To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare levels of attachment, conflict resolution strategies and marital satisfaction in women from Israel, United States, Turkey, and Spain (N = 343). A sample of individuals involved in a romantic relationship at ages 18-68 (M = 35.4, SD = 11.83) completed measures of attachment dimensions, conflict resolution strategies, and marital satisfaction. Tucker Phi coefficients revealed the same structure of the scales across all countries. Mean comparisons were used. Differences were observed among women from Israel, Turkey, USA, and Spain in attachment (avoidant and anxiety), as well as in own conflict resolution strategies and in perception of partner’s conflict resolution strategies. In individualistic countries, women reported using conflict withdrawal to a higher extent. Women from collectivistic cultures showed higher levels of avoidant attachment and of use of demand strategy. No cultural differences in women’s marital satisfaction were observed. Results are discussed in light of the combined possible effects of cultural dimensions and individual variables.
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.
... Certain cultural dimensions, as identified by Hofstede et al. (2010), play a significant role in shaping inter-relational codes and relationship norms. Specifically, researchers like Bretaña et al. (2019) have observed associations between individualism-collectivism (IDV) and masculinity-femininity (MAS) dimensions, which serves as a proxy for societies with varying degrees of patriarchal culture dominance) and the diverse conflict resolution strategies employed by women. In terms of IDV, countries with high scores are characterized by promoting individuals' independency and autonomy, while countries with lower scores (leaning towards the collectivism pole) emphasize harmony, altruism, and interdependency among individuals. ...
... However, research on conflict resolution strategies and relationship satisfaction has generally overlooked potential differences among women from various countries. This aspect deserves a more comprehensive analysis due to the anticipated cultural variations in how women handle relationship conflicts (Bretaña et al., 2019). Neglecting such cultural differences may result in researchers incorrectly generalizing findings and family therapists and practitioners employing inadequate intervention strategies for women from diverse cultural backgrounds. ...
... Yet, the cultural dimensions that explain such an association were unknown in their study. Furthermore, using continents as analysis units may not accurately capture cultural differences since they include countries that differ in one or more cultural dimensions known to be associated to the realm of relationships (e.g., Bretaña et al., 2019;Hofstede et al., 2010). Thus, further examination is necessitated to analyze the relationship between avoidant attachment and relationship satisfaction through a more fine-grained analysis: a) considering cultural values -as IDV and MAS cultural dimensions-presumed to be associated with relational questions, and b) selecting countries that differ in at least two cultural dimensions, as recommended for cross-cultural studies -and employing at least three countries- (Forbes, 2010;Van de Vijver & Leung, 2000). ...
The utilization of specific strategies to manage couple conflict has a differential impact on women’s relationship satisfaction. However, considering that women’s role within couple relationship is shaped by societal norms, such association should be examined by embracing a cross-cultural perspective. Thus, the objective of this study is to analyze the effect of individualism/collectivism and masculinity/femininity cultural values on avoidant attachment, perceived conflict solving, and relationship satisfaction. The sample consisted of 334 women from Israel, USA, Türkiye, and Spain. An unconstrained general model elucidates the connections among relationship satisfaction, avoidant attachment, and conflict solving strategies across all countries; yet, the strength of certain associations varies based on the dimensions of masculinity and individualism. In individualistic countries, avoidant attachment predicts lower relationship satisfaction in women. The prediction of own withdrawal by avoidant attachment remains similar among women, regardless of the individualism dimension. Nevertheless, in feminine (i.e., role egalitarian) countries, the link between female’s avoidant attachment and their partner’s use of positive conflict solving strategies is stronger. Additionally, the withdrawal strategy predicts partner demand to a greater extent in women from feminine countries. These findings will assist professionals from different countries in developing culturally sensitive and tailored prevention and intervention tools.
... Some conflict resolution strategies are better understood within such dysfunctional interactive conflict patterns (e.g., Christensen et al., 2007). A few researchers (e.g., Bonache et al., 2019;Bretaña et al., 2019Bretaña et al., , 2020 have recently observed a pattern in which the use of withdrawal conflict resolution strategy by one couple member (e.g., avoid the situation, not speak, and distance oneself) is linked with the use of demand/aggression strategy from her/his partner (e.g., criticize, demand, and threat). An individual's conflict withdrawal reduces the likelihood of an adequate problem solving (Gottman, 1998), and his/her partner's aggressive responses may increase due to the frustration generated by the situation (Miga et al., 2010). ...
... Therefore, a partner's perceived behaviors would be the response to one's own behavior (Collins, 1996), the demand/aggression resolution-strategy being the consequence of one's withdrawal of conflict. Avoidant individuals' perception of a pressure to engage and getting close to their partner would lead them to using emotion regulation techniques of deactivation, which translates into avoiding the conflict to a higher extent, as shown in Bretaña et al. (2019Bretaña et al. ( , 2020) studies on perception of partners. Nevertheless, despite its demonstrated relevance in understanding conflict resolution and relationship satisfaction, the avoidant dimension of attachment has not received enough attention as a key variable, as claimed by Bretaña et al. (2020). ...
... Conflict inventory revised (CI-R; Ridley et al., 2001; Spanish version by Bretaña et al., 2019). This inventory assesses responses during the couple conflict. ...
