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R E S E A R C H Open Access
Verification of air brush effectiveness using
cosmeceutical ingredients
Hyun Jung Kim, Min Sook Jung
*
, Jeong Min Shin and Yu Kyung Hur
Abstract
Background: The development of the beauty industry has been accelerated by the combination of the basic
desire of humans to look beautiful and the trend of the age in which the down-aging phenomenon is caused by
an aging society. Previously, therapy, which has been provided by experts, has now expanded and changed its
category into everyday home care. Thus, skin care devices became common and widespread. Also, public attention
has been focused on functional cosmetics such as whitening and wrinkling improvements of a home care product.
However, the results of validation of the effectiveness of functional components and the use of skin care devices
are rare.
Methods: Middle-aged women were asked to apply 3 mL of ampule containing niacinamide 2% and adenosine 0.
04% to the face twice a day, once in the morning and the other in the evening, for 4 weeks. The control group (C)
was asked to apply using hands while the experimental group (E) was asked to apply using airbrush.
Results: The moisture content of the entire face has increased in all clusters, resulting from a combination of the
moisture content of the niacinamide and the increase in the collagen content of the adenosine. L* was increased
in all groups, but only E showed significant results. a* was increased in C and showed a significant decrease in E only.
b* decreased in group C and increased in group E. The overall size of the wrinkles, the depth of the wrinkles, and the
width of the wrinkles showed significant improvements in all groups, with higher rates of improvement in E.
Conclusions: This study produced verification results on whitening effects of niacinamide, wrinkling improvement of
adenosine, and the usefulness of air brushes. Previously, dermal absorption studies on soluble ingredients of cosmetics
were limited to iontophoresis, while various methods of study design on the dispensing and physical effects of fine
particles were expected. It also recommends a research design approach that is practical for home care, rather than
approach using a professional program on the usefulness of skin care device.
Trial registration: Korea National Institute for Bioethics Policy, P01-201711-13-002, registered 16 November 2017,
http://public.irb.or.kr/.
Keywords: Airbrush, Niacinamide, Adenosine, Skin care device, Cosmeceutical ingredient
Background
Entering the 2000s, the general public identified looks as
a new differentiating factor, unlike conventional factors
such as race, gender, religion, and ideology. Along with
this, the term lookism emerged, which refers to
appearance-oriented views, through a column published
in The New York Times in 2000 (Safire 2000). The
criteria for the ideal “modern look”have been standard-
ized and disseminated via mass media and are now used
as important tools that enable individuals to be recog-
nized (Kim et al. 2005; Kim 2006; Lee and Kim 2015).
Moreover, South Korean society is rapidly aging. In
2020, the country’s elderly population will account for
over 14% of the total population. Therefore, modern
Koreans who look to a centenarian era still intend to
convey an image of high economic activity, regardless of
their actual ages. Accordingly, this desire can drive an
individual to attempt to look younger than his or her
chronological age. This is referred to as the down-aging
phenomenon (Jo and Hwang 2013).
* Correspondence: yunhai0540@naver.com
Dasan Skin Clinical Research Center, Dasan C & Tech, 42, Eonju-ro 81-gil,
Gangnam-gu, Seoul 06223, Republic of Korea
Biomedical Dermatolog
y
© The Author(s). 2018 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Kim et al. Biomedical Dermatology (2018) 2:24
https://doi.org/10.1186/s41702-018-0034-7
Down-aging has accelerated the growth of the beauty
industry in conjunction with an increasing demand for
physical beauty. In the past, plastic surgeons were the
primary providers of a range of services, from skin care
and therapies to surgical treatments. Today, these treat-
ments have penetrated the daily home care market. Skin
care devices that are popularized and widely distributed
throughout the general public include exfoliating de-
vices, vibrating cleansers, galvanic devices, and light-
emitting diode (LED) masks.
In addition, there is a new emphasis on functionality
in the beauty industry as exemplified by generalization
of products with whitening and anti-wrinkle functions,
even including cosmetics such as air cushions. In 2001,
functional cosmetics were established as an official cat-
egory of cosmetics through enactment of regulations
thus securing a legal status (Kim et al. 2014). Along with
continuous legal amendments, as of May 2017, cosmetic
functionalities, which were previously limited to whiten-
ing, anti-wrinkle, and sunscreen products, were broad-
ened to encompass cosmetics for dyeing, bleaching, hair
loss prevention, acne, atopy, and stretch mark care.
While the present study used niacinamide and adeno-
sine, which are anti-wrinkle functional substances, few
domestic studies have verified the effectiveness of these
ingredients outside of the whitening function. Moreover,
despite the launch of a variety of new skin care devices,
little research has been done on their effectiveness.
