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Theoretical Foundations and Evaluations of Serious Games for Learning Data Structures and Recursion: A Review
Abstract
Data structures and recursive algorithms are challenging concepts to learn because they are abstract and difficult to relate to familiar knowledge. Many researchers suggest that digital serious games may be a good tool to facilitate the learning process of these topics. This article presents a review of currently available digital serious games for learning that focus on teaching data structures and recursive algorithms. The review identifies and classifies the specific data structures and recursive algorithms covered by those games, analyzes the learning theoretical foundations for the games, and assesses the studies performed to evaluate the effectiveness of the games.
... There also remains the challenge of finding the right match and balancing the interactions among various target groups (e.g., age, gender, motivation), contexts (e.g., cultural, schools, content/curriculum), and serious gaming to create actual learning using an engaging gaming approach. The background of using serious games in education (and, in this study, within chemistry), is based on the idea that games, because of their ability to engage end excite [2,3,6,[9][10][11][32][33][34][35]; can provide a level of learning engagement among pupils. However, it is extremely challenging to outline evidence for improved learning using serious games. ...
... Previous studies have mainly used pre/post-test, surveys and questionnaires, observations, and interviews [2,3,6,[9][10][11][32][33][34][35] when evaluating serious game with learning purposes targeting pupils and students. A part of the novelty in this study is to learn from this past work, and improve the methodology by including a substantial work in both the teacher involvement, pilot-testing, and evaluation. ...
This study is initial experiences in the design and evaluation of a serious game to supplement pupils’ understanding of molecular structures in chemistry. 27 pupils were included in the study, aged 13–14, with 16 boys and 11 girls. All participants were recruited from two chemistry classes at a Danish elementary school in Copenhagen. A formative evaluation consisted of both a questionnaire, observations, and interviews. The questionnaire was inspired by the User Engagement Scale (UES) short-form. Designing a serious game for pupils with the aim to increase the understanding of molecular structures, is not an easy task. This serious game was to some extend able to engage the pupils within the subject of chemistry. The game itself was reported to be very engaging, but the specific learning outcomes remains uncertain. We can conclude that the serious game was visually appealing, the pupils were absorbed in the game, and wanted to continue playing. However, the designed serious game was also a bit confusing and made too difficult, resulting in frustrations for the pupils. Further, there are still some important challenges in how to increase the validity and reliability when evaluating serious games with children and adolescent as the users.
... The review's findings revealed that over 81% of the studies "did not utilize any well-defined model or method for conducting the evaluation" [27]. Similarly, in another review focusing on video games for learning data structures and recursion, Rojas-Salazar and Haahr [32] discovered 15 video games and 2 bundles of mini-games. The results indicated that 35% of the games lacked a theoretical foundation on how people learn, 35% did not employ a well-defined evaluation method, and 24% of the games were not evaluated at all. ...
This paper presents a comprehensive evaluation of an educational video game, DS-Hacker 3D, that incorporates analogies to enhance the learning of conceptual knowledge in computer science, specifically Binary Search Tree (BST) concepts. The study addresses the challenges students face in understanding complex computer science topics and the limited availability of well-evaluated educational video games in the field. DS-Hacker 3D targets undergraduate students and follows a constructivist learning approach, establishing connections between new information and familiar knowledge through analogies. The evaluation includes validated assessment tools to measure learning outcomes and intrinsic motivation. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the educational video game in facilitating the acquisition of BST conceptual knowledge and promoting intrinsic motivation. The study contributes to the development of educational video games for teaching computer science concepts.
... In a comprehensive systematic literature review, Petri and Gresse von Wangenheim [9] found 108 games and 117 evaluations related to the computer science field. However, as of 2020, only sixteen educational video games focusing on data structures were reported in the academic literature [11]. ...
This demo paper presents two prototypes of an educational video game for learning Binary Search Tree data structure in higher education environments. The prototypes were used to evaluate the effectiveness of video games to teach abstract non-intuitive conceptual knowledge and the effect of educational video games’ perceptual realism on learning gains and motivation. The paper provides a detailed description of the game, focusing on the game’s learning aspects, such as the learning theory, pedagogical approach, learning objectives, and learning activities. It also emphasizes how the game elements reflect the learning aspects to facilitate learning complex conceptual knowledge.
