both cases the knowledge is learned by association based on positive evidence alone. In this paper, we model the classification of pseudo-words to Maltese plurals using a shallow neural network trained with an error-driven learning algorithm. We demonstrate that the classifications mirror those of Maltese speakers in a wug test. Our results indicate that speakers rely on gradient knowledge of a relation between the phonetics of whole words and plural classes, which is learned in an error-driven way.
... The third line gives source informationauthor, year and either a page reference or example number for examples from the literature; speaker name, speech type, broadcast information, and date of uttering for other examples. unknowinglyto another) and more recent ones like substitution blend and splice blend (Fay 1981), pivot utterance (Norén andLinell 2013;Schegloff 1979;Walker 2007; see also Betz 2008 andScheutz 2005 on pivot utterances in German), and malaphor (Hofstadter and Moser 1989) or idiom blend (Cutting and Bock 1997;Fromkin 1988;Geeraert et al. 2018), a combining of metaphoric expressions based on different source domains. The subtypes I will discuss in Section 5 will be semantic types. ...
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When speakers combine (or blend) expressions – that is, utter them in overlapping fashion – there is usually some degree of semantic overlap between the expressions. There is much agreement on this point. Some authors have gone further and suggested that the expressions involved are usually synonyms or near-synonyms. Others have gone further still, claiming, at least implicitly, that blends always involve synonyms or near-synonyms. In this paper I show that in many cases where expressions are combined they differ substantially in meaning, in some cases even expressing distinguishable events. I show that there is regularity in the nature of the differences in meaning, and that the differences often correspond to construal distinctions identified in the cognitive linguistics literature. Four degrees of semantic overlap between combined expressions are identified: synonymy; subsumption, where the meaning of one expression encompasses that of the other as well as contributing a bit extra; partial complementarity, where each expression conveys some element of meaning not conveyed by the other; and distinctness. Despite the parsing cost to the hearer of the speaker combining two expressions rather than choosing one over the other, the many cases of partial complementarity can be seen as serving a useful purpose. By combining semantic content that is not conventionally combined the speaker can cover more of his/her intended meaning. And by combining different construals of the same semantic content (e.g. interpretive and descriptive, different viewpoints, stative and dynamic, agentive and non-agentive, etc.) the speaker can equivocate in areas where conventionally a commitment is required. Twelve recurrent meaning differences are illustrated with examples from three different datasets.
... and that Field: Psycholinguistics 11 morphological markings are added at quite a late stage (Hence She come backs tomorrow). For a discussion, see Fromkin, 1988. Drawing upon this and other evidence, a number of researchers have proposed models that represent the stages through which a speaker needs to proceed when assembling an utterance. ...
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Chapter outlining the contribution of Psycholinguistics to Applied Linguistics. Account of the history of the field followed by a review of current research and thinking.
... 7) is certainly too far-fetched and quite infelicitous. Children's errors can count as external evidence to linguistic theory, as much as adult speech errors can (see, for example, Fromkin 1988), and, crucially, in a way the sound of blowing out a candle obviously cannot. 2. How specific are child-specific patterns? ...
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In this chapter I analyse data from Polish-speaking children, and advocate an integrated comprehension-production model of child phonology. The model predicts mutual interaction between child-specific and adult-based phonological patterns in developing systems. Thus, it departs from standard models of phonological acquisition in which child-specific patterns apply to the output of the adult-based phonological grammar (i.e. adult surface form). The proposal is opposed to two other views of the nature of child speech patterns within Optimality Theory: (i) child-specific patterns viewed as an innate endowment or ‘unmarked’ by-products of the unfolding adult-based phonological grammar (e.g. Gnanadesikan 1995/2004, Smolensky 1996), and (ii) child-specific patterns viewed as a mixture of performance factors, difficult to disentangle and beyond the scope of linguistic investigation (Hale and Reiss 1998, 2008).
... À ce niveau, des relations entre les mots se créent, bien qu'il n'y ait pas de relation de sens ou de structure organisationnelle conforme au lexique (Clark 2002 ;Dockrell & Campbell 1986). -Une étape d'encodage phonologique : les formes phonologiques appropriées (lexèmes) au lemma cible sont activées et sélectionnées (Fromkin 1988 ;Levelt 1989 ;Levelt, Roelofs & Meyer 1999). ...