Therefore, the present study aimed to analyze the ef-
fects of functional ingredients, niacinamide and adeno-
sine, on skin physiology using an air brush skin care
device, thereby examining the overall usefulness of air
brushes for skin care.
Methods
This study was approved by the Institutional Review
Board of the Korea National Institute for Bioethics Pol-
icy following a comprehensive review of study-related
procedures (P01-201711-13-002).
Subjects
This study involved middle-aged women in their 30s–
50s, who showed symptoms of hyperpigmentation (e.g.,
stains, freckles) and wrinkles around the eyes. They were
divided into an experimental group (group E; n= 10)
and a control group (group C; n= 10). The subjects were
selected based on the guidelines for evaluating the ef-
fectiveness of functional cosmetics suggested by the
Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS) and the re-
sults of a study conducted by Lee et al. (2013).
Exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) those who
showed abnormal symptoms such as acute and chronic
physical diseases involving the face, including facial skin
diseases; (2) those with at least a 1-month history of
facial application of a skin care product containing
steroids; (3) those with medical histories of contact or
photoallergic dermatitis caused by a topical ointment;
and (4) those with sensitive or hypersensitive skin. In
addition, the subjects were randomly divided into differ-
ent clinical groups so as to minimize any variations in
the experimental results.
The study was conducted between November 20,
2017, and February 5, 2018. The subjects were provided
with a 3-mL test agent and instructed to apply it to their
skin twice a day, once in the morning and once in the
evening, over a 28-day period. They were instructed to
wash their faces, smooth out their skin with a toner, and
then apply the agent on their face. Group C subjects
applied the test agent using their hands, whereas group
E subjects applied the test agent using an air brush and
left it to be absorbed without using their hands. All sub-
jects were monitored by the researchers and were
instructed to record the daily applications in a self-care
chart that was later submitted to ensure compliance
with test procedures. In addition, we requested they
avoid other skin care or treatment modalities over the
research period, including the use of cosmetics that
could change their facial skin conditions. Subjects were
also instructed to make no changes to their typical daily
living routines. The subjects were completely informed
that they should not use cosmetics that contained whit-
ening or anti-wrinkle functional ingredients that could
change their facial skin conditions during the research
period, and they consented to do so. Moreover, based on
a study conducted by Han et al. (2015), the subjects
were allowed to use sunblock when going outside and
wear light makeup and maintain their usual skin care
cosmetics or makeup habits. However, they were
instructed to not make any changes in their daily living
patterns, such as exercise, because changes in living
patterns could affect their skin conditions.
Regarding the measurement of facial skin conditions, a
study conducted by Kim (2007) reported that at least
30 min of skin stabilization is necessary to measure all
selected variables for the skin surface: temperature, color
luminosity, transepidermal water loss, and oil. The study
also reported that consistent measurement values could
be obtained through skin stabilization regardless of
environmental effects. Accordingly, skin stabilization
was induced to all subjects in the present study for
30 min after facial wash, and all subjects underwent skin
measurement. Nonetheless, to minimize any environ-
mental effect, the skin measurement was performed
indoors at temperatures between 20 and 24 °C and rela-
tive humidity levels between 40 and 60% based on a
study conducted by Kim and Gang (2017).
All subjects underwent skin measurement before and
after the experiment. All skin measures took place 30 min
Kim et al. Biomedical Dermatology (2018) 2:24 Page 2 of 10
after facial washing to encourage skin stabilization. Add-
itionally, group E subjects were trained by the researcher
in the operation of the air brush at their first visit. The
spraying method was based on the principle of lymphatic
massage.
Research materials
The test agent administered to groups C and E is
described in Table 1and consisted of 2.00% niacinamide
and 0.04% adenosine. Niacinamide is recognized as a
whitening ingredient and adenosine as an anti-wrinkle
ingredient by the MFDS. The test agent was considered
safe for daily use. Niacinamide, which is used as a whit-
ening functional ingredient, was purchased from com-
pany B as a 100% powder form, whereas adenosine,
which is used as an anti-wrinkle functional ingredient,
was purchased from company A in an undiluted form.
According to the Globally Harmonized System of Classi-
fication and Labelling of Chemicals, these purchased in-
gredients were confirmed as identical with “niacinamide”
and “adenosine”listed in the International Nomencla-
ture of Cosmetic Ingredients. In addition, 2.00% niacin-
amide and 0.04% adenosine were applied to formulate
the test agent in consideration of the subjects’stability
pursuant to the notifications of the MFDS. The test
agent was manufactured as 6 ml ampules and was pro-
vided to the subjects to ensure easier use, which is to
apply one ampule each day. The main goal of the experi-
ment was to have the subjects use accurate volumes of
the test agent.
Research tools
The air brush (M66, Dasan C & Tech., Korea) used for
this study consisted of a spray gun, air compressor, air
hose, and adapter. It is shown in Fig. 1.