O ensino de Estrutura de Dados (ED) é desafiador devido à sua complexidade e abstração, resultando em altos índices de reprovação e evasão na disciplina. Nesse sentido, os Jogos Educacionais Digitais (JEDs) têm se mostrado importantes para melhorar o engajamento e a motivação dos estudantes. Apesar dos benefícios identificados, ainda existe uma escassez de informações sobre o seu uso específico no ensino de ED. Diante disso, esse trabalho visa preencher essa lacuna, realizando um Mapeamento Sistemático da Literatura dos últimos 30 anos. Os resultados mostraram que existem poucos JEDs de apoio ao ensino de ED e que a eficácia é avaliada de diversas formas. Porém, questões abordando a inclusão e acessibilidade são frequentemente negligenciadas.
Especially in times of distance learning, educational institutions need to diversify their digital teaching methods. Often, they offer only few opportunities for interaction, which is, however, essential for learning motivation. To integrate motivational aspects into digital teaching, this study tests digital games for their compatibility with a learning objectives catalogue of economics. Numerous studies have already shown that serious games have positive effects on learning motivation. In this study, however, not only serious games are considered, but also entertainment games. The main findings include that, on average, there is a 57% thematic overlap with the learning objectives catalogue. 20% of the objectives are explained in a way that makes abstract application possible. The thematic overlap of serious and entertainment games is nearly the same. The results show that there is a lack of games that are compatible with the considered learning catalogue. Remarkably, on average no major differences regarding knowledge transfer were found between the analysed serious and entertainment Games.
p class="0abstract">Data structure and algorithm is an important course in computer science and information technology programs, applied in almost all courses. Failure to master it will affect student's academic performance during study, getting job interviews, passing job interviews, and create an inefficient information technology worker. However, learning data structure is a worldwide problem because of its complex nature. Gameful visualization of data structures’ algorithms has been gaining momentum as it resulted in increased motivation, engagement and learning outcome. But effectiveness of game-based learning could be hindered if improper learning strategies used. Instructional scaffold in game-based learning in the form of question prompts have been found to be the most effective way to scaffold self-learn in computer-based learning. Thus, a game-based learning of stack data structure using question prompts was designed, developed and tested based on an adopted model to help students understand the algorithms of stack’s insert and delete operations for array implementation with gameplay that could create meaningful learning. A pre-game and post-game test was conducted to compare students’ performance on the topic. Results indicated a generally positive outcome.</p
Data Structures is a fundamental Computer Science discipline, challenging students/ abstract thinking, problem solving and programming skills. In this paper, we present an educational game intended to explicate several features hindering students/ understanding of the data structure Stack on conceptual and practical level. The game targets all three aspects of teaching data structures: conceptualization, application and implementation. These aspects are embodied as three parts of the game tied together through a meaningful storyline. The application part targets the use of stacks to solve problems, such as converting arithmetic expressions from infix to postfix notation and evaluating postfix and infix expressions. The implementation part involves solving Parson/s problems and writing Java code for implementing the methods of the Stack class. The results of the conducted evaluation of the game show statistically significant learning gains for the students and a strong positive attitude towards this type of active learning.
In this paper we present work-in-progress on developing an educational game for teaching Stacks as part of a Data Structures course. We first present a review of the published related work and then describe our approach to the development of the Stack game. As an essential part of the design, we discuss in detail the requirements to the game. We also describe the developed parts of this intriguing puzzle game with realistic 3D graphics that covers all aspects of teaching the Stack data structure, from concept to use to implementation.
The advent in technology in the past few years allowed an improvement in the educational area, as the increasing in the development of educational system. One of the techniques that emerged in this lapse is called Gamification, defined as the utilization of video game mechanics outside its bounds. Researchers in this area found positive results in the application of these concepts in several areas from marketing to education. In education, there are researches that covers from elementary to higher education, with many variations to adequate to the educators methodologies. Among higher education, focusing on IT courses, Data Structures can be considered an important subject to be taught, as they are base for many systems. Based on the exposed this paper describes the development and implementation of an interactive web learning environment, called DSLEP (Data Structure Learning Platform), to support students in higher education IT courses. The system includes basic concepts taught on this discipline as stacks, queues, lists, arrays, trees and was implemented to receive new ones. The system is also implemented with gamification concepts, as points, levels, and leader boards, to motivate students in the learning process and stimulate self-learning.