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Naming disorders If all speakers have experienced word-finding difficulties, the word-finding skill is strongly impaired in many language disorders. Naming deficit, or word-finding difficulties, is observed in clinical picture of several language disorders, both acquired and developmental. This trouble can either be predictive of a language disorder or its main feature. Naming deficit is characterized by an involuntary deviation of naming intention from the speaker and/or a difficulty or even impossibility to produce the target word. Naming deficit can be the consequence of a cognitive deficit or a trouble in lexical processing. It is precisely this last point that we have chosen to discuss in the following review. Comparison between word-finding difficulties displayed in aphasia and specific language impairment have lead us to assess whether linguistic levels (phonological, morphological, lexical, semantical) involved in lexical choice and production are reached in the same way. This comparison is of a great interest as we specifically assess the quality of lexical storage and its representations in different populations (i.e. adults in which lexical storage is well developed versus children in which it is still under construction).
... The actual production of real-time speech is filled with pauses, hesitations, corrections, repeats and replacements, and slips of the tongue. The primary source of data in production is speech errors (Fromkin, 1988) because they allow us insight into the actual process which takes us from concept to realization of the message. Since errors result from misapplication of linguistic rules, they also serve as a testing ground for whether the theoretical concepts linguists propose are matched in the way units are altered, exchanged, or lost. ...
... This level involves relationships between words ( Clark, 2002;Dockrell & Campbell, 1986), although no single set of semantic relations or organizational structure is adequate for the entire lexicon ( Miller & Fellbaum, 1991). The stage of phonological processing includes the activation and selection of phonological forms (lexemes; Fromkin, 1988;Garrett, 1988;Levelt, 1989). Discussions of naming include an additional process of object identification so that naming can be characterized by a threestage process of object identification, name activation, and response generation ( Johnson, Paivio, & Clark, 1996). ...
... Note, however, that assuming a direct access of prosodic processes to semantic representations does not preclude a sequential ordering of semantic, syntactic and phonological encoding processes, as evidenced by psycholinguistic studies of certain types of speech errors (cf. Garrett 1988, Fromkin 1988) and the division of processual lexical access into lemma access and lexeme access (Levelt et al. 1991). Figure 2 gives an overview of the architecture of the SYNPHONICS system with its three central processing units: the Conceptualizer, which plans the conceptual representation of an intended utterance, the Formulator, which encodes the preverbal message in terms of grammatical structure, and the Articulator, which finally generates a speech signal. ...
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This paper sketches the grammatical encoding component -the Formulator- of the Synphonics approach to the computational modeling of natural language production. The Synphonics Formulator takes its bearings from well-established results in psycholinguistics about the course of the human language production process, as well as by recent developments regarding the representation of linguistic knowledge in theoretical linguistics. The psycholinguistic base is reflected in the continual incrementality of the production process, as well as by the strict modularity of its extra-linguistic and linguistic components. The orientation towards theoretical linguistics leads to the use of a declarative grammatical knowledge base in the style of the lexicalist and principle-based framework of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar, which is embedded in a psycholinguistically appropriate control structure. The synphonics system covers the incremental generation of utterances from pre-linguistic conceptual structures to the formation of semantic, syntactic, phonological and phonetic-articulatory structures, with an interface to a speech synthesis module.
... This level involves relationships between words ( Clark, 2002;Dockrell & Campbell, 1986), although no single set of semantic relations or organizational structure is adequate for the entire lexicon ( Miller & Fellbaum, 1991). The stage of phonological processing includes the activation and selection of phonological forms (lexemes; Fromkin, 1988;Garrett, 1988;Levelt, 1989). Discussions of naming include an additional process of object identification so that naming can be characterized by a threestage process of object identification, name activation, and response generation ( Johnson, Paivio, & Clark, 1996). ...
Article
There is increasing interest from therapists and researchers in children's word-finding difficulties (WFDs). Word finding difficulties are usually considered to be present when children are able to identify a referent from a set of exemplars, but have difficulty producing the target word when shown a picture or in conversation. Word finding difficulties are associated with a number of conversational forms such as delays in the production of a word, the use of long pauses within phrases, frequent use of place holders ('uh', 'um', etc.) and the use of circumlocutions. Although interest is being shown in WFDs, most of the data come from relatively small samples with the result that one knows little about the prevalence of the condition, what circumstances exacerbate the condition, the occurrence of associated difficulties and the types of therapy that are employed. To obtain this information a survey was carried out in the South-East of England of practitioners working with children who have language difficulties. Twenty-three per cent of children in language support services were identified as having WFDs. Most respondents used a mixture of formal and informal assessments. It was reported that WFDs were associated with difficulties in grammatical production, word meaning and grammatical comprehension. WFDs in addition were more likely to occur in situations with high processing demands. A variety of intervention strategies were identified. These findings are discussed in relation to current practice and the authors understanding of the condition.