This study was conducted with the purpose of analyzing the combined and mediating effect of actor’s withdrawal–partner’s demand conflict resolution strategies between avoidance attachment dimension and relationship satisfaction. We conducted a dyadic study with 175 heterosexual couples (aged between 18 and 72 years) who filled in the questionnaires. Six hypotheses were tested using the actor–partner interdependence model with mediation analysis (APIMeM). Results showed that the avoidance dimension of attachment was more strongly associated with actor’s withdrawal strategy than with demand/aggression strategy. Furthermore, avoidance attachment was negatively associated with both actor’s and partner’s relationship satisfaction, the actor effect being higher. Withdrawal strategy was a mediator between actor’s avoidance and actor’s relationship satisfaction, but it was not a mediator for partner’s relationship satisfaction. The interactive pattern of actor’s withdrawal–partner’s demand/aggression was associated with low levels of both actor’s and partner’s relationship satisfaction. These results point out to the need of discerning the interactive pattern of conflict-solving strategies as well as their intertwined effect on relationship satisfaction.
... En cuanto a la capacidad de resolver conflictos de manera efectiva es vital para la longevidad de una relación (Rosenberg, 2008). Actualmente, se observa que las parejas están adoptando enfoques más proactivos para la resolución de conflictos, como la negociación y la mediación (Bretaña et al., 2019 Las tendencias actuales muestran una mayor conciencia y esfuerzo hacia la mejora de estos aspectos, aunque todavía hay desafíos que las parejas deben enfrentar. ...
La psicoterapia sexual es fundamental para abordar problemas relacionados con la intimidad y la satisfacción sexual en parejas adultas. Este estudio tiene como propósito analizar las variables asociadas y los desafíos en este contexto específico. Mediante una revisión sistemática descriptiva, se exploraron publicaciones de los últimos 7 años en inglés y español, incluyendo análisis de casos y estudios descriptivos accesibles en Scopus, Web of Science y PubMed. Inicialmente, se identificaron 245 registros, de los cuales se eliminaron 68 duplicados. Tras revisar títulos y resúmenes, se seleccionaron 15 estudios elegibles, excluyendo metaanálisis. Se encontró que la intimidad sexual en parejas adultas se ve afectada por la predisposición a establecer vínculos emocionales interdependientes y una comunicación empática. Con el tiempo, la intimidad tendía a disminuir, a menudo gestionada con indiferencia para resolver conflictos. Este análisis subraya la importancia de abordar estos aspectos en la psicoterapia sexual para mejorar la calidad de vida en las relaciones de pareja.
... These findings highlight the importance of romantic conflict management skills, which refer to the capacity to efficiently address and resolve disagreements between partners [3]. Various factors such as cultural values [4], personality traits [5], communication patterns [6], and attachment style can all potentially impact an individual's ability to handle conflicts effectively within close relationships [7]. Attachment style refers to an individual's approach to close relationships [8], which is influenced by their early bonds with primary caregivers [9], and can be categorized into secure and insecure types [10]. ...
Understanding Attachment Styles and Romantic Conflict Management Skills is crucial for addressing relationship challenges like recurring conflicts and communication breakdowns due to unresolved attachment issues, which can cause emotional damage and deteriorate relationship quality over time. This study explores the relationship between Attachment Styles and Romantic Conflict Management Skills in university students, with 350 college respondents providing a diverse sample. The study found that attachment styles particularly avoidant attachment have a slightly high level while romantic conflict management skills show variations in subscales with compromise and avoidance tending toward higher levels. The Spearman's rank correlation coefficient showed a weakly positive connection, rejecting the null hypothesis and highlighting the influence of attachment styles on romantic conflict management skills. Moreover, the linear regression analysis identified avoidant and anxious attachment as significant predictors of Romantic Conflict Management Skills, suggesting that these styles may play a role in determining how conflicts are resolved in relationships. These results improve our understanding of the relationship between college students' attachment styles and their ability to resolve romantic conflicts. The study suggests that institutions should offer workshops on communication, attachment styles, self-awareness, and conflict resolution to foster healthy student relationships and provide counselors with guidance. Future research should explore additional variables and use advanced sampling techniques.
... The Conflict Inventory Revised (Ridley et al., 2001; Spanish version adapted by Bretaña et al., 2019) consists of 13 items that measure the extent to which individuals (CI-Own) use one of the following conflict resolution strategies: withdrawal, including five items (e.g., "Leaving the room"); demand, including four items (e.g., "Name-calling"); and positive problem-solving, including four items (e.g., "Listening carefully"). A second part of the questionnaire refers to how individuals perceive that their partners resolve conflicts and to what extent they use the strategies mentioned above (CI-Partner). ...
Increased time spent together and the lockdown resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic may have created new scenarios for marital conflict. We analyzed how home confinement affects avoidantly attached individuals': (a) resolution strategies to cope with couple conflict, (b) perception of partner's resolution strategies, and (c) overall relationship satisfaction. The sample comprised 549 individuals, divided into two subsamples: (a) the confined group, individuals confined with their partners (n = 275); and (b) the comparison group, coupled individuals from a dataset collected before the pandemic (n = 274). Results indicate that the proposed model works in different contexts (non-confinement and confinement situations), but there are some significant differences in the magnitude of some of the relationships between the variables, being stronger in the confinement group than in the comparison group. In the confined group, in individuals with avoidant attachment, withdrawal was associated with lower relationship satisfaction and a higher demand partner perceived to a higher extent than in the comparison group. This might explain the lower satisfaction with the relationship of the confined group. The different conflict resolution strategies of the couple mediated between avoidant attachment and relationship satisfaction in both groups (confined and comparison). It is concluded that individuals' attachment orientation is a key factor in how individuals experienced their close relationships during the confinement.
