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Reinvigorating the social contract and strengthening social cohesion: Social protection responses to COVID‐19 (free access:https://doi.org/10.1111/issr.12245)
Abstract
The COVID‐19 pandemic has exposed the vulnerability of those who are inadequately covered by social protection in more and less developed countries alike, and has exacerbated the fragility of a social contract that was already under strain in many countries. A weak social contract in the context of an exceptional crisis poses a very real risk to social cohesion. Nevertheless, many States have reasserted themselves as the guarantor of rights by protecting public health and incomes. By sustaining these measures, economic recovery will be supported which will help minimize risks that may weaken social cohesion. However, this is a fast‐moving, inherently unstable and protracted crisis. Social protection stands at a critical juncture. Decisive policy action will be required to strengthen social protection systems, including floors, as one of the cornerstones of a reinvigorated social contract.
... Adopting social protection policies in the WB and IMF raised hopes that these institutions might reconsider their influence over social issues. While the WB was further along, change in the IMF seemed "afoot" (OHCHR 2015; Razavi et al. 2020). The WB repeatedly reconfirmed support for universal social protection (e.g., WB and ILO 2016), and at least some IMF economists questioned austerity policies (Obstfeld and Thomsen 2016) and the neoliberal policy rationale (Ostry et al. 2016). ...
... In March 2020, the WHO declared the spread of the COVID-19 virus a global pandemic. The pandemic-generated crisis is multi-layered, and the ability of existing social protection systems to provide resilience to the poor and vulnerable has been severely tested as new vulnerabilities are created and pre-existing vulnerabilities exacerbated (Abdoul-Azize and El Gamil 2021; Razavi et al. 2020). There have been primary effects on those infected, on health systems, economies, education, and social life, as well as multiple socioeconomic secondary effects, affecting lives, livelihoods, communities, businesses, national economies, and the global economy (Deveraux 2020;WB 2020). ...
... Overall, the lending program format of IMF financing raises concerns about a return to conditionality policies, which can be particularly problematic for many low-income countries as the crisis becomes protracted (Razavi et al. 2020;Toussaint et al. 2020). Growing debt burdens combined with the absence of debt relief schemes can force some countries to spend more on debt repayments than health care (Oxfam 2020;Stubbs 2021).There also seems to be a strong policy drive toward market-driven solutions and private health services, whereas those most vulnerable are commonly subject to the public health system. ...
The early twenty-first century will be remembered as a time of constant crisis. These crises have created repeated global states of emergency, revealing gaps, and inadequacies in social protection systems worldwide. Alongside these crises, and as a response to them, social protection has grown into a paradigm of global governance. This development is also noticeable in the practices of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. At the heart of all social protection policies is the protection of vulnerable groups. Crises create new vulnerabilities and deteriorate the situation of those already vulnerable. The article explores the social protection endorsement of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund through the financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic. It shows how crises have fueled their social protection endorsement, making protection of vulnerable groups a central outspoken policy preference. The article asks whether the policies adopted in response to the pandemic confirm their social protection commitment and what challenges remain.
The article is available open access at https://doi.org/10.1007/s12142-023-00688-2
... In line with the above, the central concern of this research is to ascertain the level of NFWP (Peterson and Joseph, 2004); social cohesion and social protections (Razavi et al, 2020); multiculturalism and social cohesion (Reitz et al, 2009) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 r p r i s i n g C o m m u n i t i e s : P e o p l e a n d P l a c e s i n t h e G l o 6 The sections of the paper flows thus: (2) background, literature, and theoretical underpinnings; ...
... These attempts have led (2017), a contrasting body of work proposes a narrower definitions and frameworks for social cohesions. Razavi et al (2020), argue that with this narrower perspective, social cohesion revovles mainly around three core aspects: a sense of belonging, social relations, and an orientation towards the common goods. According to Moustakas (2023), a cohesive society is characterised by resilient social relations, a positive emotional connectedness between its members and the community, and a pronounced focus on the common goods. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is critically examine the Nigeria for Women Project (NFWP) initiatives in Nigeria. Its special focus is to investigate the impact of NFWP on social cohesion in entrepreneurship development in Nigeria.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper adopts a quasi-experimental research design to address the scarcity of quantitative studies on women’s groups in Nigeria. A total of 2,400 respondents were sampled across the rural areas of the six geographical regions of the country.
Findings
Results from the use of a combined propensity score matching and logit model indicate that though scrimpy, the NFWP intervention targeted specifically for the empowerment of women, using the women’s affinity group model has recorded significant set up in improving women’s formation of social capital through advocacy, awareness creation, provision of credit, training of women on skill acquisition, among other activities.
Practical implications
This suggests that an increase in NFWP budget that seeks to expand participation of women in women’s groups, targeted at increasing women’s social cohesion, especially in the rural communities will help lift women and girls out of poverty in the country.
Social implications
It implies that women’s groups that serve as production cooperatives, saving associations and marketing groups can enhance women’s performance in entrepreneurship development and boost rural economy production in Nigeria.
Originality/value
This research contributes to the growing field of female entrepreneurial collaboration by proposing the moderation of social cohesion as a means to sustain agriculture and rural development in developing countries. It concludes that targeting women’s groups should form the foundation of public policy for social cohesion in women’s entrepreneurship development for rural economy.
... Generally speaking, however, the empirical knowledge on the topic is still relatively limited, especially concerning the cognitive dimension and linking social capital. The scarcity of (particularly quantitative) evidence constitutes a research gap to be bridged by future research, especially in light of the growing use of CTs, spurred by recent social and economic crises, such as the COVID-19-led one (Idris, 2017;Razavi et al., 2020). ...
... Depending on which dimension of social capital they wished to stimulate, CT-implementing organizations could design (and evaluate) their programmes accordingly, after carefully considering the CT's context. For instance, universal transfers could induce feelings of equality and cohesion (Rohregger, 2010) and spur social participation and collective action (Burchi et al., 2020;Ellis, 2012;Razavi et al., 2020). This would result in positive consequences for both the bonding and bridging components of social capital (Adhikari et al., 2014). ...
Contrary to the individual and household levels, analysis on the collective‐level effects of cash transfers (CTs) is largely lacking. To fill such gap, this paper conducted a systematic review of the evidence around CT impacts on social capital. Available studies suggest that CTs can stimulate bonding social capital (social participation, membership of organizations), while often generate issues like rising inter‐group tensions and social exclusion (bridging social capital). Overall, however, the existing evidence is scarce. The article invites CT‐implementing agencies to design interventions in accordance with the envisaged impacts—not only at the individual but also at the collective level.
... Recent literature (Weinberg 2022;Razavi et al. 2020) evidence that COVID-19 is undermining the fiscal social contract in many countries. The limited capacity of many governments to respond effectively to the crisis, mitigate shocks, and protect the most vulnerable is eroding the state's base (Razavi et al. 2020). ...
... Recent literature (Weinberg 2022;Razavi et al. 2020) evidence that COVID-19 is undermining the fiscal social contract in many countries. The limited capacity of many governments to respond effectively to the crisis, mitigate shocks, and protect the most vulnerable is eroding the state's base (Razavi et al. 2020). Rieger and Wang (2021) studied people's perceptions of government reaction in 57 countries from March to April 2020, finding that a too-weak response to the crisis corresponds to a decrease in trust in government. ...
Raising domestic revenue still represents a priority for most Sub-Saharan African
countries that continue to face high tax non-compliance. This research investigates
whether there is a link between citizens’ perceptions of governance and individual
tax compliance in SSA. We employ a logistic regression model by applying fve levels of specifcations and using round 7 of the Afrobarometer, which contains information on Africans’ views on democracy, governance, economic reform, civil society, and quality of life for 32 countries. The main results suggest that perceptions
of governance and attitudes towards tax compliance are positively associated, and
their impact difers by country. The study proposes a binary mediation analysis to
investigate the direct and indirect efects of governance perception on individual tax
compliance, with trust in institutions serving as a mediator. Our fndings suggest
that a negative perception of governance may infuence the trust in institutions and
afect willingness to pay taxes.
... To counter the economic impact of the pandemic, governments around the world implemented a range of fiscal stimulus and relief measures (Alfers et al., 2020;Dev, 2020;ILO, 2022;Makin & Layton, 2021;Mukhtarova, 2020;Razavi et al., 2020). However, the amount and type of relief provided and the ability of people to access it varied widely between countries and among target populations within countries (Chen et al., 2021). ...
... For them, job guarantee programmes, cash transfer programmes and public food distribution programmes play a crucial role. But, as several scholars have noted, informal workers have been unable to benefit from such systems precisely because they are unable to access these systems, pointing to the need for universalising access so that no one is excluded from such welfare and emergency relief programmes (Chakraborty, 2020;Dreze & Khera, 2022;Iqbal, 2022;Ogando et al., 2021;Razavi et al., 2020;Summerton, 2020;van Barneveld et al., 2020). Not only have emergency relief programmes in India during lockdowns been documented as woefully inadequate in meeting demand overall, but it has also been shown that workers who were part of membership-based organisations were able to avail of programmes benefits much more easily than those who were not . ...
The containment measures during the COVID-19 pandemic have had severe economic consequences on the lives of the urban informal poor in India. Several scholars have commented on the vital yet insufficient role that government-run food relief programmes, mutual aid practices and private charity have played in addressing hunger during lockdown periods. This article investigates the impact of lockdown measures on food security among waste pickers in nine Delhi neighbourhoods through an analysis of data collected from daily telephone surveys with 70 adult and 69 child waste pickers over a 54-day period. Analysis of this data reveals that while respondents relied heavily on emergency food relief programmes, their sense of hunger was closely connected to their ability to provide food for themselves. Drawing on these insights, the article concludes by offering policy and programmatic recommendations to address food security problems for the urban poor in general.