Spray gun
After putting liquid into the container and pulling the
lever, a needle is pulled. This creates a space in the noz-
zle, and the liquid is mixed with the air that is injected
by the compressor. This mixture of liquid and air is pro-
pelled from the device. With the spray gun used in this
study, the stronger the lever is pulled, the greater is the
volume of air exposure. Consequently, more liquid is
sprayed. The spray gun’s nozzle size is 0.35 mm.
Air compressor
This component delivers compressed air to the spray
gun. The pressure of the air that is injected by the air
compressor is approximately 0.7 kgf/cm
2
.
Air hose
The air hose transmits the air from the air compressor
to the spray gun, connecting the air compressor outlet
with the spray gun inlet.
Adapter
Input: AC 100–240 V, 50–60 Hz, 1.5 A.
Output: DC 13 V, 1.5 A.
The air brush is rechargeable, with a charging time of
approximately 2 h. It can be used for approximately
60 min after a single charge. The amount of battery life
is indicated with LED lights.
Skin measurement tools
In this study, the SKIN-O-MAT (CORNEOMETER,
SEBUMETER, SKIN-pH-METER, Cosmomed, Germany)
was used to measure skin moisture levels, and the DSM II
ColorMeter (DSM II ColorMeter reflectance test unit,
Cortex Technology, Denmark) was used to measure skin
color and luminosity. In addition, Antera 3D (Antera 3D
CS, Miravex Limited, Ireland) imaged the deepest wrinkles
in the lower orbit of the eye and measured wrinkle length,
depth, and width.
Data analysis methods
SPSS 24.0 for Windows (IBM, New York, USA) was
used to analyze all data. An independent ttest was per-
formed to test homogeneity between the two groups be-
fore the experiment, and a paired ttest was used to
analyze any changes before and after the experiment. In
addition, a paired ttest was conducted to identify the
subjects’satisfaction with the condition of their skin be-
fore and after the experiment.
Table 1 Cosmetic ingredients applied to the group
Variable Base Active Total
unit
(%)
Ingredient Quantity (%) Ingredient Quantity (%)
C/E group Water 87.36 Niacinamide 2.00 100
Glycerin 3.00 Adenosine 0.04
Butylene glycol 5.00
PEG-60 hydrogenated castor oil 0.50
Isopropyl myristate 0.10
1,2-Hexanediol 2.00
Kim et al. Biomedical Dermatology (2018) 2:24 Page 3 of 10
Results
1. Verification of homogeneity between the groups
Subjects’baseline facial skin conditions are
presented in Table 2. Because these results did not
show statistically significance differences between
the two groups, pre-treatment group homogeneity
was confirmed (p> .05).
2. Changes in skin moisture level in each group
Skin moisture level changes for groups C and E are
shown in Table 3. On the forehead surface, group C
showed a significant increase of 4.76(M) in mean
moisture content, from 59.60(M) to 64.37(M) post-
treatment (p< .05). Group E showed an increase of
4.67(M) in mean moisture content, from 61.00(M)
to 65.68(M) post-treatment. On the chin surface,
group C showed a mean moisture increase of
1.88(M), from 62.57(M) to 64.45(M), and group E
showed an increase of 2.15(M), from 63.47(M) to
65.62(M). For the right cheek, the mean moisture
increase for group C was 2.66(M), from 67.60(M) to
70.27(M) post-treatment, and that for group E was
4.44(M), from 64.85(M) to 69.29(M). For the left
cheek, group C showed an increase of 5.05(M),
from 64.81(M) to 69.86(M), and group E showed an
increase of 4.16(M), from 65.80(M) to 69.97(M).