... Conflict Inventory-Revised (CI-R; Ridley et al., 2001; Spanish revised version by Bretaña et al., 2019). The CI-R consists of 13 items grouped into three styles: Positive, Demand (conflict engagement), and Withdrawal. ...
The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of conflict resolution strategies in the links between the avoidant attachment dimension and relationship satisfaction. The sample comprised 274 participants (ranging from 18 to 73 years old, 58% women). A predictive model of relationship satisfaction was tested, taking into account avoidant attachment and both own and perceived partner’s conflict resolution strategies. Structural equation modeling was used. Fit indexes indicated that the suggested overall relationship model was confirmed. Own withdrawal conflict resolution was associated positively with individuals’ perception of partner demand. Specifically, there was an indirect effect between own withdrawal and relationship satisfaction mediated by demand strategy perceived in the partner. Own withdrawal was negatively associated with perceived partner’s problem solving, and perceived partner’s positive conflict resolution strategy was positively associated with relationship satisfaction. Practical implications for professionals working with couples are discussed.
Partners in an intercultural couple can be similar because of selection effects (they were attracted to each other because of their similarity), accommodation (relationship length diminishes differences), or acculturation (the migrant partner adjusts to the dominant culture). The current study explored these sources of similarity, as well as the association of relationship standards with relationship satisfaction, by comparing intercultural couples (68 Chinese–Western couples) with two groups of monocultural couples (63 Western couples and 66 Chinese couples) across 2 countries of residence (China and Australia). Regardless of country of residence, Chinese couples rated Family Responsibility standards (e.g., relations with the extended family and maintaining relational harmony) as more important than Western couples. Western couples rated Couple Bond standards (e.g., the demonstration of love and caring) as more important than Chinese. Intercultural couples endorsed standards to an intermediate extent between the Chinese and Western couples. There was considerable similarity of partners’ standards within couples in all 3 groups of couples. Endorsement of Couple Bond standards and partner similarity on Family Responsibility standards were associated with relationship satisfaction across all 3 groups and both countries of residence. We conclude that cultural differences in endorsement of relationship standards show little acculturative change, at least in first-generation migrants. The substantial similarity in partners’ standards in intercultural couples seems to be due primarily to selection effects. The association of standards with satisfaction is remarkably similar across countries of residence and cultural groups.
Claims that adult attachment differences across cultures are associated with individual differences in individualism and collectivism have seldom been evaluated. This study investigates how individualism and collectivism may relate to adult attachment orientations (anxiety and avoidance) and if they moderate the attachment – psychological health link. In samples of young adults from Western (Australians, n = 143) and Eastern (Singaporeans, n = 146) locations, individual differences in individualism and collectivism were significantly associated with attachment avoidance but not anxiety. As predicted, attachment anxiety predicted worse negative symptoms more strongly among individuals higher in collectivism across cultures. However, individualism and collectivism did not moderate the relation between avoidance and negative symptoms. Results suggest there are other factors leading to the differential moderating effect of individualism and collectivism in the attachment – wellbeing link across cultures. The current study highlights the need to look beyond cultural stereotypes in clinical practice.
Female gender has been consistently associated with positive psychological help-seeking attitudes and behaviors; however, surprisingly few empirical studies have examined how femininity-related variables impact women’s help-seeking decision making. Informed by the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), the purpose of this study was (a) to investigate the associations between two femininity constructs—subjective femininity stress and gender solidarity—and psychological help-seeking intention, and (b) to explore the mediating roles of help-seeking attitudes and social stigma using structural equation modeling. Participants were 451 college-enrolled women in Southern California. Results revealed that all the mediation relationships involving help-seeking attitudes and stigma were significant. Subjective femininity stress was positively related to help-seeking intention via help-seeking attitudes, but was negatively related to intention via social stigma. Gender solidarity was positively related to help-seeking intention via positive attitudes and reduced social stigma. Implications for future research, prevention programs, and practice are discussed.
Are Americans more individualistic and less collectivistic than members of other groups? The authors summarize plausible psychological implications of individualism–collectivism (IND-COL), metaanalyze
cross-national and within-United States IND-COL differences, and review evidence for effectsof IND-COL on self-concept, well-being, cognition, and relationality. European Americans were found to be both more individualistic—valuing personal independence more—and less collectivistic—feeling duty to in-groups less—than others. However, European Americans were not more individualistic than African Americans, or Latinos, and not less collectivistic than Japanese or Koreans. Among Asians, only Chinese showed large effects, being both less individualistic and more collectivistic. Moderate IND-COL effects were found on self-concept and relationality, and large effects were found on attribution and cognitive style.
This research examines the relationships among individualism-collectivism (IND-COL), conflict management styles and conflict satisfaction. The authors aim to explain some of the inconclusive findings in the literature related to IND-COL and conflict styles by studying IND-COL as states, rather than dispositional traits. By taking a dynamic approach to conceptualizing IND-COL and measuring IND-COL over time, we investigate how different ratios of individualistic-to-collectivistic orientations are associated with different conflict management styles. Results show that individuals who employed a balanced focus (1:1 ratio) of both individualistic and collectivistic orientations utilized an integrative style in conflict more than individuals with either a strong individualistic or collectivistic orientation. Integrative style was associated with higher levels of satisfaction with conflict outcomes, processes, relationships, goal attainment and job satisfaction at work. Individuals with predominant focus on individualism utilized a dominating style more, whereas individuals with predominant focus on collectivism utilized obliging and avoiding styles. Furthermore, results show that state-level IND-COL is a better predictor of conflict management styles than trait-level IND-COL. Past research has focused on studying IND-COL primarily as a trait variable at the individual level, but we examine IND-COL as states in relation to conflict management styles. In addition, we investigate the combined and optimal effects of both individualism and collectivism value-orientations on conflict management styles.