... additionally, those critical junctures can generate both a centripetal as well as centrifugal tendency. For example, the economic crisis suffered in 2008 caused a disruptive attitude mainly because accompanied by austerity measures (Polavieja, 2013). On the opposite tendency, the pandemic strengthened a more cohesive attitude, identified as the need to tackle jointly a global and collective emergency (Razavi et al., 2020). ...
... For example, the economic crisis suffered in 2008 caused a disruptive attitude mainly because accompanied by austerity measures (Polavieja, 2013). On the opposite tendency, the pandemic strengthened a more cohesive attitude, identified as the need to tackle jointly a global and collective emergency (Razavi et al., 2020). this perspective can be applied both at the national and supranational levels. ...
... The majority cannot provide flexible targeting and timely provision after certain shocks (Schwan and Yu, 2018). During the COVID-19 pandemic, their capacity to target the people was limited due to misinformation and administrative constraints (Razavi et al., 2020). In addition, many programs were unable to handle the circumstance (Gerard et al., 2020;Razavi et al., 2020;Sparrow et al., 2020). ...
... During the COVID-19 pandemic, their capacity to target the people was limited due to misinformation and administrative constraints (Razavi et al., 2020). In addition, many programs were unable to handle the circumstance (Gerard et al., 2020;Razavi et al., 2020;Sparrow et al., 2020). ...
Inaccurate distribution is one of the major problems of social protection programs in developing countries. Program implementation experiences difficulties at the local level, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. This research aims to explain the institution of social protection programs in Indonesia and identify the deficiencies and ways to improve it in other developing countries. It analogically describes the institution as a phenomenon of ‘square peg for round hole’ to represent the mismatch between the state program design with local social constraints and the cultural-cognitive of the implementers. The result showed that complementing decentralization to the existing institution can overcome the problems. This study helped fill the void in understanding the crisis, which led to changing the implementation, thereby paving a way to revise the macro policy and improve the institution.
... Recent literature (Razavi et al. 2020;Weinberg 2022) evidences that the COVID-19 pandemic has undermined the fiscal social contract in many countries. The limited capacity of many governments to respond effectively to the crisis, mitigate its shocks, or protect the most vulnerable has eroded this contract (Razavi et al. 2020). ...
... Recent literature (Razavi et al. 2020;Weinberg 2022) evidences that the COVID-19 pandemic has undermined the fiscal social contract in many countries. The limited capacity of many governments to respond effectively to the crisis, mitigate its shocks, or protect the most vulnerable has eroded this contract (Razavi et al. 2020). Rieger and Wang (2021) studied people's perceptions of government in 57 countries from March to April 2020 and found that the perception of a tooweak response to the crisis corresponds to a decrease in trust in government. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic showed that many developing countries could not respond effectively to crises due to their limited capacity to diversify their social protection responses. Social protection systems depend mainly on government tax revenue capacity. Raising domestic revenue still represents a priority for most sub-Saharan African countries, which continue to face high tax non-compliance. This research investigates whether there is a link between citizens' perceptions of governance and individual tax compliance in sub-Saharan Africa. We employ a logistic regression model and use Round 7 of the Afrobarometer, which contains information on Africans' views on democracy, governance, economic reform, civil society, and quality of life for 32 countries. Furthermore, in addition to a regression analysis, the study proposes a binary mediation analysis to investigate the direct and indirect effects of governance perception on individual tax compliance, with trust in institutions serving as a mediator. The main results suggest that perceptions of governance and attitudes towards tax compliance are positively associated, and their impact differs by country.
... In terms of democracy, the items were adapted from Sabates-Wheeler et al. (2020) and measures rights and accountability. Finally, the measures for social protection were extracted from the original items employed by Razavi et al. (2020) Table 1 presents an overview of the demographic characteristics of the respondents of the study. It is observed that 45.1% and 54.9% of the respondents were male and female, respectively. ...
In developing countries with 80–90% informal workers, developing incentives and mechanisms for social protection has become critical. However, the literature on the identification and protection of vulnerable groups in undeveloped countries is deficient. In this study, we argue the application of intersectionality and democracy in promoting social protection among informal sector workers. The study employed a multi-theoretical approach of intersectionality and self-determination theory to develop a framework. Using field data collected between February and July 2024, we analysed the hypothesized relationship based on partial least squares structural modelling. The results revealed that intersectionality positively and significantly influenced social protection. In contrast to conflicting interests reported in some studies, the results demonstrate democracy as an enabler of social protection due to collective bargaining. Additionally, democracy strengthened the positive relationship between intersectionality and social protection. This study exposed the synergistic effect of intersectionality and democracy in promoting social protection among informal sector workers. This multi-variable approach provides comprehensive insights into social protection among informal sector workers in underdeveloped societies.
... Srivastava (2020) advocates for the formalisation of an informal labour market and urges to maintain uniformity in their social security measures. Razavi et al. (2020) support implementing 'safety nets' for vulnerable sections in the government's national security schemes and suggest that governments adopt a bottom-up approach for improvements in policy. ...
This article explores the gendered impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on women migrant workers and their families in terms of loss of livelihood resulting in a debt trap while endangering life, responsibility stress, restricted geographic moves, shattered access and scarce support. Employing the quantitative research method, a survey of 122 women migrant workers from five underprivileged districts of West Bengal, India, was conducted. The analysis revealed that there has been a significant variation in women migrant workers’ income level as well as in the level of violence they were exposed to during the pandemic in comparison to the pre-pandemic phase. The level of violence also has a negative monotonic relationship with their husbands’ income. The findings of the study also confirm that income, family structure, financial support and so on. significantly influence violence towards women. These findings have implications for developing policies and programmes to ensure the secured employment for and safety of women.
... The COVID-19 pandemic intensified these challenges (Cinelli et al. 2020;Hosseinzadeh et al. 2022). Razavi et al. (2020) indicate that many nations grappled with the pandemic on the backdrop of a weakened social contract. Clark (2020) expands on this, suggesting that the pandemic exposed flaws in the existing social contract, with governments demanding more ...
Technological advancements and the ubiquity of digital platforms have accelerated the spread of false information, undermining governance and social harmony. Despite its significance, there remains no academic consensus on a taxonomy for the various manifestations of false information. This study addresses this gap and examines the complex societal implications of misinformation. The research identifies motives behind the spread of false information and assesses its impact on governance and social contracts, with a focus on South Africa during the early phase of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. A qualitative approach was followed, using documentary research and secondary analysis of qualitative data. While global trends in misinformation were initially explored, the study primarily focused on South Africa, covering the period from the first confirmed COVID-19 case in Wuhan in December 2019 to 5 March 2021, one year after South Africa’s first reported case. A literature review was conducted to examine the origins and spread of misinformation, including government measures and public responses. The findings revealed that power and greed are primary drivers of misinformation, with entrenched worldviews, scepticism towards authority, and a lack of critical evaluation skills intensifying the issue. The spread of misinformation had significant impacts on governmental crisis management and social cohesion in South Africa.
Contribution
This study contributes to understanding misinformation’s societal impact and provides a framework for future empirical studies on crisis management and government-citizen relations. It aligns with the journal’s focus on contemporary challenges in information dissemination.
... More research is also needed to understand the effect of market access on the social fabric of rural communities. The recent global crises did not only reignite the debate on food security in SSA but also point to the important role of societal traits in dealing with external shocks (Bargain & Aminjonov, 2020;Razavi et al., 2020;Riley, 2018;Thomas et al., 2022). Albeit the potential growth of the AIV sector, concerns about the loss of informal sharing arrangements and community solidarity may need to be addressed to ensure sustainable development. ...
The shift from subsistence to more market-oriented agriculture is viewed as essential to increase smallholder farmers’ welfare. However, its impact on farmers’ nutrition and informal sharing arrangements and associated solidarity within African farming communities remains uncertain. To analyse these trade-offs, we study the growing commercialization of African indigenous vegetables (AIV) in Kenya. These vegetables are an essential component of local diets in rural areas but also of informal sharing arrangements that provide access to food outside of markets. This article combines quantitative data from a 2016–2022 panel survey of farmers with qualitative data from focus group discussions. Results based on household fixed-effects models show a significant increase in households’ non-food expenditures due to selling AIV. The results suggest that selling AIV did not negatively affect nutrition outcomes but did not improve them either. Informal AIV sharing between households decreased further with growing market participation. Panel data models indicate, however, inconsistent and insignificant changes in associated solidarity indicators. We attribute this to the multiple and sometimes opposing effects of market-oriented farming on solidarity, as revealed by focus group discussions. While some farmers perceive reduced solidarity due to less informal AIV sharing, others perceived this traditional solidarity to be partially forced. Other forms of social interaction have also emerged, such as cooperatives and more intensive knowledge sharing. Despite concerns about the loss of informal sharing and community solidarity and limited improvements in nutrition outcomes, the tangible income gains generated by selling AIV are likely to foster further growth in the AIV sector.
... Additional questions that could shed further light on perceptions and use of COVID-19 protective practices include perceived personal risk and motivation to use COVID-19 preventive behaviors, as both perceptions of effectiveness and social expectations or norms and mandates have impacted intent to use such practices (Cheng et al., 2022;Duong et al., 2021). Other characteristics found to impact use of COVID-19 protective behaviors and belief in their effectiveness, such as political affiliation or worldview (Dolman et al., 2023;Shepherd et al., 2020), degree of social cohesion or social trust (Jewett et al., 2021;Razavi et al., 2020), personal sense of responsibility to community Rochira et al., 2022;Sedgwick et al., 2022) were not measured, so we are unable to assess related associations within our sample. The present study's cross-sectional design does not allow for determination of causality or impact over time. ...