3. Changes in skin color luminosity in each group
Changes in skin color luminosity for groups C and
E are presented in Figs. 2and 3. Group C showed
an increase of brightness in the region of the upper-
Fig. 1 (1) Air spray—put the liquid in the container and pull the lever to spray the liquid; the amount of injection can be adjusted according to
the strength of pulling the lever. (2) Air compressor—the air compressor compresses a certain amount of air and delivers it to the spray gun. (3)
Air hose—the air from the air compressor is supplied with the spray gun. (4) Adapter—its function is to charge the air compressor
Table 2 Verification of homogeneity between C and E groups
Variable C (n= 10)
M±SD
E(n= 10)
M±SD
tp
Moisture Forehead 59.60 ± 8.12 61.00 ± 6.38 −.429 .673
Jew 62.57 ± 6.15 63.47 ± 8.57 −.268 .792
Rt. Cheek 67.60 ± 5.82 64.85 ± 7.18 .941 .359
Lt. Cheek 64.81 ± 10.51 65.80 ± 8.97 −.226 .824
Skin Color Value Rt. Lid Cheek L* 35.77 ± 5.00 36.64 ± 3.60 −.446 .661
a* 18.20 ± 1.77 18.89 ± 2.82 −.652 .523
b* 16.05 ± 2.96 17.10 ± 3.11 −.778 .447
Lt. Lid Cheek L* 36.86 ± 3.47 35.81 ± 3.37 .690 .499
a* 18.53 ± 1.40 19.90 ± 2.09 −1.722 .102
b* 16.29 ± 1.76 15.66 ± 3.38 .519 .610
Wrinkle Overall size 12.98 ± 5.08 13.21 ± 4.98 −.102 .920
Depth 0.049 ± 0.013 0.055 ± 0.018 −.802 .433
Width 1.13 ± 0.18 0.97 ± 0.28 1.461 .161
Abbreviations:Ccontrol group, Eexperimental group, Mmean, SD standard deviation
Kim et al. Biomedical Dermatology (2018) 2:24 Page 4 of 10
right cheekbone of 11.0%, from 35.77(M) to
39.71(M) post-treatment, and group E exhibited a
statistically significant increase of 6.6%, from
36.64(M) to 39.06(M) (p< .05). In terms of red
color intensity in the same region, group C showed
an increase of 0.2%, from 18.20(M) to 18.23(M)
post-treatment, and group E showed a statistically
significant decrease of 16.3%, from 18.89(M) to
15.80(M) (p< .05). In terms of yellow color intensity
in the same region, group C showed a decline of
4.4%, from 16.05(M) to 15.34(M) post-treatment,
whereas group E exhibited an increase of 5.9%, from
17.10(M) to 18.11(M). In terms of the level of
brightness in the upper-left cheekbone, group C
showed an increase of 4.2%, from 36.86(M) to
38.42(M) post-treatment, and group E exhibited a
statistically significant increase of 8.3%, from
35.81(M) to 38.81(M) (p< .05). In terms of red
color intensity in the same region, group C showed
an increase of 2.9%, from 18.53(M) to 19.06(M)
post-treatment, and group E exhibited a statistically
significant increase of 18.0%, from 19.90(M) to
16.30(M) (p< .001). Meanwhile, group C showed a
decrease of 8.1%, from 16.29(M) to 14.96(M) post-
treatment, and group E showed a statistically signifi-
cant increase of 15.9%, from 15.66(M) to 18.16(M)
(p< .05) in yellow color intensity in the same
region.
4. Changes in main wrinkles in each group
The changes in wrinkles around the left eye for
groups C and E are shown in Table 4and Fig. 4.In
group C, the size of the main wrinkles significantly
decreased by 16.6%, from 12.98(M) to 10.83(M)
post-treatment (p< .01). In group E, there was a
statistically significant decrease of 20.9%, from
13.21(M) to 10.45(M) (p< .01). In group C, the
Table 3 Comparison of facial moisture (index: AU)
Variable Group Measurement (M ± SD) t
1
-t
2
t(p)
Before After
Forehead C (n=10) 59.60 ± 8.12 64.37 ± 5.83 −4.76 ± 6.60 −2.284 (.048*)
E(n= 10) 61.00 ± 6.38 65.68 ± 5.96 −4.67 ± 8.01 −1.846 (.098)
Jew C (n= 10) 62.57 ± 6.15 64.45 ± 4.56 −1.88 ± 7.31 −.813 (.437)
E(n= 10) 63.47 ± 8.57 65.62 ± 5.27 −2.15 ± 7.10 −.959 (.363)
Rt. Cheek C (n= 10) 67.60 ± 5.82 70.27 ± 4.86 −2.66 ± 5.06 −1.663 (.131)
E(n= 10) 64.85 ± 7.18 69.29 ± 4.78 −4.44 ± 6.54 −2.147 (.060)
Lt. Cheek C (n= 10) 64.81 ± 10.51 69.86 ± 5.20 −5.05 ± 10.39 −1.537 (.159)
E(n= 10) 65.80 ± 8.97 69.97 ± 5.04 −4.16 ± 8.01 −1.645 (.134)
*p< .05
Abbreviations were the same as Table 2.
Fig. 2 Skin color value of Rt. Lid Cheek (L*, a*, b*). The color value of the Rt. Lid cheek is as follows. L* increased in both C and E, but changed
significantly in E only (p< .05). a* increased in C, decreased in E, and changed significantly in E only (p< .05). b* decreased in C, increased in E
Kim et al. Biomedical Dermatology (2018) 2:24 Page 5 of 10
depth of the main wrinkles significantly decreased
by 10.2%, from 0.049(M) to 0.043(M) post-
treatment (p< .05). In group E, the depth
significantly decreased by 12.7%, from 0.055(M) to
0.047(M) (p< .05). In group C, the width of the
main wrinkles significantly decreased by 8.0%, from
1.13(M) to 1.04(M) post-treatment (p< .01). In
group E, the width significantly decreased by 9.3%,
from 0.97(M) to 0.88(M) (p< .01). Consequently,
both groups showed statistically significant
improvements in the overall size, depth, and width
of the main wrinkles. However, group E achieved
relatively more improvement in all variables
compared to group C, which may point to the
effectiveness of the air brush.