This study explored the effects of psychological and cultural variables on self-reported emotional prototypes of anger. Eight anger components were examined using a multilevel analysis. Competitiveness, interdependence, gender, instrumentality, and expressivity were entered as individual variables, and individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, and the Human Development Index (HDI) were entered as cultural variables. All highlight the importance of considering simultaneously the individual and social levels, with a view to gaining more in-depth knowledge of the emotions. Data were collected among 5,006 college students from 25 countries. Being female, instrumentality, HDI, and the interaction between country-level HDI competitiveness predicted internal processes and behavioral outcomes of anger prototypes. Expressivity, instrumentality, country-level masculinity, and the interaction between gender and country-level masculinity predicted self-control mechanisms of anger prototypes. It is concluded that salient differences in anger prototypes can be found at both individual and country level, and that interaction effects of HDI with individual variables are essential in understanding anger prototypes.
Using data from the 2006 Japanese General Social Survey, we examine the association between gender role attitudes, spousal “troubles talk,” and marital satisfaction. We find that, in line with prior research, belief in gender egalitarianism is associated with higher marital satisfaction for men, whereas it is negatively associated with women’s marital satisfaction. More troubles talk is associated with higher marital satisfaction for both genders. Only for women, troubles talk significantly mediates the association between gender role attitudes and marital satisfaction. Compared with gender-traditional women, egalitarian women have troubles talk less frequently and thus experience lower marital satisfaction.
Despite the importance of the concept of cultural display rules in explaining cultural differences in emotional expression, and despite the fact that it has been over 30 years since this concept was coined (Ekman & Friesen, 1969), there is yet to be a study that surveys display rules across a wide range of cultures. This article reports such a study. Over 5,000 respondents in 32 countries completed the Display Rule Assessment Inventory (Matsumoto, Yoo, Hirayama, & Petrova, 2005). We examined five hypotheses concerning the relationship between display rules and Individualism-Collectivism (IC). The findings indicated the existence of several universal effects, including greater expression toward ingroups v. outgroups, and an overall regulation effect. Individualistic and collectivistic cultures differed on overall expressivity endorsement, and in norms concerning specific emotions in ingroup and outgroup situations.
Unlike many social psychological theories that are limited by the Western cultural context in which they were developed, attachment theory is an exception in that it has been examined across cultures. However, existing cross-cultural research on attachment is limited in scope: there is little to no research on how attachment distributions vary based on ethnicity and religion, and it remains unclear which aspects of culture influence attachment outcomes. The current study expands the body of research on attachment theory by examining attachment as a function of country of origin, ethnicity, religious denomination, individualism/collectivism, and acculturation. We assessed attachment in an ethnically and religiously diverse sample that encompassed over fifty countries of origin, and found that attachment patterns varied based on region of origin, collectivism, acculturation, and ethnicity. These findings have broad implications, both for clinical usage and for empirical cross-cultural understanding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)
In two studies, we examined the role of country and individualism and collectivism as moderators of associations between attachment insecurities (anxiety and avoidance) and coping and social support. Study 1 examined the ability of anxiety, avoidance, and country to predict coping and social support variables in Mexico and the US. Anxiety, avoidance, and country had significant effects on coping and social support variables, but there were no significant interactions between the attachment dimensions and country. Study 2 examined the same variables as in Study 1, but also included measures of individualism and collectivism. The results were similar and support the universality of attachment theory but also show that high individualism and low collectivism are associated with stronger relations between attachment dimensions, on one hand, and with diversion coping and perceived social support, perhaps because these variables are related to the most salient aspects of collectivism: duty to one’s group and passive coping.
The purpose of the present meta-analysis was to empirically test the widely held assumption that women experience lower marital satisfaction than men. A total of 226 independent samples with a combined sum of 101,110 participants were included in the meta-analysis. Overall results indicated statistically significant yet very small gender differences in marital satisfaction between wives and husbands, with wives slightly less satisfied than husbands; moderator analyses, however, indicated that this difference was due to the inclusion of clinical samples, with wives in marital therapy 51% less likely to be satisfied with their marital relationship than their husbands. The effect size for nonclinical community-based samples indicated no significant gender differences among couples in the general population. Additional moderator analyses indicated that there were also no gender differences when the levels of marital satisfaction of husbands and wives in the same relationship (i.e., dyadic data) were compared.
Gender differences in the dismissing form of adult romantic attachment were investigated as part of the International Sexuality Description Project-a survey study of 17,804 people from 62 cultural regions. Contrary to research findings previously reported in Western cultures, we found that men were not significantly more dismissing than women across all cultural regions. Gender differences in dismissing romantic attachment were evident in most cultures, but were typically only small to moderate in magnitude. Looking across cultures, the degree of gender differentiation in dismissing romantic attachment was predictably associated with sociocultural indicators. Generally, these associations supported evolutionary theories of romantic attachment, with smaller gender differences evident in cultures with high-stress and high-fertility reproductive environments. Social role theories of human sexuality received less support in that more progressive sex-role ideologies and national gender equity indexes were not cross-culturally linked as expected to smaller gender differences in dismissing romantic attachment.