This study characterized the mental health of rural agricultural community members during the early phases of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, including associations between mental health and COVID-19 protective practices, perceptions of effectiveness of protective practices, and opinions about COVID-19. Agricultural producers or stakeholders (N = 1,876) completed an online survey between April and July 2020. Data are restricted to rural respondents only (N = 1,566). Descriptive statistics and Mann–Whitney U tests were used to examine differences in depression, anxiety, and self-rated mental health (SRMH) by demographic characteristics, physical health, and COVID-19-related protective practices, perceptions of effectiveness, and opinions. Results showed that 9.2% indicated fair or poor SRMH, 13.2% met the criteria for depression, and 18.7% met the criteria for anxiety. Depression, anxiety, and fair/poor SRMH were all significantly associated with less belief that social distancing, covering one’s cough/sneeze, and wearing face masks were effective against COVID-19. Participants with probable depressive disorder had less agreement that COVID-19 was a serious illness, and participants with probable anxiety disorder or fair/poor SRMH were significantly less likely to agree that they knew what to do if they experienced COVID-19 symptoms. COVID-19 has required mass engagement in public health measures to reduce the spread of the disease. Understanding mental health across essential rural industries, such as agriculture, is critical to tailoring relevant and appropriate resources and responses.
... Partly in response to demands by disability advocacy groups related to the near total exclusion of disabled people from Canadian emergency economic policies during the pandemic, the Canadian government passed the Canada Disability Benefit Act, providing regular financial aid to Canadians with disabilities. Razavi et al. (2020) provide a comprehensive set of cross-national examples. Among them, Ireland and the United Kingdom expanded the coverage of their primary low-income support measures by relaxing eligibility criteria. ...
Despite changing attitudes around disability over time, people with disabilities still face large barriers to labour market participation. We apply a sociological framework that considers both supply- and demand-side explanations for labour market inequality to help understand the continuing earnings and employment disparities experienced by people with disabilities across countries. Specifically, we review reemployment disparities across different measures of disability, address sets of individual-level and structural explanations for these disparities, discuss how these explanations interact, and apply them to examples related to intersectionality, unionisation, contingent work, and employment in times of crisis. Paid employment is central to people’s social and economic wellbeing within liberal market-based economies, making it important to understand the many dimensions of labour market inequality.
... Additionally, Article 90 regulates the minimum wage requirements, stating that employers are prohibited from paying wages below the minimum wage. Employers who fail to meet the minimum wage requirement may face suspension (Razavi et al., 2020). ...
This research investigates the effects of the enactment of the Job Creation Law (Law Number 11 of 2020) in Indonesia on labor regulations, specifically focusing on wage regulation for outsourced workers and its implications for human rights. Employing a normative juridical approach, the study examines legal materials such as laws, regulations, court decisions, and expert opinions. Through qualitative analysis techniques, the pre- and post-Job Creation Law regulations concerning outsourced workers' wages are explored. The findings uncover significant changes in wage provisions, including the elimination of sectoral minimum wage regulations and the reduction in types of wages for outsourced workers. Moreover, the research reveals discrepancies between the Job Creation Law and international conventions' indicators of freedom, availability, accessibility, and suitability. Concerns are raised regarding the adequacy of workers' rights protection, accessibility to fair wages, and the inclusivity of vulnerable groups within the legal framework. This study contributes to understanding the Job Creation Law's implications for labor and human rights in Indonesia, highlighting areas where the law may fail to ensure equitable treatment and fair compensation for outsourced workers. Policy recommendations aimed at upholding human rights standards in labor regulations are proposed based on the study's findings.
... The government's approach to pricing emergency products and services must undergo a paradigm shift. The primary emphasis should be placed on delivering fundamental and indispensable goods and services while guaranteeing that financial inequalities do not impede specific individuals' ability to obtain basic safety and security provisions (Heintz et al., 2021;Razavi et al., 2020). In the domain of luxurious and costly customized goods and services, the government should shift its involvement from direct intervention to regulatory supervision, enabling the market to regulate itself. ...
This study delves into the transformative journey of China’s emergency industry, a crucial sector at the intersection of national security, technological innovation, and societal well-being. Following the SARS outbreak, China committed to overhauling its emergency management system, evolving from a narrow approach to a multifaceted strategy encompassing policy innovation, market dynamics, and societal engagement. The paper analyzes strategic policies like the 2007 Emergency Response Law and subsequent developments, underscoring their role in enhancing China’s emergency preparedness and response capabilities. A pivotal focus of this research is the “one case, three systems” framework, which highlights the integration of planning, coordination, and response methods with essential hardware support. The paper comprehensively reviews China’s legislative achievements, strategic changes, and leadership in global emergency management, offering insights into the complex roles played by government policies, market forces, and social organizations in the emergency industry. The research critically examines challenges such as the misalignment between market demand and production capabilities, the growth of socialized emergency services, and pricing strategies in emergency scenarios. It proposes countermeasures, including the development of mandatory standards to transform flexible demand into rigid demand, strengthening support for social organizations, rationalizing emergency product and service pricing, and optimizing emergency product and service structures. This study provides significant theoretical and policy implications, highlighting the interplay between government interventions, market dynamics, and societal needs in shaping China’s emergency industry, offering a blueprint for future research and policy formulation.
... Also, Srivastava (2020b) proposes that the central and state collaborate in framing flexible social security healthcare schemes for migrants. Razavi et al. (2020) discuss implementing "safety nets" in national security schemes for vulnerable classes and suggest following feminist economics for policy improvements and using participatory techniques (participation of labor groups) for providing suggestions in policy formulation. Moreover, UN Women (2020b) suggests that governments provide basic food supplies, recovery packages like credit waivers, low-interest credit schemes, social security schemes like pensions, health insurance, and compensation for unemployment; develop digital solutions to cope with the crisis; increase women's access to better job opportunities; and promote women's entrepreneurship. ...
The study examines the consequences of the COVID‐19 pandemic‐induced lockdown on the socio‐economic status of 212 female migrant workers employed in the informal sector, originating from four underprivileged districts of West Bengal, India. The study assesses the changes in their scope of employment, financial instability, and the level of violence experienced within households and workplaces in the pre‐pandemic and post‐lockdown phases. We apply the binary logistic regression to identify factors influencing their low employment scope, the t ‐test to observe changes in their income as a consequence of the pandemic, and the Wilcoxon signed‐rank test alongside effect size analysis to detect any rise in experiences of violence and exploitation against women. The findings suggest a notable decrease in their employment scope due to the absence of previous jobs, low wages, insecure workplaces, and family constraints; a decline in earnings; and an increased incidence of violence against them. The research suggests designing reforms to improve the current situation of female migrants, who represent one of the most marginalized sections of society. Formalizing the labor market and ensuring proper registration of these women would enable them to gain access to social security benefits, pension schemes, and relief packages that are vital for their well‐being.
... Razavi et al. (2020) acredita que a pandemia do COVID-19 expôs a vulnerabilidade dos países em termos de proteção social, demonstrando a fragilidade dos contratos sociais. Por outro lado, no argumento dos autores, a crise trouxe consciência política para investir em sistemas de seguridade social. ...
A pandemia da COVID-19 trouxe consequências socioeconômicas amplas, demandando ações emergências dos Estados. Este trabalho objetivou avaliar literaturas e relatórios sobre a implementação, por países diversos, de políticas de renda e medidas fiscais conjuntas no contexto da pandemia do COVID-19. Debateu-se sobre Estado de bem-estar social e suas bases fiscais e sociais, a respeito do panorama socioeconômico e a influência da pandemia da COVID-19 e acerca da renda emergencial e outras políticas de renda. Metodologicamente, este é um estudo qualitativo que se utiliza de análises bibliográficas e documentais, as quais são operacionalizadas pela técnica análise de conteúdo. Os pressupostos de valorização das ações fiscais com geração de liquidez e subsídios para manutenção e emprego e empresas, promoção de políticas de renda e adequação dos sistemas tributários e trabalhistas foram observados como ações emergenciais, porém não se verificou força para implementações efetivas pós-pandemia.
... The COVID-19 pandemic had an unprecedented impact on household incomes due to job losses and reduced working hours, which created a perfect testing ground for investigating social protection systems worldwide (Razavi et al., 2020). Social protection systems are intended to function as automatic stabilisers during economic crises such as the one induced by the pandemic by buffering the effects of unemployment and sudden income loss. ...
... Although a growing body of research examines SE'd workers' health and well-being, social mobility, and racial and gender discrimination [2,[41][42][43][44][45], as well as their status as precarious workers, entrepreneurs, and small business owners, very few studies examine social security and support systems to which SE'd workers have access [1,7,28]. Although formal or statuary support systems concerning SE'd workers have received scholarly attention, their overarching foci have been based on policy-level analysis, occupational health and safety of precarious workers, or on entrepreneurs and small business owners and based on census data [46][47][48]. ...