Recursion is one of the most powerful problem-solving techniques in computer science, but many students seem to struggle with the concept of recursion. In addition, the instructors find it hard to teach this concept using traditional teaching method. This paper presents a game module titled "Recursive Runner" that aims to reinforce student understanding of recursion in a game. Four undergraduate students developed the game with GameMaker Studio in three months. The game was designed for short gameplay time and it does not require any prior experience in gaming. The objective of the game is to provide the students with a fun environment to visualize and follow the flow of execution of recursive functions. This paper presents the game design and implementation in detail and shares our experiences in using this module in the CSC1311 Computer Programming II and CSC2331 Data Structures classes at Winston-Salem State University (WSSU). A pretest, a posttest and a survey were developed and used in the evaluation process. In addition, a lab assignment was designed to use with the game to evaluate student understanding of the concept. Initial assessment outcomes show promising results and the feedback is positive according to the survey and interview.
While gamification is gaining ground in business, marketing, corporate management, and wellness initiatives, its application in education is still an emerging trend. This article presents a study of the published empirical research on the application of gamification to education. The study is limited to papers that discuss explicitly the effects of using game elements in specific educational contexts. It employs a systematic mapping design. Accordingly, a categorical structure for classifying the research results is proposed based on the extracted topics discussed in the reviewed papers. The categories include gamification design principles, game mechanics, context of applying gamification (type of application, educational level, and academic subject), implementation, and evaluation. By mapping the published work to the classification criteria and analyzing them, the study highlights the directions of the currently conducted empirical research on applying gamification to education. It also indicates some major obstacles and needs, such as the need for a proper technological support, for controlled studies demonstrating reliable positive or negative results of using specific game elements in particular educational contexts, etc. Although most of the reviewed papers report promising results, more substantial empirical research is needed to determine whether both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of the learners can be influenced by gamification.
Teaching and learning recursion can be a difficult task, there are many problems that can occur and too often the wrong model is transferred to student. Many teachers are misusing the concept of learning recursion through the thought game "Towers of Hanoi" where the basic principle remains a mystery for the students. In this article we are trying to present a new approach to teach recursion through simple game. The basis is the experiment that we implemented on students of first year of computer science. The game is trying to teach the basic concept of recursion by developing model of thinking. We conducted a study with computer science students of first year to measure the impact of the game on learning and on attitudes toward educational games with a simple satisfaction questionnaire. Our results show new ways for further development and understanding this type of teaching. The game has been built using newest HTML 5 standards, and it was built according to SCORM (eng. Sharable Content Object Referent Model) specifications so it could be used on many different LMS (eng. Learning Management Systems).
This article examines cognitive, affective, and behavioral measures of motivation and reviews their use throughout the discipline of experimental social psychology. We distinguish between two dimensions of motivation (outcome-focused motivation and process-focused motivation). We discuss circumstances under which measures may help distinguish between different dimensions of motivation, as well as circumstances under which measures may capture different dimensions of motivation in similar ways. Furthermore, we examine situations in which various measures may capture fluctuations in non-motivational factors, such as learning or physiological depletion. This analysis seeks to advance research in experimental social psychology by highlighting the need for caution when selecting measures of motivation and when interpreting fluctuations captured by these measures.
Learning programming involves understanding of concepts especially when learning data structure. Research has proven that understanding the programming concepts is the main difficulty in learning programming. This study aims to develop a game-based learning module that helps students to understand programming concept. For the purpose of this study, the stack concept was chosen as the data structure to be implemented in the game. The stack concept is realized while playing the game thus gives a better insight and understanding about the stack. The game strictly adheres to game characteristic and incorporates the pedagogical approach in the design. The game is designed for novices to learn data structure concepts. The suitability of the game has been tested on fifteen computer science students. The result showed that the game was accepted by the students and they agreed that the game is interesting and has helped them to unveil the stack concept in data structure when learning programming.