... This level involves relationships between words (Clark, 2002;Dockrell & Campbell, 1986), although no single set of semantic relations or organisational structure is adequate for the entire lexicon (Miller & Fellbaum, 1991). The stage of phonological processing includes the activation and selection of phonological forms (lexemes) (Fromkin, 1988;Garrett, 1988;Levelt, 1989). Discussions of naming include an additional process of object identification so that naming can be characterised by a three stage process of: object identification, name activation and response generation (Johnson, Paivio, & Clark, 1996). ...
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Purpose There is a substantial minority of children for whom lexical retrieval problems impede the normal pattern of language development and use. These problems include accurately producing the correct word even when the word’s meaning is understood. Such problems are often referred to as word-finding difficulties (WFDs). This article examines the nature of naming and lexical retrieval difficulties in these and other groups of children. Method A review of the relevant literature on lexical access difficulties in children with word-finding difficulties was conducted. Studies were examined in the terms of population parameters and comparison groups included in the study. Results and Conclusions Most discussions of the cognitive processes causing lexical retrieval difficulties refer to semantics, phonology, and processing speed. The authors propose that understanding of these topics will be further advanced by the use of appropriate methodology to test developmental models. In this way it will be possible to identify the processes that contribute to successful lexical retrieval and the processes that result in retrieval difficulties.
... Example (1) presents two utterances showing identical syntactic structure and lexical material. 5 Cf.. 6 Assuming a direct access of prosodic processes to semantic representations does not exclude a sequential ordering of syntactic and phonological processes, as is evidenced by psycholinguistic investigations of certain types of speech errors (cf., Fromkin 1988 ). We therefore don't adopt a relational processing model along the lines of Wilson & Tyler (1980). For a criticism of such an on-line interactive model for speech comprehension see Briscoe (1987). 7 A similar view was adopted recently by Rooth (1992), who explains the phenomenon of focus exclusively in terms of phonology and semantics. ...
Article
Universal Semantics/Syntax Schemes In agreement with the embedding information in the RefO representation in figure 3, which specifies how the RefO is anchored in a situation type, the Scheme Selector chooses the Head-Complement Scheme and assigns the referential information to the complement daughter (ZP in the above scheme). The second part of the embedding information, which characterizes the RefO as the focus of a focusbackground structure, is matched by an abstract semantics/phonology scheme (the Focus-Accent Scheme) that assigns the abstract phonological focus feature ACCENT to the value of the complement daughter's PHON feature. Figure 6 shows the unification of the syntactic and phonological schemes that encode the two parts of the embedding information in the representation of the RefO. û ú ú ú ú ú ú ú ú ú ú ú ú ú ú ú ù ë ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê é PHON: X SYN|SUBCAT: 2 1 SEM: û ú ú ù ë ê ê é RELN: S ARG: r 1 3 DTRS: û ú ú ú ú ú ú ú ù ë ê ê ê ê ê ê ê é HEAD-DTR: ...
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We kunnen twee typen complexe zinnen onderscheiden. Bij subordinatie (onderschikking) is er sprake van een combinatie van een hoofdzin met een bijzin terwijl bij coördinatie (nevenschikking) twee hoofdzinnen gecombineerd worden. Bijzinnen kunnen onder andere door middel van een complementeerder of conjunctie of door verandering in de constituentvolgorde worden gemarkeerd. In gebarentalen zijn dergelijke aanwijzingen echter zeldzaam en het is daarom soms lastig om te bepalen of een zin een hoofd- of bijzin is. In complementzinnen is de bijzin op grond van de valentie van het matrix-predicaat vereist; de bijzin vervult dus de functie van argument. Als de complementzin in een SOV-taal niet op de plek verschijnt waar een nominaal object zou staan, maar na het werkwoord komt, spreken we van extrapositie van de bijzin. Als het matrix-predicaat een communicatiewerkwoord is dan kan de gebaarder de uiting met behulp van indirecte of directe rede weergeven. Bij het laatste zal hij gebruik maken van rolnemen door middel van body shift en (optioneel) mimiek. In tegenstelling tot complementzinnen zijn adverbiale bijzinnen optionele toevoegingen. In bijzinnen die tijd specificeren staan de hoofd- en de bijzin in een bepaalde tijdsrelatie met elkaar: de gebeurtenis in de bijzin kan voor, na of simultaan met de gebeurtenis in de hoofdzin plaatsvinden. Dergelijke bijzinnen worden niet-manueel gemarkeerd (wenkbrauwen omhoog) en bevatten soms een tijdconjunctie. Ook