The objective of this study is to examine the gender (sex) differentiation of indirect self-destructiveness and its manifestations as well as its relationships with suicide attempt methods in females and males. The study was conducted among 147 persons (114 females, 33 males) who attempted suicide. The research instrument was the polish version of the Chronic Self-Destructiveness Scale including Transgression and Risk, Poor Health Maintenance, Personal and Social Neglects, Lack of Planfulness, and Helplessness and Passiveness in the face of problems. Differences testing and correlation analyses were applied. Females scored higher on poor health maintenance and males scored significantly higher on personal and social neglects, lack of planfulness, and helplessness. Noteworthy is that the intensity of indirect self-destructiveness in females reached the same magnitude as in males. A number of statistically significant correlations were found between indirect self-destructiveness, or its manifestations, and the methods of suicide attempt in the two groups. Among these categories, the highest contribution was of helplessness and passiveness (both of groups), poor health maintenance (males), and personal and social neglects (females). Results of this study can be useful in the therapeutic efforts and prevention of not only indirectly self-destructive behaviours but also possible suicide attempts. Both preventive and therapeutic activities can take into account the specificity of those phenomena resulting from one's sex/gender. It is important to adapt preventive and therapeutic measures to psychological (personal) features that arise from an individual's sex/gender.
Triandis' theoretical framework, concerning cultural patterns labeled individualism and collectivism, is probed with regard to the religious marker in the Israeli Jewish society. Three methods are used to examine collectivism-individualism constructs in 185 religious and 956 secular high school students: value items, interest in different domains of history, and attitudes toward political issues. A common collective basis of mutual value consensus was found in the two groups; however, as predicted, there were differences between secular and religious students on the three kinds of items, since the religious scored higher than the secular students on items emphasizing collectivist orientation. The differences, however, do not fit the common theoretical framework of collectivism-individualism, but rather tend to reflect the distinction between in-group and universal collectivism.
The present study examined, via qualitative interviews, the experience of marital satisfaction across three cultures: the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, and Beijing, China. A total of 79 respondents were interviewed in the three cultures and template analysis with an emic approach was used as the analytic method. Results indicated that, in all three cultures, a stable relationship with the spouse, spousal support, partnership with the spouse, and stable family finances were important factors that contributed to marital satisfaction. Cultural differences also appeared. Companionship was more important for British respondents, while harmonious marital relations were more important for Hong Kong respondents. These findings were generally consistent with postulates from modernization theories and cultural value theories.
In order to further our understanding of conflict within a marital relationship, this study had two purposes: (i) to identify married couples' conflict response profiles, and (ii) to relate these conflict profiles to appraisals of marital quality. Spouses in 173 intact married couples completed a questionnaire that included measures of a sample of aggressive, withdrawing, and problem-solving responses occurring during conflict episodes, and indices of marital quality. Cluster analyses of married dyads' conflict responses generated four conceptually interesting profiles - two symmetrical ('distancing couples' and `engaging couples') and two asymmetrical ('distancing husbands' and `distancing wives'). Results indicated that couples who endorse different conflict profiles could be distinguished according to their level of marital adjustment. The advantages to understanding conflict responses within a marriage by studying the couple as the unit of analysis were highlighted.
The Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI), intended as a counseling tool to examine masculinity issues with male clients, assesses conformity to 12 components of the masculine role. In this study, participants (N = 307) completed the CMNI and the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS). Men's conformity to traditional masculine norms was negatively associated with RAS scores for both men rating themselves and women rating their male partners on the CMNI. Men's conformity to masculine norms was more strongly associated with women's relationship satisfaction than with men's relationship satisfaction. Findings suggest the usefulness of the CMNI for helping counseling clients explore how men's conformity to specific masculine norms is connected to the quality of their romantic relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Some researchers believe that important tenets of attachment theory are culturally universal, whereas others claim that key constructs are rooted in Western values and should not be generalized further. To explore possible cultural differences in adults, undergraduates from Taiwan (n = 280) and the United States (n = 268) were asked in the present study to complete a self-report measure of adult attachment, the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale (K. A. Brennan, C. L. Clark, & P. R. Shaver, 1998), as they believed "an ideally emotionally and psychologically healthy person of your own gender in your culture" would respond. Findings suggested significant differences by cultural group, gender, and Gender x Culture interactions. Taiwanese women and men endorsed more avoidance in beliefs about ideal adult attachment than their U.S. counterparts, and Taiwanese men endorsed more anxiety than U.S. men. These cultural differences were not explained by group differences in independent and interdependent self-construal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We compared the psychometric properties of the American and Spanish versions of the Experiences in Close Relationship measure (ECR; Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998; ECR-S, Alonso-Arbiol, Balluerka, & Shaver, 2007; Alonso-Arbiol, Shaver, & Yárnoz, 2002), which assesses individual differences in attachment-related anxiety and avoidance. The American version of the questionnaire was administered to 1,265 Americans and the Spanish version to 747 Spaniards, all of them university students. The results indicate that the two linguistic versions are comparable, and that the Avoidance and Anxiety scales exhibit high internal consistency reliability in both languages, although the a values are slightly lower for the Spanish version. Avoidance was related to relationship status in both language groups, with about the same effect size. The factor structure of the measure was similar across both the American and Spanish samples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Using a wide variety of measures of psychological well-being obtained from a representative sample of married men and women in Bangkok, Thailand, we examine gender differences in psychological well-being. We find that, in Bangkok, as in the United States, married men generally enjoy a higher level of psychological well-being than do married women. We find no support for role strain theory, but we do find support for role enhancement theory. We find that social support has little effect on psychological well-being, but that social strain not only has a significant effect on well-being but also largely accounts for gender differences in well-being. The mixed findings suggest the importance of testing theories in different societal contexts, for they may or may not be easily portable from one culture to another.