5. Changes in subjective satisfaction with skin
conditions in each group
The reliability of the satisfaction evaluation tool
used in this study is presented in Table 5. And
subjective satisfaction ratings are presented in
Table 6. The selected items were scored based on a
5-point scale as follows: 1 point for “very unsatisfied,”
2 points for “unsatisfied,”3 points for “average,”4
points for “satisfied,”and 5 points for “very satisfied.”
A higher score corresponds to a higher level of
satisfaction. In addition, the same items were
administered to each subject pre- and post-treatment
to treatment-related changes in perceived satisfaction.
In the items related to skin dryness and tightness, group
C registered a statistically significant increase of 1.60(M)
in satisfaction, from 2.20(M) to 3.80(M) post-treatment
(p< .01). Group E also showed significant increase by
1.90(M), from 2.21(M) to 4.00(M) (p< .01). On items
related to the formation of dead skin cells, group C
showed a statistically significant increase of 1.40(M) in
satisfaction, from 2.80(M) to 4.20(M) (p< .01) post-treat-
ment. Group E also exhibited a statistically significant
Fig. 3 Skin color value of Lt. Lid Cheek (L*, a*, b*). The color value of the Lt. Lid cheek is as follows. L* increased in both C and E, but changed
significantly in E only (p< .05). a* increased in C, decreased in E, but changed significantly in E only (p< .001). b* decreased in C, increased in E,
and changed significantly in E only (p< .05)
Table 4 Comparison of facial wrinkle
Variable Group Measurement
(M ± SD)
t
1
-t
2
t(p)
Before After
Overall size (AU) C (n= 10) 12.98 ± 5.08 10.83 ± 5.19 2.15 ± 1.36 4.984 (.001**)
E(n= 10) 13.21 ± 4.98 10.45 ± 4.03 2.76 ± 2.51 3.478 (.007**)
Depth (mm) C (n= 10) 0.049 ± 0.013 0.043 ± 0.016 0.005 ± 0.006 3.023 (.014*)
E(n= 10) 0.055 ± 0.018 0.047 ± 0.014 0.007 ± 0.009 2.475 (.035*)
Width (mm) C (n= 10) 1.13 ± 0.18 1.04 ± 0.21 0.09 ± 0.07 4.150 (.002**)
E(n= 10) 0.97 ± 0.28 0.88 ± 0.25 0.09 ± 0.06 5.010 (.001**)
*p< .05, **p< .01
Abbreviations were the same as Table 2
Kim et al. Biomedical Dermatology (2018) 2:24 Page 6 of 10
increase of 1.70(M), from 2.50(M) to 4.20(M)
post-treatment (p< .01). In the items related to skin
roughness, group C achieved a statistically significant
improvement of 1.70(M) in satisfaction, from 2.70(M) to
4.40(M) post-treatment (p< .01). Group E also registered
a statistically significant increase of 1.40(M) in satisfaction,
from 2.90(M) to 4.30(M) (p< .01). In all items related to
skin moisture, all subjects were “unsatisfied”with a mean
score of fewer than 3 points pre-treatment, but all stated
they were “satisfied”post-treatment, with a mean score of
4.15 points. In addition, these changes were statistically
significant for all items. Given that the subjects were
middle-aged women in their 30s–50s, this study showed
significant improvements in overall satisfaction with
skin moisture, even though the research was done in
the late autumn and winter between November and
February.
In the items related to skin pigmentation such as stains,
freckles, and blemishes, group C showed a statistically sig-
nificant increase of 2.50(M) in satisfaction, from 1.50(M)
to 4.00(M) post-treatment (p<.001).Group E alsoshowed
a statistically significant increase of 2.30(M) in satisfaction,
from 1.60(M) to 3.90(M) (p< .001). In the items related to
the evenness of skin tone, group C showed a significant
increase of 2.30(M) in satisfaction, from 1.90(M) to
4.20(M) post-treatment (p< .001). Group E also exhibited
a statistically significant increase of 1.80(M) in satisfaction,
from 2.20(M) to 4.00(M) (p< .01). In the items related to
skin whitening, all subjects were “unsatisfied”with a mean
score of 1.80(M) pre-treatment, but they were “satisfied”
with a mean score of 4.0(M) post-treatment. These
changes were statistically significant for all items under
the category. Overall, subjects showed higher levels of
satisfaction with their level of skin whitening than with
their ratings of skin moisture. As presented in Figs. 2and
3, these results appear to verify the effectiveness of niacin-
amide as a whitening agent.