Today’s labour market has changed over time, shifting from full-time, secured, and standard employment relationships to entrepreneurial and precarious working arrangements. Thus, self-employment (SE) has been growing rapidly in recent decades due to globalization, automation, dramatic technological advances, the information revolution, and the recent rise of the ‘gig economy’. More than 60% of workers worldwide are in non-standard employment relationships; hence their employment positions are precarious. This precarity profoundly impacts workers’ health and well-being, undermining the comprehensiveness of social security systems, employment standards, and occupational health and safety policies. The general goal of this research was to focus on the circumstances of solo self-employed (SE’d) workers, investigating how they navigate, experience, and manage their injuries/illness in the context of their work. To explore this, this dissertation combines three findings’ manuscripts: (i) the first manuscript, based on a scoping review, critically reviewed the peer-reviewed literature focusing on advanced economies to understand how SE’d workers navigate, experience, or manage their injuries and illness when unable to work. The scoping review was a critical interpretive synthesis, following Dixon-Woods et al. (2006). (ii) The second manuscript considered how self-employed people access social support systems when they are not working due to injury and sickness in the two comparable countries of Canada and Australia. This comparative policy analysis adopted ‘interpretive policy analysis’ (Yanow, 2000), which involved analyzing public policies as a form of text or representation of social actions. (iii) Finally, the third manuscript examined how SE’d workers in Ontario, Canada were protected with available social security systems, following illness, injury, and income reduction or loss. Drawing on-depth interviews with 24 solo SE’d people; thematic analysis was conducted based on participant narratives. Findings revealed that one of the challenges of providing support to SE’d people is derived from unclear definitions of who is SE’d. Thus, based on peer-reviewed literature, this dissertation demystified the conceptualization of SE and explored why people choose SE, including the push and pull factors. The comparative policy analysis revealed that support for SE’d workers following their injury or sickness was barely present in the relevant policies in Australia (NSW) and Canada (Ontario). In both cases, the SE’d workers tended to be homogenized in policy documents and literature as financially prosperous, younger, and highly educated. In this context, this study argues that a significant number of SE’d workers living in both jurisdictions need income support during their absence from work due to injury and sickness. This dissertation also explored the experiences of SE’d workers in Ontario in terms of social security systems that SE’d workers encountered when ill or injured. The study identified several constraints to social security access in this context: premium affordability, information/knowledge gap, lack of SE social support programs, the red tape of bureaucracy, confidence about savings, and lack of trust in the government-regulated system.
... Social protection is an important element of citizenship and the social contract and can support important societal issues such as equal pay for women [85,86]. A study in Tanzania shows how cash transfer programs contribute to trust in government and civil society [87] (Evans et al., 2019). ...
A convergence of several risk drivers creates the compound crises we see across the globe today. At the same time, the global humanitarian community and national institutions in affected countries are increasingly resource constrained. In this context, existing financing mechanisms should be evaluated for their potential to create synergies between social protection, peace, and inclusion objectives on the one hand and climate resilience outcomes on the other. The existing international architecture of climate change mitigation and adaptation policy and financing holds, in principle, the potential to address not only its main purpose of climate action, but also to contribute to development outcomes and address multiple risk drivers. Examples of this exist, but for these mutual benefits to emerge, and for climate finance to contribute more significantly to crises prevention, the agendas must become more aligned. Aligning several factors may enable coherence: i) Timeframes, from short-term response to multi-year programming; ii) Planning and targeting, moving towards conflict-sensitive area-based approaches and universal access to services; iii) Institutional arrangements and partnerships, coordinated national planning and jointly implemented local action.
... Conversely, where citizens felt that the state was responsive to their needs and was making decisions in the best interest of all citizens, trust and confidence in the state was high leading to compliance with health measures but also perceived capacity to support well-being at the household and community level (Fernández-Prados et al., 2021). Social resilience was very much connected to the strength and capacity of state institutions to be responsive and adaptive to localized need, and with a clear intent to protect citizen well-being outcomes, including learning engagement (Razavi et al., 2020). ...
COVID-19 laid bare many failings and shortcomings of state systems, institutions and structures which aim to protect citizens against harm. As observed from the outcomes of the pandemic in many parts of the Global South and Global North, the resilience of health, social protection, governance, economic, education, and social welfare systems has been significantly eroded or challenged, leaving large segments of the population open to heightened risk and vulnerability. This has been noted to have significantly eroded social capital, namely the trust, communication, and dialogue between citizens in the state as well as citizens with each other. Based on comparative research carried out on the return to schooling process in five countries, Lebanon, Nigeria, Colombia, Georgia, and Zambia, the paper highlights the important role and function that educational governance, decision-making, and control throughout the pandemic has played a key role in either maintaining or erode social capital, and ultimately the resilience of the entire education system. Much of this was based on how well state officials and local education officials both considered and communicated their actions to educators, students and their families. The importance of education as a site where both bridging and linking social capital is both strengthened, but also capitalized on is also discussed. Specifically, the paper highlights, using the example of COVID-19 education responses, how a state that is responsive and accountable to its citizenry in a time of crisis, stands the greatest chance of ensuring such periods do not lead to an erosion of social capital.
... The pandemic has also exposed the vulnerabilities of many social safety net programs and healthcare systems. Governments may therefore invest more in public health and social safety net programs to better protect vulnerable populations (Razavi et al. 2020). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has brought about significant changes in many areas of society, leading to a resilient, adaptable, and innovative new landscape. A noticeable change is the adjustment of how work is done, with remote and hybrid models becoming lasting norms in the workforce. Due to the pandemic, businesses hastened their digital transformation, incorporating technology as a fundamental element for communication, teamwork, and operational efficiency. Due to ongoing health and safety concerns, there is a heightened focus on implementing protective measures in both public and work environments, which reflects a long-term societal shift. As a result of the pandemic, there has been a significant increase in online commerce, leading traditional businesses to adapt and move towards digital platforms. The way people travel is changing, with more emphasis on traveling within their own country and region, and a continued preference for contactless services. The field of education is experiencing a significant shift, utilizing online and blended learning approaches in conjunction with cutting-edge educational technologies. Global supply chains are undergoing a significant change in focus, prioritizing resilience and diversification to address vulnerabilities that were highlighted during the pandemic. Healthcare systems are constantly being improved, highlighting the importance of being ready for future health emergencies. The current cultural mentality after the pandemic is fostering a greater awareness of environmental issues, causing sustainable practices to become a top priority. At the same time, there is a growing recognition of the importance of mental health, leading to a societal dedication to overall well-being. The period following the pandemic is seen as a time for significant change and societal development, where flexible strategies and creative ideas will mold a stronger and more resilient future.
... Also, Srivastava (2020b) proposes central and state to collaborate in framing a flexible social security healthcare schemes for the migrants. Razavi et al. (2020) talk about implementing 'safety nets' in national security schemes for vulnerable class and suggests to follow feminist economics for policy improvements and use of participatory technique (participation of labour groups) for providing suggestions in policy formulation. Moreover, UN Women (2020b) suggests the governments to provide basic food supplies, recovery packages like credit waivers, low-interest credit schemes, social security schemes like pension, health insurance and compensation for unemployment, developing digital solutions to cope up with the crisis, increasing women's access to better job opportunities and promoting women entrepreneurship. ...
The study analyses the impact of lockdown on the socio-economic condition of female migrant workers of informal sector. A field survey is conducted on 107 female migrant workers in four underprivileged districts of West Bengal, India. The study evaluates the effect of lockdown on their employment status, financial instability and degree of violence suffered in households and workplace comparing their pre-pandemic and post-lockdown condition. The methodologies considered are regression to study the impact on employment scope, t-test for studying the effect of pandemic on their income, Wilcoxon signed-rank test and Effect size to check the increase in violence and exploitation. The derived result implies a significant impact of independent variables on their employability, social security and violence committed on them. Hence, the research provide insights to the policy makers on the kind of reforms required to be introduced presently to upgrade the condition of the female migrants as they are one of the most neglected segments of the society. Moreover, the study proposes formalization of labour market and proper registration of these women so that they can utilize the desired social security-healthcare services, pension schemes, relief packages, and employment opportunities.
... An often-debated and highly multi-dimensional concept, social cohesion is broadly understood as a combination of strong social relations, a sense of belonging, and an orientation towards the common good. Regardless of the exact conceptualisation, there is general agreement within the academic literature that social cohesion is an important component of promoting economic growth or peace [1], as well as addressing emerging crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic [2,3]. ...
Sport, physical activity and social cohesion are increasingly linked within the academic literature. Indeed, studies recognise both the importance of social cohesion for promoting physical activity and the potential of sport to support social cohesion. Up until now, however, the ways in which social cohesion has been defined and measured in the context of sport and physical activity have not been the subject of much academic attention. Through a scoping review of studies measuring social cohesion in the sport and physical activity context, we aim to uncover how social cohesion is defined and measured, thus allowing us to better grasp how the concept is understood and operationalised in this field. As such, full-text inclusion occurred when studies quantitatively measured social cohesion through a questionnaire/survey instrument in connection with sport or physical activity participation or within programmes using sport to foster social cohesion. A total of 40 papers were included in the review, showing broad support for the argument that social cohesion is positively related to sport or physical activity participation. However, the retained texts engage on only a surface level with the concept of social cohesion, with around half not defining the term and the associated measurement tools using only a fraction of the dimensions typically associated with social cohesion. To conclude, we propose future directions to enhance conceptual engagement with and measurement of social cohesion.
... The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for social protection for urban households that rely on informal employment for their income. Prior to the pandemic, most of the population working in the informal economy did so without social safety nets, and particularly without social programs designed to assist in case of job loss (Razavi et al. 2020). The lack of social protection 3 is a major source of vulnerability for urban informal populations. ...
... In the post-Covid-19 pandemic situation like the current one, many people have been affected and need quick and accurate assistance. With collaboration from various parties, the government can ensure that the assistance provided will reach the community in a timely manner and no one will be left behind (Devereux, 2021;Razavi et al., 2020). Therefore, it is important for the Karimun Regency government to implement collaborative governance in social protection policies after Covid-19. ...