This article reviews research on cultural beliefs and expectations about gender and romantic relationships that are related to male intimate partner violence. We link beliefs about men (manhood is tenuous and must be proven, men must protect women, and honor must be defended), about women (good women put sacrifice and family loyalty first and good women are morally and sexually pure), and about relationships (jealousy is a sign of passionate love) to show how they create a cultural context in which intimate partner violence is tolerated, accepted, or rejected. We end by discussing avenues for future research that take an expansive approach to examining culture's influence on intimate violence.
This article presents the first meta-analysis of sex differences in the avoidance and anxiety dimensions of adult romantic attachment, based on 113 samples (N = 66,132) from 100 studies employing two-dimensional romantic attachment questionnaires (Experiences in Close Relationships, Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised, and Adult Attachment Questionnaire). Overall, males showed higher avoidance and lower anxiety than females, with substantial between-study heterogeneity. Sex differences were much larger in community samples (bivariate D = .28) than in college samples (D = .12); web-based studies showed the smallest sex differences (D = .07) in the opposite direction. Sex differences also varied across geographic regions (overall Ds = .10 to .34). Sex differences in anxiety peaked in young adulthood, whereas those in avoidance increased through the life course. The relevance of these findings for evolutionary models of romantic attachment is discussed, and possible factors leading to underestimation of sex differences are reviewed.
Gender differences in the dismissing form of adult romantic attachment were investigated as part of the International Sexuality Description Project—a survey study of 17,804 people from 62 cultural regions. Contrary to research findings previously reported in Western cultures, we found that men were not significantly more dismissing than women across all cultural regions. Gender differences in dismissing romantic attachment were evident in most cultures, but were typically only small to moderate in magnitude. Looking across cultures, the degree of gender differentiation in dismissing romantic attachment was predictably associated with sociocultural indicators. Generally, these associations supported evolutionary theories of romantic attachment, with smaller gender differences evident in cultures with high–stress and high–fertility reproductive environments. Social role theories of human sexuality received less support in that more progressive sex–role ideologies and national gender equity indexes were not cross–culturally linked as expected to smaller gender differences in dismissing romantic attachment.
This study examines men's domestic aggression as a function of attachment insecurities, considering the mediating roles of the demand-withdraw communication pattern and relationship satisfaction. The sample included 55 Canadian men undergoing counseling for relationship difficulties including aggression. The men completed questionnaires assessing physical and psychological aggression, the two dimensions of attachment insecurity (anxiety over abandonment and avoidance of intimacy), the demand-withdraw communication pattern, relationship satisfaction, and social desirability (a control measure). As predicted, there was an association between attachment anxiety and aggression (both physical and psychological), which was mediated by the man demands/woman withdraws (MD/WW) pattern (as reported by the men). There was no evidence of mediation by the woman demands/man withdraws pattern, as reported by the men. Relationship satisfaction mediated the association between attachment anxiety and psychological (but not physical) aggression, but did not mediate the link between avoidance and aggression (physical or psychological). Limitations and clinical implications are discussed.
Are Americans more individualistic and less collectivistic than members of other groups? The authors summarize plausible psychological implications of individualism-collectivism (IND-COL), meta-analyze cross-national and within-United States IND-COL differences, and review evidence for effects of IND-COL on self-concept, well-being, cognition, and relationality. European Americans were found to be both more individualistic-valuing personal independence more-and less collectivistic-feeling duty to in-groups less-than others. However, European Americans were not more individualistic than African Americans, or Latinos, and not less collectivistic than Japanese or Koreans. Among Asians, only Chinese showed large effects, being both less individualistic and more collectivistic. Moderate IND-COL effects were found on self-concept and relationality, and large effects were found on attribution and cognitive style.
In this research, we examined actors' and partners' perceptions of each other's attachment insecurities and the associations of these perceptions with relationship satisfaction. A sample of 148 heterosexual couples completed measures of self and partner attachment insecurities and relationship satisfaction. Results indicate that partners agree in their perceptions of their own and each other's attachment insecurities (anxiety and avoidance). Based on the actor–partner interdependence model (APIM), we also found that both actors' scores on avoidance and their perceptions of their partner's degree of avoidanc are associated with lower relationship satisfaction. Finally, we found that the way an actor perceives his or her partner's avoidance plays a mediational role in the association between partner's self-reported avoidance and actor's relationship satisfaction.
A theory of individualism and collectivism The evolution of individualism and collectivism theory and research is reviewed. The antecedents of collectivism–individualism can be found in the ecology, family structure, wealth distribution, demography, history, cultural diffusion, and situational conditions. The consequences of collectivism–individualism include differences in attention, attribution, cognition, emotion, motivation, self-definitions, values, language use, and communication, as well as other kinds of social and organizational behavior. Applications of individualism and collectivism include improvements in conflict resolution, health, international relations, and cross-cultural training. Culture is to society what memory is to individuals (Kluckhohn, 1954). It consists of what “has worked” in the experience of a group of people so it was worth transmitting to peers and descendents. Another definition of culture was provided by anthropologist Redfield (1941): “Culture is shared understandings made manifest in act and artifact.” In short, culture is shared behavior and shared human-made aspects of the society. Thus, ...