In the items related to skin redness, group C showed a
statistically significant increase of 0.70(M) in satisfaction,
from 3.30(M) to 4.00(M) post-treatment (p<.005). Group
E also exhibited a statistically significant increase of
1.00(M) in satisfaction, from 3.10(M) to 4.10(M) (p<.01).
Unlike the earlier results describing overall satisfaction
with hyperpigmentation, group E showed higher overall
satisfaction with hyperpigmentation compared to group
C. This finding might relate to observations of reduced
skin redness following air brushing. Skin redness most
clearly contrasts the two groups when verifying air brush
effectiveness.
In the items related to pores, group C showed a statisti-
cally significant increase of 1.70(M) in satisfaction, from
2.20(M) to 3.90(M) post-treatment (p< .01). Group E also
exhibited a statistically significant increase of 1.50(M),
from 2.40(M) to 3.90(M) (p< .01). In the items related to
skin elasticity, group C showed a statistically significant
increase of 1.90(M) in satisfaction, from 1.70(M) to
3.60(M) post-treatment (p< .001). Group E also showed a
statistically significant increase of 2.10(M) in satisfaction,
from 1.90(M) to 4.00(M) (p< .001). In the items related to
wrinkles, group C showed a statistically significant in-
crease of 1.90(M) in satisfaction, from 1.70(M) to 3.60(M)
post-treatment (p< .001). Group E also exhibited a statisti-
cally significant increase of 2.00(M) in satisfaction, from
1.80(M) to 3.80(M) (p< .001). As shown in Table 4,these
results appear to verify the effectiveness of adenosine as
an anti-wrinkle agent.
Fig. 4 Comparison of main wrinkles of the Lt. Eye. Main wrinkles of Lt. Eye have been indicated. Overall size, depth, and width of wrinkles decreased
significantly in both C and E; however, it decreased more in E than in C
Table 5 Reliability of the measurement tool
Category The number of
question
Alpha
Satisfaction of skin condition Hydration 3 .940
Pigmentation 3
Elasticity 3
Skin sensitization 1
Kim et al. Biomedical Dermatology (2018) 2:24 Page 7 of 10
In the items related to skin sensitivity and allergies, group
C showed a statistically significant increase of 0.20(M) in
satisfaction, from 3.50(M) to 3.70(M) post-treatment.
Group E also exhibited a statistically significant increase of
0.50(M) in satisfaction, from 3.70(M) to 4.20(M). There
were no statistically significant post-treatment changes re-
lating to skin sensitivity and allergies.
The items related to pigmentation such as stains,
freckles, and blemishes, the items related to skin elasti-
city, and the items related to wrinkles showed the lowest
levels of satisfaction prior to the application; interest-
ingly, these items showed the overall greatest changes in
satisfaction post-treatment. Certainly, there could be
minor differences in the level of skin condition improve-
ment between measures, using skin analysis devices and
the subjects’subjective evaluations. However, as the
degree to which individuals were satisfied with their skin
is essentially based on naked-eye observations, these
observations are inherently subjective. For this reason,
certain differences between the subjects’own evaluations
and objective data could be further validated. Neverthe-
less, the present study proved the functional utility of
niacinamide and adenosine, based on both objective and
subjective measures. These findings speak to this study’s
significance.
Discussion
Kim (2004) described the usefulness of niacinamide as a
moisturizing agent. A study by Draelos et al. (2005)
reported that a 4-week application of a moisturizer con-
taining 2% niacinamide to the forearms of subjects in the
experimental group resulted in a statistically significant
increase in the mean moisture level of the skin compared
to the control group (p< .01). A study by Draelos (2008)
reported that a 24-day application of a topical ointment
containing 2% niacinamide to the forearms of the subjects
in the experimental group led to a statistically significant
decrease in transepidermal water loss compared to the
control group (p<.002). Adenosine, the second ingredient
in the test agent, may have increased the dermal distribu-
tion of collagen, which could be attributed to adenosine’s
ability to increase collagen synthesis and inhibit collagen
disintegration (Ha et al. 1998;Sohnetal.2007). Thus,
adenosine can increase skin moisture because of the mois-
ture-friendly characteristics of collagen. In the present
study, the observed increases in skin moisture may have
resulted from the complex interactions of niacinamide
and adenosine contained in the test agent.