The aim of the Collaborative Governance research in social protection policy in Karimun Regency is to explore and analyze the process and dynamics of collaboration among various parties in implementing social protection policy in Karimun Regency, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of applying Collaborative Governance in social protection policy. Qualitative research method is employed in studying Collaborative Governance in social protection policy by Karimun Regency, which can be carried out in several stages. The purpose is to understand how the collaboration process between various stakeholders takes place in developing social protection policy. The results show that based on the concept of collaboration in Collaborative Governance, we can imagine that social protection policy in Karimun Regency involves the participation of various related parties, such as government agencies, communities, NGOs, and private sectors. This collaboration aims to achieve better outcomes in social protection in Karimun Regency by applying participatory, inclusive, and transparent principles. Therefore, Collaborative Governance is likely to improve the effectiveness of social protection policy in Karimun Regency through collaborative processes and outcomes between involved parties in the policy. Through this approach, various parties can share information, resources, and responsibilities in formulating and implementing policies. In the context of social protection policy in Karimun Regency, Collaborative Governance can facilitate discussion and cooperation among local government, civil society organizations, and society as the target of the policy.
... Consequently, social cohesion is generally conceived as a multi-dimensional construct, and together, these dimensions are considered crucial in order to address common societal challenges. Academic literature likewise supports the importance of social cohesion, linking higher social cohesion with several positive social outcomes, including environmental sustainability [5], social stability [6], increased overall health [7,8], or an effective response to the COVID-19 pandemic [9,10]. ...
Viewed as the glue that binds societies, social cohesion is considered an essential ingredient to address common societal challenges. Definitions and associated conceptual frameworks usually summarise social cohesion as collective attributes and behaviours characterised by positive social relations, a sense of identification or belonging, and an orientation towards the common good. However, there are a large variety of definitions, and disagreement exists about what constitutes the core components, causes and consequences of social cohesion.
... Indeed, within urban areas, low social cohesion is often associated with "deprived areas characterised by poverty, high levels of unemployment, overcrowded households, low housing standards and despair" (Stigendal, 2010, p. 13). More recently, stronger social cohesion has also been associated with an effective response to and recovery from the Covid-19 pandemic (Dayrit & Mendoza, 2020;Jewett et al., 2021;Razavi et al., 2020). ...
Social inequalities, changing demographic profiles, ageing populations, and the structural transformation of economies have posed significant challenges to numerous European communities. Recognising these converging trends and the need for holistic development approaches, policymakers, governments, and community programmes have increasingly shifted their attention towards supporting and developing social cohesion. Sport, in particular, has been increasingly called upon to play a role in achieving social cohesion objectives. Due to its popular appeal, relatively low cost, and interactive nature, sport is understood as a potential vehicle to foster social cohesion and contribute to broader social development. Indeed, within the burgeoning sport for development (SFD) area, social cohesion is recognised as a core thematic focus within research and programmes alike.
Despite the growing recognition and support for social cohesion activities, there remain significant debates and gaps in sport and beyond. Specifically, there are important gaps between our theoretical understandings of social cohesion and actual practice in sport for social cohesion. This gap manifests itself in three ways. First, even with the multitude of definitions for social cohesion, these definitions do not necessarily reflect the needs, expectations or understanding of practitioners and participants in different contexts. Numerous researchers suggest that there is a disconnect between formal definitions of social cohesion and how the concept is understood by community members, programme managers or programme participants. Second, we have limited knowledge about the organisations delivering programmes and the approaches within those programmes. Though the field of sport for development is becoming better understood and mapped, the full range and number of organisations delivering sport and social cohesion activities remain unknown, and there is limited information concerning practices employed in the field. Finally, though increasing resources are being invested in sport and social cohesion programming, there is a lack of evidence regarding the impact of these programmes, and the process through which these programmes generate social cohesion remains poorly understood.
Against this background, the following doctoral dissertation seeks to build on the current knowledge and relevance of social cohesion and sport. Specifically, it aims to contribute to the gaps and debates outlined above by engaging in a multi-method study of literature and qualitative research within programmes across Europe. In particular, document analysis, surveys, fieldwork and interviews are used to generate data and analysis is conducted through a variety of more critical or constructive qualitative techniques.
From this, we find that programmes in Europe adopt a fairly consistent view of social cohesion, with specific focus given to dimensions of social relations, common good, sense of identity and acceptance of diversity. To support these dimensions, programmes engage in a number of common
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practices, including regular sport activities, mixed group activities, civic participation, life skill development and participatory approaches. However, within these practices, there is a distinct focus on individual-level interventions and specific marginalised sub-groups. This individual-level focus on marginalised groups reinforces notions that these groups are primarily responsible for their condition and “invisibilises” the responsibility of people or institutions in positions of privilege while also helping mask structural inequalities. Thus, to conclude, this dissertation proposes ways forward for programmes, policy and research to support more structural or transformational approaches.
... Yet, despite an acknowledgement of the tremendous social impacts alongside the imposed restrictions on social lives, most COVID-19 studies on social cohesion have focused on the latter. In this regard, it could be shown that particularly those communities with strong social cohesion were able to more effectively and resiliently cope with and recover from the COVID-19 pandemic (Dayrit & Mendoza, 2020;Jewett et al., 2021;Razavi et al., 2020). The relevance of social cohesion has been evidenced on psychological and biological levels, as marked for example by higher antibody response to COVID-19 vaccination in individuals who experience higher degrees of cohesion (Stephen et al., 2022). ...
The COVID‐19 pandemic and its lockdowns have uniquely challenged our social lives. The current study seeks to explore changes in social cohesion on various psychological dimensions (trust, belonging, social interaction, social engagement) and social system levels (family, friends, neighbours, institutions, nations), assessed in 3522 Berlin residents before, during, and after the first lockdown, and four times during the second lockdown. The first lockdown had a consistently negative impact on psychological dimensions of social cohesion. However, the picture was more nuanced regarding social systems: micro‐level cohesion with family members and neighbours, and macro‐level processes of institutional trust and national and international belonging increased, particularly in women. This suggests tend‐and‐befriend tendencies of affiliation, and affirmation of political and national identities. However, social cohesion collapsed during the second lockdown, indicating pandemic fatigue effects. Findings suggest a multidimensional approach to social cohesion and highlight the relevance of stressor duration in times of collective crisis.
... Universal social protection refers to a national system that provides all citizens access to various social protection benefits or programmes to help to protect them from poverty and the various risks they may experience during their life. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports that universal social protection has many benefits, such as increased social cohesion, lower income inequality, positive citizenship, and citizens having confidence in their government (Razavi et al., 2020;Green & Janmaat, 2011). The design and implementation of such systems are socially complex and multi-faceted and remain a grand global challenge (Hovorka & Corbett, 2012;Sahay et al., 2017). ...
Social protection systems, a target of the United Nation’s (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), are intended to
reduce extreme poverty, build human capital, and protect against risks to sustainable livelihoods and well-being. As social
protection systems are by their nature inherently complex, multi-faceted and socially embedded, it is inevitable that
tensions will emerge between their design and implementation, representing design-reality gaps. These tensions present
an excellent opportunity for cross-disciplinary research, by understanding how best to bridge these design-reality gaps.
In this qualitative, interpretivist case study, we situate our work on the ground with the actors involved in the design,
implementation, and use of a social protection system in Zimbabwe. We find interaction failures amongst some users;
design-reality gaps around network access and ICT policy implementation; as well as mixed views regarding
transparency and accountability of ICT. Our findings provide rich insights from ICT users in the global south and
underscore the importance of co-creation of IS interventions together with communities to ensure technologies take into
account social, political, economic and network realities. We conclude by providing directions for future research.
... The elements of social cohesion such as reciprocity, shared values and trust, including within groups and between groups and the state are those that shape a social contract. A weak social contract poses a strong risk to social cohesion (Razavi et al., 2020). For instance, the absence of a strong social contract between a government and its citizens can create the space for rebel and armed groups to step in and provide the expectations of the contract themselves, subverting state legitimacy and creating discord with weaker groups. ...
... Although a growing body of research examines SE'd workers' health and well-being, social mobility, and racial and gender discrimination [2,[41][42][43][44][45], as well as their status as precarious workers, entrepreneurs, and small business owners, very few studies examine social security and support systems to which SE'd workers have access [1,7,28]. Although formal or statuary support systems concerning SE'd workers have received scholarly attention, their overarching foci have been based on policy-level analysis, occupational health and safety of precarious workers, or on entrepreneurs and small business owners and based on census data [46][47][48]. ...
Background
Today’s labor market has changed over time, shifting from mostly full-time, secured, and standard employment relationships to mostly entrepreneurial and precarious working arrangements. Thus, self-employment (SE) has been growing rapidly in recent decades due to globalization, automation, technological advances, and the recent rise of the ‘gig’ economy, among other factors. Accordingly, more than 60% of workers worldwide are non-standard and precarious. This precarity profoundly impacts workers’ health and well-being, undermining the comprehensiveness of social security systems. This study aims to examine the experiences of self-employed (SE’d) workers on how they are protected with available social security systems following illness, injury, and income reduction or loss.
Methods
Drawing on in-depth interviews with 24 solo SE’d people in Ontario (January – July 2021), thematic analysis was conducted based on participants’ narratives of experiences with available security systems following illness or injury. The dataset was analyzed using NVIVO qualitative software to elicit narratives and themes.