Culture influences both individual behavior and how businesses operate. Those working in both the business and policy arenas must understand other cultures and avoid ethnocentrism. Culture is defined as the "collective programming of the mind"; in the modern context it exists within national borders. Using data from surveys of employees in 40 countries at the HERMES Corporation in 1968 and 1972, four categories of cultural difference become clear and useful: power distance; uncertainty avoidance individualism; and masculinity. These categories are then correlated not only with one another, but with other available data. Sex differentiation is the final dimension of cultural difference in this analysis. These four dimensions of national culture describe the human condition. Some of them correlate with one another. Analyzing the correlations between the various indices allows the clustering of these 40 countries with similar statistics into 8 groups: More and Less Developed Latin and Asian, Near-Eastern, Germanic, Anglo and Nordic. Because the HERMES data was collected at two different points, 1968 and 1972, it can show change over time. While scientific discoveries can effect cultural change, not every culture will become increasingly similar. Different cultures will follow different trends, though some trends will be global. There was a worldwide decrease in desired power difference and in elevations of stress and both the Individualism Index (IDV) and Masculinity Index (MAS) grew during this period. Speculation on long term trends is provided, suggesting that the IDV will rise and the Power Distance Index norm will fall as long as national wealth increases; the Uncertainty Avoidance Index will fluctuate as people age, and MAS will remain constant as time passes. Organizations are bound by the cultures that created them, with consequences for cultural relativity for a number of areas: motivation; leadership; decision-making; planning and control; organization design; development; humanization of work; industrial democracy; company ownership and control; and the reaction of the local environment to the organization. Possible training strategies for multi-national and multi-cultural corporations are included and the Values Survey Module is introduced, shortening and improving upon the original HERMES survey in the hope that research on cultural difference will continue. (RAS)
Fourty-nine 12 months old children and their mothers were videotaped in Ainsworth's Strange Situation. Fourty-six of them were videotaped again in the same situation at 18 months with their fathers. Quality of attachment was determined by using Ainsworth's criteria. Fewer children had 'secure' relationships to their parents than in comparable U.S. samples. There was no correlation between infant-mother and infant-father quality of attachment relationship. The results are discussed in terms of parental attempts to cope with cultural demands imposed on them. These specific cultural demands may frequently interfere with the establishment of a securely attached relationship. On the other hand, they may be only transitory and appropriate from an adaptation to culture-specific expectancies point of view.
This study examines gender construction among dual-career newlywed couples in a collectivist culture. A qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews with 20 heterosexual Singaporean couples reveals aspects of the collectivist norms (e.g., doing family, we-consciousness, marrying one's equal) that are favorable toward the development of gender equality. Additionally, as couples respond to the political and social pulls of economic development, they begin to organize their relationship around both careers. Incorporating egalitarian values becomes a pragmatic move carried out through five direct processes: (a) career as central to the relationship, (b) flexible allocation of household duties, (c) open dialogue regarding conflict, (d) equal say in decision making, and (e) internal self-reflection. Implications for future research are addressed.
The contribution of attachment styles to social intimacy and expectations of friends was investigated in Caucasian American and Korean young adults. Koreans scored higher on preoccupied attachment, lower on intimacy, and lower on friendship expectations. In regression analyses, secure attachment contributed positively and dismissive attachment contributed negatively to intimacy and positive expectations; culture added significantly to the equations, with Korean students reporting less intimate relationships with friends and more negative expectations than Caucasian Americans.
This study examined the impact of attachment avoidance on relationship outcomes. A “cultural fit” hypothesis, which states that individual differences in personality should be associated with relationship problems if they encourage patterns of behavior that are incongruent with cultural norms, was investigated. It was hypothesized that attachment avoidance, a style of relationship in which emotional distance and independence are emphasized, would be more strongly associated with relationship problems in more collectivist societies (Hong Kong and Mexico) than in a more individualist one (the United States), given the greater emphasis placed on closeness and harmony in relationships in collectivist cultures. As predicted, associations between avoidant attachment and relationship problems were stronger in Hong Kong and Mexico than in the United States.
(from the cover) Heavy migration patterns, the globalization of markets, and increased cross-cultural communications have made cross-cultural research a necessity in the behavioral and social sciences. In "Methods and Data Analysis for Cross-Cultural Research," the authors have developed a guide for graduate students and professionals that presents cross-cultural methodology in a practical light. The central focus is primarily on the design and analysis of quasi-experiments, which is the dominant framework for cross-cultural research. This volume presents an overview of tools of cross-cultural research and illustrates the most meaningful techniques in feature boxes, complete with sample data. (cover)
This guide will be of interest to researchers in the fields of clinical/counseling psychology, social work, research methods, sociology, ethnic studies, and social psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved) (cover)
We studied mainstream couples in The Netherlands and Turkey as well as Turkish-Dutch immigrant couples to address cultural factors associated with marital satisfaction. A total of 13 Turkish (mainstream couples living in Turkey), 19 Turkish-Dutch (Turkish immigrant couples living in The Netherlands), and 17 Dutch (mainstream couples living in The Netherlands) married dyads (total of 98 individuals) were independently interviewed about positive and negative characteristics of marriages, determinants of general marital satisfaction and dissatisfaction, spousal communication, marital conflict, and marital roles. Multivariate tests revealed ethnic group differences on all marriage-related domains except the conflict resolution strategies. However, univariate analyses showed differences in few themes within domains; main differences were assessed between the Turkish/Turkish-Dutch (who put more emphasis on children and economical aspects) and Dutch couples (who put more emphasis on behavior, and personality of the spouse, reciprocity, emotional sharing, and psychological roles). Turkish-Dutch couples were more similar to Turkish than to Dutch couples. Results were discussed in light of the socioeconomic development and cultural value theories, which are believed to provide a useful framework for understanding the role of culture in marital satisfaction. The authors would like to express thanks to Itziar Alonso-Arbiol for her helpful feedback. Additionally, we would like to thank Carmen Sep, Iren Yeresyan, Petrus A. Reijn, and Zeyneb Kabak for their contribution to data collection and coding.