In order to design and write effective, robust code using advanced data structures, it is crucial to achieve a thorough understanding of the algorithms used to manipulate these structures. One means of accomplishing the task is to provide students with a graphical, animated system that allows users to observe changes that the structure undergoes while it is being used. One such system has been developed which demonstrates B-Trees. Some preliminary testing is complete and some initial reactions of the students who have tried the system are outlined.
We present EleMental: The Recurrence, a novel game that provides computer science students the opportunity to write code and perform interactive visualizations to learn about recursion through depth-first search of a binary tree. We designed the game to facilitate maximum transfer of learning to writing real programs, while also providing for interactive visualizations. We conducted a study with computer science majors to measure the impact of the game on learning and on attitudes toward educational games. Our results demonstrate the enthusiasm students have for learning games and provide insight into how such games should be constructed.
Computer systems cannot improve organizational performance if they aren't used. Unfortunately, resistance to end-user systems by managers and professionals is a widespread problem. To better predict, explain, and increase user acceptance, we need to better understand why people accept or reject computers. This research addresses the ability to predict peoples' computer acceptance from a measure of their intentions, and the ability to explain their intentions in terms of their attitudes, subjective norms, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and related variables. In a longitudinal study of 107 users, intentions to use a specific system, measured after a one-hour introduction to the system, were correlated 0.35 with system use 14 weeks later. The intention-usage correlation was 0.63 at the end of this time period. Perceived usefulness strongly influenced peoples' intentions, explaining more than half of the variance in intentions at the end of 14 weeks. Perceived ease of use had a small but significant effect on intentions as well, although this effect subsided over time. Attitudes only partially mediated the effects of these beliefs on intentions. Subjective norms had no effect on intentions. These results suggest the possibility of simple but powerful models of the determinants of user acceptance, with practical value for evaluating systems and guiding managerial interventions aimed at reducing the problem of underutilized computer technology.
We are developing games to increase student learning and attitudes in introductory CS courses. Wu's Castle is a game where students program changes in loops and arrays in an interactive, visual way. The game provides immediate feedback and helps students visualize code execution in a safe environment. We compared the game to a traditional programming assignment in an introductory CS course. In our study, half of the students were randomly selected to play the learning game first and half to write a program first. Our results show that students who play our learning game first outperform those who write a program before playing the game. Students in the game-first group felt they spent less time on the assignments, and all students preferred the learning game over the program. These results suggest that games like Wu's Castle can help prepare students to create deeper, more robust understanding of computing concepts while improving their perceptions of computing homework assignments.
Data structures and algorithms are important foundation topics in computer science education. However, they are often complex and hard to understand. Therefore, we introduce a new learning strategy that benefits from computer games' popularity and engagement to help students understand algorithms better by designing computer games that visualize algorithms. To teach an algorithm, an educational computer game, namely an algorithm game, must have a game-play that simulates the behavior of the visualized algorithm and graphics depict the features of its data structure.
A motivated student is more likely to be a successful learner. Interesting assignments encourage student learning by actively engaging them in the material. Active student learning is especially important in an introductory data structures course where students learn the fundamentals of programming. In this paper, the author describes a project for a data structures course based on the idea of competitive programming. Competitive programming motivates student learning by allowing students to evaluate and improve their programs throughout an assignment by competing their code against instructor-defined code and the code of other students in a tournament environment. Pedagogical results indicate that the combination of game development and friendly student competition is a significant motivator for increased student performance.
Educational games are assumed to be an effective and efficient instructional strategy for computing education. However, it is essential to systematically evaluate such games in order to obtain sound evidence of their impact. Thus, the objective of this article is to present the state of the art on how games for computing education are evaluated. Therefore, we performed a systematic literature review of a sample of 3617 articles from which 112 relevant articles have been identified, describing 117 studies on the evaluation of games for computing education. Based on these studies we analyzed how evaluations are defined (the analysis factors evaluated, research designs, evaluation models/methods used, kind of data collection instruments, etc.), how they have been executed (sample size and replications) and analyzed (data analysis methods used). As a result, we can confirm that most evaluations use a simple research design in which, typically, the game is used and afterwards subjective feedback is collected via questionnaires from the learners. The majority of the evaluations are run with small samples, without replication, using mostly qualitative methods for data analysis. We also observed that most studies do not use a well-defined evaluation model or method. This shows that there is a need for more rigorous evaluations as well as methodological support in order to assist game creators and instructors to improve such games as well as to systematically support decisions on when or how to include them within instructional units.