Findings
Three major themes emerged through the narrative analysis: (i) policy-practice (mis)matching, (ii) compromise for a decent life, and (iii) equity in work and benefits.
Conclusions
Meagre government-provided formal supports may adversely impact the health and wellbeing of self-employed workers. This study points to ways that statutory social protection programs should be decoupled from benefits provided by employers. Instead, government can introduce a comprehensive program that may compensate or protect low-income individuals irrespective of employment status.
... In general, social protection is an important element of citizenship and the social contract and can support important societal issues such as equal pay for women Razavi et al., 2020). This could contribute to the promotion of more equal and inclusive societies, strengthened citizen engagement, and improved governance, all of which can contribute to a more equitable transition, but we found no studies that review these issues in LMICs. ...
Climate change is transforming the risks individuals and households face, with potentially profound socioeconomic consequences such as increased poverty, inequality, and social instability. Social protection is a policy tool that governments use to help individuals and households manage risks linked to income and livelihoods, and to achieve societal outcomes such as reducing poverty and inequality. Despite its potential as a policy response to climate change, the integration of social protection within the climate policy agenda is currently limited. While the concept of risk is key to both sectors, different understandings of the nature and scope of climate change impacts and their implications, as well as of the adequacy of social protection instruments to address them, contribute to the lack of policy and practice integration.Our goal is to bridge this cognitive gap by highlighting the potential of social protection as a policy response to climate change. Using a comprehensive climate risk lens, we first explore how climate change drives risks that are within the realm of social protection, and their implications, including likely future trends in demand for social protection. Based on this analysis, we critically review existing arguments for what social protection can do and evidence of what it currently does to manage risks arising from climate change. From the analysis, a set of reconceptualised roles emerge for social protection to strategically contribute to climate-resilient development.
... Similarly, prediction errors related to expectations derived from social institutions (e.g., during the COVID-19 pandemic) may contribute to feelings of social threat and concomitant allostatic load as an individual attempts to reorient themselves in a social environment that changes faster than social institutions can cope (Razavi et al., 2020;Slavich et al., 2022). The process of acculturation is another potential source of mismatch between internalized models of expected behaviors and actual actions taken by others (Gendron et al., 2020). ...
Classic theories of stress and health are largely based on assumptions regarding how different psychosocial stressors influence biological processes that in turn affect human health and behavior. Although theoretically rich, this work has yielded little consensus and led to numerous conceptual, measurement, and reproducibility issues. Social Safety Theory aims to address these issues by using the primary goal and regulatory logic of the human brain and immune system as the basis for specifying the social-environmental situations to which these systems should respond most strongly to maximize reproductive success and survival. This analysis gave rise to the integrated, multi-level formulation described herein, which transforms thinking about stress biology and provides a biologically based, evolutionary account for how and why experiences of social safety and social threat are strongly related to health, well-being, aging, and longevity. In doing so, the theory advances a testable framework for investigating the biopsychosocial roots of health disparities as well as how health-relevant biopsychosocial processes crystalize over time and how perceptions of the social environment interact with childhood microbial environment, birth cohort, culture, air pollution, genetics, sleep, diet, personality, and self-harm to affect health. The theory also highlights several interventions for reducing social threat and promoting resilience.
... A crucial concern is that the economic impact of the pandemic may disproportionately hit the most vulnerable segments of the population, leading to a surge in economic inequality with potential risks for social cohesion and stability (Razavi et al., 2020). Several studies, in fact, highlight an increase in both poverty and wage inequality in all European countries (Almeida et al., 2021;Furceri et al., 2020;Palomino et al., 2020) and that the impact is worst for lower-paid workers and jobs, for women, and for some sectors, such as the restaurant-hotels one (Adams-Prassl et al., 2020;Brunetti et al., 2021;Hoshi et al., 2022;Mongey et al., 2020). ...
Using Italian Labour Force Survey data for the period 2019Q1-2020Q4 and apply- ing quantile regression model accounting for sample selection bias, the paper inves- tigates the effects of the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic on the wage distribu- tion of employees, exploiting differences across sectors and by working from home arrangement. The findings reveal that the pandemic seems to positively affect wages of the entire workforce. However, this short-term advantage might be temporary as potentially driven by occupational changes in employment composition, whereas teleworking arrangement entails a wage premium for all workers. Low paid workers, employed in hotel/restaurant sector and not teleworking during the outbreak, face a reduction in wages (− 13.7%), while employees of public administration and educa- tion sectors exhibit a wage premium. When considering the joint effect of COVID- 19 and working from home arrangement, estimates show that, despite few excep- tions, wages of teleworking employees have been not affected by the coronavirus. Finally, we also control for self-selection issue by implementing the inverse prob- ability weighting estimator.
... In the longer run, it remains to be seen if governments will pursue a "high road" strategy that sustains and integrates the mostly temporary measures hitherto adopted into national social protection systems, while building participatory mechanisms for program design and accountability, or if they will fall back on a "low road" strategy and limit their response to minimalist "safety nets" and stop-gap measures, leaving large gaps in protection (Razavi et al. 2020). Feminist economics analysis can also provide useful insights into these policy responses. ...
... While falling outside of the parameters of prevailing employment protection schemes, the importance of these current and future workers to the Canadian economy and society more broadly, justified more inclusive coverage. The pandemic provided an opportunity to step away from 'palliative' protection (Razavi et al., 2020) to more universal protections that would strengthen social cohesion and resilience to future crisis, rather than leaving the most vulnerable members of society exposed. ...
Since January 2020 Canadian federal immigration policy has been shaped by the need to contain the spread of COVID-19 balanced against the need to protect the economy. This paper provides a critical review of key administrative trends and immigration policy responses and their significance for different groups of migrants. Using the newly developed CERC Migration Covid-19 Immigration Policy Tracker (2022), we 1 identify key trends in policymaking and practice beginning January 2020 through August 2022, and evaluate their impact on refugee claimants and refugees, immigration detainees, economic immigrants, temporary foreign workers and international students, and family class immigrants. We find that while the federal government responded with rapid border closures for non-citizens, it immediately began to carve out exceptions for non-discretionary purposes. Ultimately, essential mobility into Canada was defined according to economically driven criteria with the pandemic sometimes used as an excuse to exclude migrants considered undesirable, particularly asylum seekers, and to achieve administrative efficiencies. We conclude that while successful in reacting swiftly to modernize its operations and meet ambitious permanent levels targets, despite the lofty rhetoric recognizing the contributions of migrant workers and refugee claimants, ad hoc policymaking did not substantially deviate from the status quo. The government failed to take advantage of opportunities to undertake systemic changes and build a more inclusive citizenship and immigration model that would better promote equity, rights, and protections for migrants and asylum seekers who continue to be made vulnerable by Canada's immigration and refugee policies.
The global pandemic has highlighted the importance of social cohesion in responding to traumatic events. While developing physical infrastructure that can withstand the effects of climate change is crucial, equal attention should be given to the social component of resilience in disaster mitigation strategies. Communities with strong social networks are better equipped to respond to immediate threats and recover after a disaster, but what factors contribute to social cohesion, and how can they be fostered in dynamic and multicultural societies in the Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC)? This chapter reviews the foundational literature on social cohesion, explores the unique aspects related to the Gulf, and highlights opportunities to strengthen community bonds in the post-COVID era.
Background
Nations of considerable wealth and sophisticated health care infrastructures have experienced high rates of illness and death from COVID-19. Others with limited economic means and less developed health systems have achieved much lower burdens. To build a full understanding, an appraisal of the contribution of social relationships is necessary. Social cohesion represents a promising conceptual tool.
Objective
This study aimed to examine scholarship on social cohesion during the COVID-19 pandemic: specifically, the constructions of social cohesion being deployed, the variables chosen for representation, and the effects of and on social cohesion being reported.
Methods
The PubMed, Scopus, and JSTOR databases were searched for relevant journal articles and gray literature. A total of 100 studies met the inclusion criteria. Data were extracted and analyzed from these using spreadsheet software.
Results
Several constructions of social cohesion were found. These concerned interpersonal relationships, sameness and difference, collective action, perceptions or emotions of group members, structures and institutions of governance, locally or culturally specific versions, and hybrid or multidimensional models. Social cohesion was reported to be influential on health outcomes, health behaviors, resilience, and emotional well-being, but there was some potential for it to drive undesirable outcomes. Scholarship reported increases or decreases in quantitative measures of social cohesion, a temporary “rally round the flag” effect early in the pandemic, the variable impacts of policy on social cohesion, and changing interpersonal relationships due to the pandemic conditions. There are numerous issues with the literature that reflect the well-documented limitations of popular versions of the concept.
Conclusions
Social cohesion has been used to express a range of different aspects of relationships during the pandemic. It is claimed to promote better health outcomes, more engagement with positive health behaviors, and greater resilience and emotional well-being. The literature presents a range of ways in which it has been altered by the pandemic conditions. There are significant weaknesses to this body of knowledge that greatly impede its overall quality.
During the COVID‐19 pandemic, cities in the United States of America developed more that 100 basic income pilots. This article examines the heretofore hidden impact of the pandemic on the future extension of basic income programmes at the sub‐national level. While the super‐majoritarian requirements of United States federal policy making keep the possibility of national‐level basic income remote, several features of basic income, including unconditional cash transfers and broad programme eligibility, have emerged as viable tools in state and local policy. Drawing on an inventory of basic income pilots and interviews with policy entrepreneurs, this article defines and then examines the phenomenon of “viral cash” and assesses the probability that the wave of basic income pilots will continue to grow after the pandemic. Conventional approaches to evaluating the diffusion of policies across jurisdictions focus squarely on policy. Appraising viral cash’s future requires a shift to following the advocacy networks who move, adapt and combine basic income with other programmes.