Niacinamide is a functional whitening ingredient that
inhibits the production of melanin by suppressing tyro-
sinase secretion (Go et al. 2013). A study by Hakozaki et
Table 6 Satisfaction after use
Variable Group Measurement (M ± SD) t
1
-t
2
t(p)
Before After
Dehydrated C (n= 10) 2.20 ± 0.78 3.80 ± 1.03 −1.60 ± 1.42 −3.539 (.006**)
E(n= 10) 2.21 ± 0.56 4.00 ± 0.81 −1.90 ± 1.19 −5.019 (.001**)
Flaking skin C (n= 10) 2.80 ± 0.42 4.20 ± 0.78 −1.40 ± 0.96 −4.583 (.001**)
E(n= 10) 2.50 ± 0.70 4.20 ± 0.78 −1.70 ± 1.33 −4.019 (.003**)
Rough skin C (n= 10) 2.70 ± 0.82 4.40 ± 0.69 −1.70 ± 1.15 −4.636 (.001**)
E(n= 10) 2.90 ± 1.10 4.30 ± 0.67 −1.40 ± 1.17 −3.772 (.004**)
Hyper-pigmentation C (n= 10) 1.50 ± 0.52 4.00 ± 0.94 −2.50 ± 0.97 −8.135 (.000***)
E(n= 10) 1.60 ± 0.69 3.90 ± 0.99 −2.30 ± 1.33 −5.438 (.000***)
Even skin tone C (n= 10) 1.90 ± 0.31 4.20 ± 0.91 −2.30 ± 0.94 −7.667 (.000***)
E(n= 10) 2.20 ± 0.63 4.00 ± 0.94 −1.80 ± 1.22 −4.630 (.001**)
Blush C (n= 10) 3.30 ± 1.25 4.00 ± 0.81 −0.70 ± 0.94 −2.333 (.045*)
E(n= 10) 3.10 ± 0.87 4.10 ± 0.56 −1.00 ± 0.94 −3.354 (.008**)
Pore condition C (n= 10) 2.20 ± 0.78 3.90 ± 0.73 −1.70 ± 1.05 −5.075 (.001**)
E(n= 10) 2.40 ± 0.69 3.90 ± 0.56 −1.50 ± 0.97 −4.881 (.001**)
Skin elasticity C (n= 10) 1.70 ± 0.82 3.60 ± 1.07 −1.90 ± 1.10 −5.460 (.000***)
E(n= 10) 1.90 ± 0.73 4.00 ± 1.05 −2.10 ± 0.73 −9.000 (.000***)
Wrinkle C (n= 10) 1.70 ± 0.94 3.60 ± 1.07 −1.90 ± 0.73 −8.143 (.000***)
E(n= 10) 1.80 ± 0.63 3.80 ± 0.91 −2.00 ± 0.94 −6.708 (.000***)
Skin sensitization C (n= 10) 3.50 ± 1.08 3.70 ± 0.94 −0.20 ± 1.03 −.612 (.555)
E(n= 10) 3.70 ± 0.82 4.20 ± 0.91 −0.50 ± 1.26 −1.246 (.244)
*p< .05, **p< .01, ***p< .001
Abbreviations were the same as Table 2
Kim et al. Biomedical Dermatology (2018) 2:24 Page 8 of 10
al. (2002), which was conducted in an in vitro co-culture
experiment, indicated that niacinamide effectively inhib-
ited the transfer of melanosome by up to 68%. Based on
this finding, our finding of increased brightness on both
the left and right sides was attributed to the functional
whitening effects of niacinamide.
Park et al. (2010) administered vitamin C to subjects
twice a week over a 6-week period. Here, the experimental
group underwent ion electrophoresis coupled with a
micro-spray device, whereas the control group received
only ion electrophoresis. The authors measured levels of
pigmentation in both groups using the RSA (Robo Skin
Analyzer CS50, Inforward, Japan). After receiving their re-
spective treatments 12 times, the experimental group
showed a statistically significant decrease of 4.38± 3.85
(M ± SD) in the number of small-particle pigments (p
< .05), but the control group exhibited an increase of 5.63
±8.90 (p= .117). In terms of the number of large-particle
pigments, the experimental group exhibited a statistically
significant decrease of 10.75 ± 7.44 (p< .01) and the con-
trol group showed an increase of 5.50± 10.53 (p=.183).
These results suggest that using small particles that are
sprayed increases the absorption of water-soluble cosmetic
substances. In the present study, only group E showed a
statistically significant change in the level of brightness,
thereby suggesting that the air brush was effective.
Skin redness is caused by hemoglobin in the blood
vessels underneath; close distribution of capillaries to
the epidermis provides the face with a red tone (Yoo
and Lee 2010). In this study, group C showed increased
skin redness (+ 16.3%) on both the left and right sides,
whereas group E showed statistically significant de-
creases (−18.0%) in skin redness on the left and right
sides. This result probably occurred because of reduc-
tions in skin surface temperature due to the air brush
stimulation of the capillaries, which in turn produced re-
duced redness. In addition, as described earlier, increased
distribution of collagens in the skin due to adenosine may
have increased the physical distance between the capillar-
ies and the skin surface.