Linked lists play an important role in learning basic Computer Science (CS) concepts among a number of different data structures. They are the basis for more complex data structures such as tree data structures. Recursion, stacks and queues can be effectively implemented using linked lists. We observe over the years that our students struggle with linked lists more than some other data structures. While students understand the concepts of stack and queue data structures faster, they need more time to understand and visualize the linked list and its operation algorithms. This paper presents a game-like instructional module called Space Traveler that aims to assist students to better understand and master the concepts of linked lists. Four CS undergraduate students developed it using GameMaker Studio in three months. The Space Traveler game looks like a classic snake game. The game supports practicing the linked list operations such as insertion, search and deletion. This paper presents the game design and implementation in detail and shares our experiences using this module in the CSC2331 Data Structure class at Winston-Salem State University (WSSU) in 2014. This module has been refined based on the feedback from students and instructors. The refined version will be used again in the upcoming semesters. A pretest, a posttest and a survey were developed and used in the evaluation process. In addition, a lab assignment was designed to accompany the game module. Initial assessment outcomes showed very promising student improvements as a result of the use of this game module in the classroom. The module has been made available online to benefit students at other institutions.
In recent years, there has been growing interest in the use of digital games to enhance teaching and learning at all educational levels, from early years through to lifelong learning, in formal and informal settings. The study of games and learning, however, takes a broader view of the relationship between games and learning, and has a diverse multi-disciplinary background. Digital Games and Learning: Research and Theory provides a clear and concise critical theoretical overview of the field of digital games and learning from a cross-disciplinary perspective. Taking into account research and theory from areas as varied as computer science, psychology, education, neuroscience, and game design, this book aims to synthesise work that is relevant to the study of games and learning. It focuses on four aspects of digital games: games as active learning environments, games as motivational tools, games as playgrounds, and games as learning technologies, and explores each of these areas in detail. This book is an essential guide for researchers, designers, teachers, practitioners, and policy makers who want to better understand the relationship between games and learning.
Training that future practitioners receive in software project management is a topic of great importance. The objective of this systematic literature review is to summarize the current state of the art of the different methods and procedures used to assess serious games. The review follows a predefined procedure that involves automatically searching well-known digital databases. 1199 papers were found by the automatic searches in the digital databases and 102 papers were selected as primary studies. The process was complemented with manual searches using author and backward snowballing techniques. Our systematic literature review identified the main methods followed to assess serious games, the application domains in which the assessments took place, the categories of serious games assessed, the main features considered to assess the educational effectiveness of serious games, the procedures followed for the assessments and the size of the population that participated in the assessments. The results are useful to researchers and practitioners willing to assess serious games in different fields, but specially to those interested in assessing serious games in the area of software project management.
This research aims to systematically review the empirical studies on the use of serious games in science education from 2002 to 2013. To this end, the Science Citation Index and the Social Science Citation Index databases were used as the literature sources and a total of 53 empirical studies were identified as the review targets. A coding scheme including three major dimensions, namely, the game, pedagogy and research method dimensions, was developed, and, with this coding scheme, a series of content analyses were conducted. These analyses identified several significant research trends among the empirical studies using serious games in science education published from 2002 to 2013, including the following: (1) a surge of interest in the use of serious games in science education was revealed; (2) adventure/role-playing games were the most popular game type used in the reviewed empirical studies; (3) knowledge construction was the major learning goal of these serious games used in science educational settings; (4) most of the reviewed studies were concerned with interdisciplinary learning; (5) relatively fewer studies explicitly introduced the educational theoretical foundations for using serious games in science education or the instructional strategies coupled with the use of serious games; (6) quantitative research designs constituted the most commonly used research approach; and (7) a majority of the reviewed studies focused on investigating the effectiveness of serious games from the perspective of cognitive outcomes. The educational implications and directions for further research derived from the findings of this study are further discussed.