The social and economic impacts of COVID-19 have been devastating for many, and collectively young people generally fared worse than older adults, with the impact amongst young people also being highly uneven. Most studies on this topic focus on Global North contexts, with experiences in the Global South being less well understood. Focusing on young people in Nepal and Indonesia who were especially exposed to the fallout from the pandemic (in part due to their occupations), this paper analyzes over 1400 weekly diary entries from 100 respondents written across four months in the first half of 2021. Participants recall increasingly precarious individual and family situations due to pandemic-related livelihood upheavals and insufficient access to social protection. Amongst diverse ‘coping strategies’, many turned to debt to smooth fluctuating incomes – leading to both financial and social obligations and forcing sometimes life-altering decisions such as leaving education and moving into risky work. Spiralling indebtedness may have consequences for livelihoods across young people’s life-courses; with futures mortgaged to survive precarity at the peak of the Delta wave of COVID-19. Looking ahead, policy makers should reconfigure disaster responses and social protection with a youth-lens to ensure a robust, fair and sustainable recovery from future crises, mitigating inter-generational scarring effects.
Purpose
This paper takes an ideal type of different welfare regimes as a starting point. It investigates with survey data people's experiences and expectations towards the welfare state and its functioning against various social risks. The paper discusses questions like, are there differences in perceptions between welfare regimes? And what is the role of the welfare state regime in explaining those differences?
Design/methodology/approach
This research article is based on OECD survey data and classical welfare state classifications. The analysis of welfare regimes provides both a theoretical and methodological structure for study. The study-applied analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) to test a hypothesis that regimes matter analyses more nuanced aspects of current and prospects to the near future welfare state provision.
Findings
This examination suggests that welfare regimes still matter even though the differences in averages were not as immense as expected. Perceptions in different welfare regimes also have priorities related to the willingness to pay more taxes in order to receive better access to services and financial support if needed. In Nordic countries, the acute priority based on survey data is investment in education and re-training. In Continental Europe, more financial support is needed for pensions. Overall, respondents representing emerging Eastern European and Mediterranean welfare regimes think that welfare provision should be financed more compared to other welfare regime respondents. Health is a universal and unifying issue, particularly in ageing welfare states, and brings health as a traditional and central question again.
Originality/value
Respondents' perceptions work as people's voice and assessments are used to gain a contemporary understanding of welfare and about welfare state functioning.
Background
Nations of considerable wealth and sophisticated healthcare infrastructures have seen high rates of illness and death from Covid-19. Others with limited economic means and less developed healthcare infrastructures have achieved much lower burdens. In order to build a full understanding, an appraisal of the contribution of social relationships is necessary. Social cohesion represents a promising conceptual tool.
Objective
The aim was to examine scholarship on social cohesion during the Covid-19 pandemic: specifically – the constructions of social cohesion deployed, how it was measured, and the effects of and on social cohesion reported.
Methods
The Pubmed, Scopus and JSTOR databases were searched for relevant journal articles and grey literature. 66 studies met the inclusion criteria. Data were extracted and analysed from these using spreadsheet software.
Results
Several constructions of social cohesion were found. These concerned interpersonal relationships; sameness and difference; collective action; perceptions/emotions of group members; structures and institutions of governance; local or cultural specificity; and hybrid/multidimensional models. Social cohesion was reported as influential on health outcomes, health behaviours, and resilience and emotional wellbeing; but also that there was some potential for it to drive undesirable outcomes. Scholarship reported increases or decreases in quantitative measures of social cohesion, a temporary ‘rally round the flag’ effect early in the pandemic, the variable impacts of policy on cohesion, and changing interpersonal relationships due to pandemic conditions. There are numerous issues with the literature that reflect the well-documented limitations of popular versions of the social cohesion concept.
Conclusions
Social cohesion has been used to express a range of different aspects of relationships during the pandemic. It is said to promote better health outcomes, more engagement with positive health behaviours, and greater resilience and emotional wellbeing. The literature presents a range of ways in which it has been altered by the pandemic conditions.
This chapter focuses on the social problems within the context of leadership and conducting public policies for supporting the social sphere after the negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. The coronavirus pandemic has highlighted, yet again, the importance of social inequalities in times of great crises, and this reality has obvious implications for public policy and its main leaders. In addition, it impacted on the problems of leadership by questioning the leading role of the state authorities versus the private business companies. In particular, COVID-19 has exposed, intensified, and reinforced the existing social inequalities as well as created some new, for example, issues on the labor market and with the requalification of employees or the pressing need for digitalization of public administration and the introduction of e-government. It can be noted that COVID-19 restrictions thus impacted the personal social networks and the structure of the larger networks within the society. This chapter observes that social connections generate emergent properties in the community, especially in the sense of social networks. This chapter also provides recommendations to governments and other stakeholders for supporting safe reopening of various activities and supporting social services and other public policies and initiatives throughout the outbreak of COVID-19 and beyond.KeywordsSocial problemsLeadershipPublic policiesCOVID-19JEL ClassificationB55J18H55
The negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have motivated an unprecedented level of global advocacy for gender-responsive and gender-transformative social protection systems that buffer individuals from shocks and vulnerabilities. This turn to a systems approach reflects growing recognition that the presence of one or two social protection programmes targeting women does not guarantee that they are protected throughout the course of their lives and over a wide range of contingencies. Relative to the high levels of interest, however, very little empirical evidence exists about what a gender-responsive or transformative social protection system entails in practice. This article departs from existing literature that focuses on the design and impact of discreet social protection instruments, to present a ‘state of the evidence’ on gender and social protection systems. Drawing on the results of a phased scoping review of academic and policy literature spanning various fields, the article charts the defining features of the existing evidence base, summarizes what is known and identifies pathways for future research. In addition to scholarly analysis, the article offers a comprehensive view of the evidence for policymakers, practitioners, movement leaders and funders working on policy problems from a gender perspective.
Introduction: The new disease covid 19 from the day it was declared a pandemic (March 2020) until today has significantly differentiated the map of health inequalities around the world. Social protection systems and the welfare
state continue to receive strong shocks. Aim: This paper attempted to present the effects of the social protection components, to describe the causes that exacerbated health inequalities and to report on the measures taken by the
welfare states in an effort to alleviate the problems that arose during the pandemic. Methods: Literature review in international databases (PubMed, Google Scholar) using specific keywords in Greek and English, in published books and
references on the internet. Results: The conceptual definition of the terms equality in health, health determinants, welfare state, social protection systems, contributes to the understanding of the effects of the new disease covid 19 impact on the health status and health care of the population. Gender, age, financial status, comorbidity of mental and physical problems, living conditions, are directly related to susceptibility to the disease. The virus affects all areas of social protection. The aid measures taken concern work, insurance, housing, education and sickness and housing benefits were given. Conclusion: Covid 19 disease increases health inequalities, alongside people who are disadvantaged due to their socio-economic status and health status are more susceptible to the new coronavirus. The pandemic is pushing social protection systems in many ways.
As the rate of new COVID-19 cases accelerates across the developing world, it exposes the potentially
devastating costs of job losses and income reversals. Unconditional emergency cash transfers can mitigate
the worst immediate effects of the COVID-19 crisis on poor and near-poor households that do not currently
have access to social assistance or insurance protection. This paper provides estimates for a Temporary
Basic Income (TBI), a minimum guaranteed income above the poverty line, for vulnerable people in
132 developing countries. A TBI amounts to between 0.27 and 0.63 per cent of their combined GDPs,
depending on the policy choice:
i. top-ups on existing average incomes in each country up to a vulnerability threshold;
ii. lump-sum transfers that are sensitive to cross-country differences in the median standard of living; or,
iii. lump-sum transfers that are uniform regardless of the country where people live.
A temporary basic income is within reach and can inform a larger conversation about how to build
comprehensive social protection systems that make the poor and near-poor more resilient to economic
downturns in the future.
Global prospects for COVID-19 control
Lower-income countries have recognized the potential impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) from observing ongoing epidemics. Many have intervened quickly and early with measures to slow viral transmission, which may partly explain the low rates observed so far in these countries. Walker et al. calibrated a global model with country-specific data (see the Perspective by Metcalf et al. ). Despite the potentially protective effects of younger demographics, the closer intergenerational contact, limitations on health care facilities, and frequency of comorbidities in lower-income countries require sustained nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) to avoid overwhelming health care capacity. As a result of strict NPIs, the protective effects of immunity will be reduced, and it will be important to improve testing capacity. Ensuring equitable provision of oxygen and—when they are ready—pharmaceutical interventions should be a global priority.
Science , this issue p. 413 ; see also p. 368
The universal and unconditional nature of a basic income raises questions about how such schemes affect work incentives and the type and quality of work undertaken. Against the backdrop of current trends in the world of work (including the rise in non-standard employment and work insecurity, high informality, the threat of technological unemployment and the persistent unequal distribution of unpaid work), and growing concerns that the economy and existing welfare policies are failing to deliver for parts of the population, this paper examines the role of basic income schemes in influencing four work-related outcomes:
• participation in paid work and financial work incentives;
• conditions of paid work;
• the valuation and distribution of unpaid work; and
• formal and informal work.