Blueish tones in the lower orbit of the eye can be
caused by complex factors such as structural problems
arising from fat thickness imbalances, blood vessels or
lower tissue layers visualized through thin skin tissues,
and pigmentation (Shin et al. 2011). In the present study,
group C showed decreases in skin yellowing on both the
left and right sides, while group E exhibited increased
yellowing on both sides. In other words, the blue color
intensity may have increased in group C but decreased
in group E. This can be explained in line with the ob-
served decreases in skin redness due to collagen distri-
bution and capillary contraction.
Park and Lee (2015) implemented a skin care program
using a water-jet, and the program was administered
two times in an interval of 2 days. Then, the changes in
the wrinkles were measured based on the number of
pixels by employing a shadow detection method. As a
result, fine wrinkles around the orbicularis oris muscle
showed a statistically significant reduction of 5.14 ± 2.90
pixels (p< .001). In this study, Park and Lee (2015) used
a water-jet in conjunction with a skin care program in
the subjects and measured the changes 20 min after the
final treatment. This differs from the current study
method where air brushes were used in the home
setting. However, in both studies, statistically significant
wrinkle improvements were achieved over the entire
face.
Conclusions
This study attempted to verify the physiological activities
of niacinamide as a functional whitening agent and
adenosine as an anti-wrinkle agent, as well as the effect-
iveness of the air brush as a skin care device.
The study’s findings showed increases in moisture con-
tent among all subjects. This may have been because the
moisturizing effects of niacinamide were coupled with
adenosine-induced increases in skin collagen content. This
caused collagens, which are typically moisture-friendly, to
further increase the moisture content of the skin. Both
groups showed increased skin brightness post-treatment.
These changes may have occurred because niacinamide
acts as a functional whitening agent, which suppresses the
production of melanin and the transfer of melanisome.
However, statistically significant increases in the skin
brightness were found only in group E. Consequently,
these changes may actually reflect the effect of spraying
fine particles using an air brush. In terms of the red color
intensity, group C showed an increase, while group E
showed a significant decrease. The increased distribution
of collagens due to adenosine application may have in-
creased the physical distance between the capillaries and
the skin surface. In addition, temperature decrease on the
skin surface caused by the air brush may have effectively
constricted the capillaries. This result seems to agree with
our observation that group C showed an increase in blue
intensity, whereas group E showed a decrease in blue
intensity. Both groups achieved statistically significant im-
provements in the overall size, depth, and width of the
main wrinkles. This may reaffirm the beneficial effects of
adenosine. However, the relatively greater improvements
observed in group E compared to group C appeared to
verify the usefulness of the air brush as a skin care device.
When we evaluated patient satisfaction, items related to
pigmentation and skin elasticity showed the greatest
changes. This result was meaningful and, once again, ap-
peared to validate the use of niacinamide and adenosine
for improving perceived skin satisfaction.
Kim et al. Biomedical Dermatology (2018) 2:24 Page 9 of 10
The present study also verified the usefulness of nia-
cinamide and adenosine as they relate to skin physi-
ology, and the effectiveness of the air brush as a skin
care device. Existing studies on skin care devices are lim-
ited in that they were mostly conducted within
expert-run programs. Therefore, future studies may be
required to verify the effects of skin care devices within
the home environment. In addition, while studies on the
dermal absorption of water-soluble substances have thus
far been confined to the application of ionospheresis,
some previous studies have suggested the potential for
enhanced dermal absorption of water-soluble substances
through physical actions (Park et al. 2010).
The dermis only absorbs approximately 0.1–0.5% of
the total volume of water-soluble substances. These sub-
stances are quickly absorbed via sebaceous glands and
then activated (Yoo and Lee 2010). Additional studies
are needed on the dermal absorption of water-soluble
substances. In particular, studies using air brushes in
order to induce physical changes through air pressure-
driven spray of fine particles are needed.
Abbreviations
LED: Light-emitting diode; MFDS: Ministry of Food and Drug Safety
Funding
This study was performed through a joint research contract between Dasan
C & Tech and Aphrozone in 2017 and was funded by Aphrozone.
Authors’contributions
HJK designed the study and wrote the manuscript. MSJ reviewed the study
and edited the manuscript. JMS and YKH performed the research
background such as the experiments and data collection. All authors read
and approved the final manuscript.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Korea
National Institute for Bioethics Policy following a comprehensive review of
study-related procedures (P01-201711-13-002).
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Publisher’sNote
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.
Received: 5 June 2018 Accepted: 22 August 2018
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