We are developing games to teach introductory computer science concepts to increase student motivation and engagement in learning to program. Wu's Castle is a two-dimensional role playing game that teaches loops and arrays in an interactive, visual way. In this game, the player interactively programs magical creatures to create armies of snowmen. The game provides immediate feedback and helps students visualize the execution of their code in a safe environment. We tested the game in a CS1 course, where students could earn extra credit to play Wu's Castle. Our results show learning gains for game players, compared both through pre- and post-tests differences and improved performance on relevant final exam questions when compared to students who did not play the game. The results of this study suggest that Wu's Castle implements good practices for teaching programming within a game.
It is argued that educational games have the potential to be an important teaching tool because they are interactive, engaging and immersive activities. They are seen as a way that allows the learner to participate actively in his learning, also a tool allowing the acquisition of knowledge. There are many advocates for the role that serious games could play in formal education. In this paper, we propose a serious game dedicated to learning algorithm which is an important topic in computer science education and its learning generally considered as a difficult and frustrating process. By a Serious Game we mean a computer application, whose combine the serious aspects (Serious), with the playing aspect of Video Games (Game). After a study of serious games genres and the skills developed by each genre, we present the conception and the realization of our serious game. This serious game aims to provide an innovative method to learn AVL trees.
This study investigates how computer games impact on student learning and technology acceptance. A curriculum was designed for college students majoring in Computer Science. Participants included college teachers and students. Two groups of students participated in the learning activities by using gaming and non-gaming methods separately in the course. The proposed computer game helps students engage with learning activities. During the study, learning activities, surveys, and interviews were conducted with students. The evaluation results concerning technology acceptance demonstrate that incorporating gaming methods into the learning process can get better technology acceptance.
When learning a new math concept, should learners be first taught the concept and its associated procedures and then solve problems, or solve problems first even if it leads to failure and then be taught the concept and the procedures? Two randomized-controlled studies found that both methods lead to high levels of procedural knowledge. However, students who engaged in problem solving before being taught demonstrated significantly greater conceptual understanding and ability to transfer to novel problems than those who were taught first. The second study further showed that when given an opportunity to learn from the failed problem-solving attempts of their peers, students outperformed those who were taught first, but not those who engaged in problem solving first. Process findings showed that the number of student-generated solutions significantly predicted learning outcomes. These results challenge the conventional practice of direct instruction to teach new math concepts and procedures, and propose the possibility of learning from one's own failed problem-solving attempts or those of others before receiving instruction as alternatives for better math learning.
Game-based assignments typically form an integral component of computer programming courses. The effectiveness of the assignments in motivating students to carry out repetitive programming tasks is somewhat limited since their outcomes are invariably limited to a simple win or loss scenario. Accordingly, this paper develops a simulation environment in which students can create a game strategy via programming for a challenging strategy-type game. After completion of the game, the environment provides the student with a set of metrics that provides helpful clues as to how the student might reprogram the strategy to improve the result. The provided metrics help to avoid a tedious trial-and-error refinement process and, therefore, greatly motivate the student to complete the assignment and achieve a better result. The simulation environment can be used in either a standalone mode or in an interactive mode in which the students compete against one another online. The competition element increases the motivation of the students to complete the task to the best of their ability.
Algorithm visualization (AV) technology graphically illustrates how algorithms work. Despite the intuitive appeal of the technology, it has failed to catch on in mainstream computer science education. Some have attributed this failure to the mixed results of experimental studies designed to substantiate AV technology's educational effectiveness. However, while several integrative reviews of AV technology have appeared, none has focused specifically on the software's effectiveness by analyzing this body of experimental studies as a whole. In order to better understand the effectiveness of AV technology, we present a systematic meta-study of 24 experimental studies. We pursue two separate analyses: an analysis ofindependent variables , in which we tie each study to a particular guiding learning theory in an attempt to determine which guiding theory has had the most predictive success; and an analysis of dependent variables, which enables us to determine which measurement techniques have been most sensitive to the learning benefits of AV technology. Our most significant finding is that how students use AV technology has a greater impact on effectiveness than what AV technology shows them. Based on our findings, we formulate an agenda for future research into AV effectiveness.
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