A Spanish adaptation of the Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) measure of the 2 dimensions of adult attachment (K. A. Brennan, C. L. Clark, & P. R. Shaver, 1998) was created using a back-translation procedure. Called the ECR-S, the new scale displays the same 2-factor structure as the English-language ECR in both university and community samples and is reliable in both the internal consistency and the temporal stability senses. In a sample of married and cohabiting couples, the 2 subscales of the ECR-S, anxiety and avoidance, are orthogonal and correlate with other theoretically appropriate variables (scores on K. Bartholomew and L. M. Horowitz’s, 1991, measure of adult attachment style, relationship status, and various dimensions of love and couple satisfaction). Cross-cultural differences between American and Spanish results are briefly discussed.
This paper proposes a multi-level model of culture, consisting of structural and dynamic characteristics that explain the interplay between various levels of culture. The paper begins with a summary of existing models of culture and continues with the proposed multi-level model of culture. The structural dimension represents the nested structure of culture from the most macro level of a global culture, through national, organisational and team cultures, and down to the representation of culture at the individual level. The dynamic nature of culture conveys the top-down-bottom-up processes where one cultural level affects changes in other levels of culture. Specifically, the model proposes that globalisation, as the macro level of culture, affects, through top-down processes, behavioral changes of members in various cultures. Reciprocally, behavioral changes at the individual level, through bottom-up processes, become shared behavioral norms and values, modifying the culture of a macro level entity. The paper calls for a shift in the research focus on culture as stable, to culture as a dynamic entity and for a greater focus on the interplay between different levels of culture.
The variety of interpersonal relationships in contemporary society necessitates the development of brief, reliable measures of satisfaction that are applicable to many types of close relationships. This article describes the development of such a measure. In Study I, the 7-item Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) was administered to 125 subjects who reported themselves to be "in love." Analyses revealed a unifactorial scale structure, substantial factor loadings, and moderate intercorrelations among the items. The scale correlated significantly with measures of love, sexual attitudes, self-disclosure, commitment, and investment in a relationship. In Study II, the scale was administered to 57 couples in ongoing relationships. Analyses supported a single factor, alpha reliability of .86, and correlations with relevant relationship measures. The scale correlated .80 with a longer criterion measure, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976), and both scales were effective (with a subsample) in discriminating couples who stayed together from couples who broke up. The RAS is a brief, psychometrically sound, generic measure of relationship satisfaction.
It simply will not do to reject the theoertical centrality of meaning for psychology on the grounds that it is “vague.” Its vagueness was in the eye of yesterday's formalistics logician. We are beyond that now. [Bruner 1990: 65]
Globalization has led to an increased emphasis on cultural diversity and its influences on personal, social, and organizational practices. As the world becomes a smaller place, the potential for conflict in our daily interactions is increasing. Research investigating the influence of culture on conflict management and resolution behaviors has demonstrated that individualism and collectivism do indeed influence a person's style of conflict resolution behavior. However, these findings have not been linked to the related constructs of vertical and horizontal individualism and collectivism [as defined by Triandis, H.C. (1994) Culture and social behavior. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill] which introduce the concept of accepting authority within a focus on the self versus the group. A strong parallel exists between the vertical and horizontal dimensions of individualism and collectivism and power distance. The salience of this power variable may differ from one culture to the next, and influences not only the nature of the conflict process itself, but also the conflict resolution strategies adopted. In addition, studies exploring the influence of various dispositional measures such as self-monitoring and emotional intelligence have linked them to both cultural variables and styles of conflict resolution. Although each finding that links a single personality or cultural variable with a particular style of conflict resolution is indeed useful, it is also limiting. This study explored the relationships among culture, power, personality, and styles of conflict resolution. Relevance of the findings and their implications with respect to conflict management and resolution issues across cultures are discussed.
Responses to conflict were studied in samples of college students from a highly collectivistic society (China, n = 207) and a highly individualistic society (United States n = 209). As predicted, the collectivistic society reported more conflict-reducing behaviors and less verbal or physical aggression. However, the effect of individualism/collectivism was moderated by both the ingroup/outgroup status of the target and gender of the participant. Chinese and US women did not differ on any measure. However, of the four groups, Chinese men reported the most conflict-reducing behaviors and the least physical aggression, whereas US men reported the fewest conflict-reducing behaviors and the greatest physical aggression. As predicted, conflict-reducing behaviors were more common in the ingroup condition and both verbal and physical aggression was more common in the outgroup condition. However, the latter were moderated by gender of the participant. US men reported greater physical aggression than any other group. Neither gender nor society had any effect on the level of indirect aggression. There were no gender or individualism/collectivism effects on indirect aggression. Observed gender effects were attributed to differences in how collectivistic and individualistic societies conceptualize masculinity. The effect sizes associated with the ingroup/outgroup condition were consistently and substantially larger than effect sizes associated with individualism/collectivism or gender.
This paper provides a review of the main findings concerning the relationship between the cultural syndromes of individualism and collectivism and personality. People in collectivist cultures, compared to people in individualist cultures, are likely to define themselves as aspects of groups, to give priority to in-group goals, to focus on context more than the content in making attributions and in communicating, to pay less attention to internal than to external processes as determinants of social behavior, to define most relationships with ingroup members as communal, to make more situational attributions, and tend to be self-effacing.