Proxy-means tests (PMTs) are popular for poverty-targeting with imperfect information. In a widely-used version, a regression for log consumption calibrates a PMT score based on covariates, which is then implemented for targeting out-of-sample. The performance of various PMT methods is assessed using data for nine African countries. Standard PMTs help filter out the non-poor, but exclude many poor people, thus diminishing the impact on poverty. Poverty-focused econometric methods such as using quantile regression generally do better. We also characterize the optimal informationally-feasible solution for poverty targeting and compare it to econometric methods. Even with a budget sufficient to eliminate poverty with full information, none of the targeting methods studied bring the poverty rate below about three-quarters of its initial value. The prevailing methods are particularly deficient in reaching the poorest. A basic-income scheme or transfers using a simple demographic scorecard often do as well, or even better, in reducing poverty.
Proxy-means testing is a popular method of poverty targeting with imperfect information. In a now widely-used version, a regression for log consumption calibrates a proxy-means test score based on chosen covariates, which is then implemented for targeting out-of-sample. In this paper, the performance of various proxy-means testing methods is assessed using data for nine African countries. Standard proxy-means testing helps filter out the nonpoor, but excludes many poor people, thus diminishing the impact on poverty. Some methodological changes perform better, with a poverty-quantile method dominating in most cases. Even so, either a basic-income scheme or transfers using a simple demographic scorecard are found to do as well, or almost as well, in reducing poverty. However, even with a budget sufficient to eliminate poverty with full information, none of these targeting methods brings the poverty rate below about three-quarters of its initial value. The prevailing methods are particularly deficient in reaching the poorest.
This working paper is a joint publication of the gender bureau and social security department of the ILO. It reviews existing evidence on the impact of cash transfers programs on five outcomes -- poverty, nutrition and health, education, training and employment, and personal empowerment -- in literature on five countries -- Brazil (Bolsa Familia), Chile (Chile Solidario, Ethical Family Income), India (MGNREGS, IG Widows' Pension Schmeme, and IGMSY), Mexico (Progreso/Oportunidades), and South Africa (Old Age Pension and Child Support Grant).
Building on Green and Janmaat's previous work on education, equality and social cohesion, this book analyses the various mechanisms that hold different societies together and how these are withstanding the strains fo the current economic crisis. In an original, and highly interdisciplinary, mixed method approach, drawing on evidence from historical soicology, political science and political economy, Green and Janmaat identify four major traditions of social cohesion in developed western and east Asian societies, each with specific institutional and cultural foundations. An extensive statistical analysis of contemporary administrative and attitudinal data for over 30 countries demonstrates that there are still distinctive 'regimes of social cohesion' in 'liberal,' 'social market' and 'social democratic' countries and that they achieve social bonding in quite different ways. As the crisis of globalization unfolds in the wake of the global financial crisis, social cohesion in each regime is vulnerable at different points.
This paper explores debates in social policy choices and whether such provisions ought to be guided by principles of 'universalism,' or more selectively through targeting. The author discusses the forces behind the shift from universalism toward selectivity in using social policies to combat poverty in the developing countries. He reviews lessons from such policies and considers the administrative difficulties of targeting in the poor countries. The paper focuses on the cost-effectiveness of poverty reduction efforts, the political economy bases of policy choices, and the consequences of policy choices for individual incentive.
Digitalization is transforming societies and economies worldwide at an unprecedented scale and pace. In the wake of automation and digitalization, new forms of employment have been emerging in various occupations and sectors, such as the digital platform economy. The emergence of new forms of employment, such as work on digital platforms, requires that existing social protection systems adapt to the specific situation and needs of such workers, as to realize the human right to social security for all. Current social protection coverage for workers on digital crowdwork platforms reveals significant gaps in social security coverage. Where such coverage exists, it is often provided through the workers’ previous or additional jobs, or indirectly through their spouses or other family members. This raises questions about digital platforms free riding on the traditional economy with regard to the financing of social security. How can social protection systems adapt to changing forms of work to ensure full and effective coverage for workers in all forms of employment, including those in “new” forms of employment? How can workers in all types of employment, including those on digital platforms, be protected in an adequate and comprehensive way, combining contributory and non‐contributory mechanisms and based on equitable and sustainable financing mechanisms, so as to ensure adequate social protection to all?
This article presents the findings of a review of the impact of non-contributory cash transfers on individuals and households in low- and middle-income countries, covering the literature of 15 years, from 2000 to 2015. Based on evidence extracted from 165 studies, retrieved through a systematic search and screening process, this article discusses the impact of cash transfers on 35 indicators covering six outcome areas: monetary poverty; education; health and nutrition; savings, investment and production; work; and empowerment. For most of the studies, cash transfers contributed to progress in the selected indicators in the direction intended by policymakers. Despite variations in the size and strength of the underlying evidence base by outcome and indicator, this finding is consistent across all outcome areas. The article also investigates unintended effects of cash transfer receipt, such as potential reductions in adult work effort and increased fertility, finding limited evidence for such unintended effects. Finally, the article highlights gaps in the evidence base and areas which would benefit from additional future research.
(http://www.social-protection.org/gimi/gess/RessourcePDF.action?ressource.ressourceId=55171) This paper reviews proposals for a Universal Basic Income (UBI) in light of ILO standards. Some UBI proposals have the potential to advance equity and social justice, while others may result in a net welfare loss. The ILO Social Protection Floors Recommendation (No. 202) includes a number of principles which are highly relevant to guide the debate on UBI, namely: (i) adequacy and predictability of UBI benefits to ensure income security, set at least at the national poverty line; (ii) social inclusion, including of persons in the informal economy; (iii) social dialogue and consultation with stakeholders; (iv) enactment of national laws regulating UBI entitlements, including indexation of benefits; (v) coherence with other social, economic and employment policies, and (vi) sustainable and equitable financing. The impact of a UBI on poverty and inequality depends on the level of benefits and the source of funding. Based on these principles, the paper shows that some models of UBI can be in accordance with ILO standards, while others are not.
Examines the latest IMF government spending projections for 187 countries between 2005 and 2020; (ii) reviews 616 IMF country reports in 183 countries to identify the main adjustment measures considered by governments in both high-income and developing countries; (iii) applies the United Nations Global Policy Model to simulate the impact of expenditure consolidation on growth and employment; (iv) discusses the threats of austerity to welfare and social progress; and (v) calls for urgent action by governments to adopt alternative and equitable policies for socio-economic recovery.
A miracle is an extraordinary event that happens in defiance of all expectations. For decades after the developmental miracle first occurred in East Asia, scholars and pundits have debated the origins of this miracle; and for decades after the Asian financial crisis, they will debate how this wonder came to a crashing end. Just as there is no definitive scholarly consensus on the origins, there is also likely to be little consensus on the end.
It is by no means evident that conclusions drawn from European experiences with social protection may be transposed to the developing countries. There are, after all, very substantial economic, demographic and cultural differences to take into account. One way of bridging the divide between the two groups of countries is to look at the history of the now-rich powers and to ascertain the extent to which their responses to protests against poverty and injustice remain relevant to the situations of low-income populations today. Through trial and error, and measured responses to movements protesting hardship and injustice, the governments of the then-emerging welfare states were slowly able to develop effective anti-poverty policies. Social security systems were gradually brought into being. This long history undoubtedly holds fascinating lessons for the poor countries that are going through sometimes unspeakable hardships today. However, the diversity of outcomes in terms of social protection in the now-rich powers is equally fascinating. Present-day European systems vary greatly. Identifying quite what their effects are in terms of reducing poverty and enhancing or obstructing economic growth is crucially important.
Labour market institutions, including collective bargaining, the regulation of employment contracts and social protection policies, are instrumental for improving the well-being of workers, their families and society. In many countries, these institutions have been eroded, whilst in other countries they do not exist at all. Labour Markets, Institutions and Inequality includes empirical case studies, from both developed and developing countries, which examine the role of institutions in ensuring equitable income distribution. The volume discusses the effect of macroeconomic, labour and social policies on inequality, highlighting how specific groups such as women, migrants and younger workers are affected by labour market institutions. Expert contributions demonstrate that in order to reduce inequality, countries must strengthen their labour market institutions through comprehensive policy formulation.
Caring work involves providing a face-to-face service to recipients in jobs such as child care, teaching, therapy, and nursing. Such jobs offer low pay relative to their requirements for education and skill. What explains the penalty for doing caring work? Because caring labor is associated with women, cultural sexism militates against recognizing the value of the work. Also, the intrinsic reward people receive from helping others may allow employers to fill the jobs for lower pay. Caring labor creates public goods--widespread benefits that accrue even to those who pay nothing. For example, if children learn skills and discipline from teachers, the children's future employers benefit, with no market mechanism to make the pay given to care workers reflect these benefits. Even when the public or not-for-profit sectors do step in to hire people to provide such services for those too poor to pay, the pay is limited by how much decision makers really care about the poor. Finally, the fact that people feel queasy about putting a price on something as sacred as care limits the pay offered--as paradoxical as it is to pay less for something when it is seen as infinitely valuable!
Market reforms began in parts of Asia after World War II and led to macroeconomic policies and governance that brought rapid and fairly evenly shared growth, with an emphasis on promoting capable civil services, community involvement, and good basic education and health. For historical and cultural reasons, reforms began decades later in most of Latin America. To bypass ossified bureaucracies, operating under largely democratic governments with elements of civil societies, Latin American reforms were under strongmen, or caudillos, who undertook macroeconomic reforms due to conviction or expediency or both. The leaders used teams of technocrats who operated alongside and above preexisting bureaucracies. Reforms began first and went furthest in Chile. After case studies of Chile, Argentina, Peru, Mexico, and Venezuela, the author concludes that Latin American reforms will not really serve their people or be secure until, like the Asian reforms, they stress competent and honest governance, shared growth, and basic education and health.
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