bijzinnen die een reden of doel specificeren zijn optionele toevoegingen. Ze worden of door middel van een manuele conjunctie geïntroduceerd of ze worden in de vorm van een zogenaamde wh-cleft constructie gerealiseerd. Voorwaardelijke bijzinnen verschijnen altijd in zinsinitiële positie en kunnen optioneel een manuele subordinerende conjunctie bevatten. Belangrijker blijkt echter niet-manuele markering te zijn. Door middel van nietmanuele markering kan zelfs een verschil worden gemaakt tussen factuele en contra-factuele voorwaardelijke bijzinnen. Betrekkelijke bijzinnen verschillen van zowel complementzinnen als ook adverbiale bijzinnen omdat ze naamwoorden modificeren of verder specificeren. Ze kunnen of een beperkende functie of een uitbreidende functie hebben. Afhankelijk van de positie van het nominale hoofd van de constructie moeten hoofd-interne en hoofd-externe betrekkelijke bijzinnen worden onderscheiden. De twee typen verschillen onder andere van elkaar wat betreft de scope van de niet-manuele markeerder en het gebruik van een betrekkelijk voornaamwoord (relatiefpronomen). Uitbreidende betrekkelijke bijzinnen lijken structureel op een andere manier gerealiseerd te kunnen worden, namelijk door middel van een parenthese. Ook bij coördinatie, de combinatie van twee hoofdzinnen, kan gebruik worden gemaakt van manuele conjuncties. Bovendien kan de relatie tussen de zinnen niet-manueel door middel van een body lean worden gemarkeerd. Het is gebruikelijk om in een coördinatiestructuur elementen die in beide zinnen voorkomen één keer weg te laten; dit fenomeen wordt equi-deletie genoemd. Een speciaal geval van coördinatie is de coördinatie van naamwoorden. Soms is het lastig om te bepalen of een complexe zin het resultaat is van subordinatie of coördinatie. Voor ASL is vastgesteld dat de twee typen door middel van bepaalde tests, bijvoorbeeld de pronoun copy test, kunnen worden onderscheiden.
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This paper studies the reliability and validity of naturalistic speech errors as a tool for language production research. Possible biases when collecting naturalistic speech errors are identified and specific predictions derived. These patterns are then contrasted with published reports from Germanic languages (English, German and Dutch) and one Romance language (Spanish). Unlike findings in the Germanic languages, Spanish speech errors show many patterns which run contrary to those expected from bias: (1) more phonological errors occur between words than within word; (2) word-initial consonants are less likely to participate in errors than word-medial consonants, (3) errors are equally likely in stressed and in unstressed syllables, (4) perseverations are more frequent than anticipations, and (5) there is no trace of a lexical bias. We present a new corpus of Spanish speech errors collected by many theoretically naïve observers (whereas the only corpus available so far was collected by two highly trained theoretically informed observers), give a general overview of it, and use it to replicate previous reports. In spite of the different susceptibility of these methods to bias, results were remarkably similar in both corpora and again contrary to predictions from bias. As a result, collecting speech errors "in the wild" seems to be free of bias to a reasonable extent even when using a multiple-collector method. The observed contrasting patterns between Spanish and Germanic languages arise as true cross-linguistic differences.
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Error analysis has been used in humans to detect implicit representations and categories in language use. The present study utilizes the same technique to report on mental representations and categories in symbol use from two bonobos (Pan paniscus). These bonobos have been shown in published reports to comprehend English at the level of a two-and-a-half year old child and to use a keyboard with over 200 visuographic symbols (lexigrams). In this study, vocabulary test errors from over 10 years of data revealed auditory, visual, and spatio-temporal generalizations (errors were more likely items that looked like sounded like, or were frequently associated with the sample item in space or in time), as well as hierarchical and conceptual categorizations. These error data, like those of humans, are a result of spontaneous responding rather than specific training and do not solely depend upon the sample mode (e.g. auditory similarity errors are not universally more frequent with an English sample, nor were visual similarity errors universally more frequent with a photograph sample). However, unlike humans, these bonobos do not make errors based on syntactical confusions (e.g. confusing semantically unrelated nouns), suggesting that they may not separate syntactical and semantic information. These data suggest that apes spontaneously create a complex, hierarchical, web of representations when exposed to a symbol system.
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