Available via license: CC BY-NC 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
A revista Diadorim uliza uma Licença Creave Commons - Atribuição-NãoComercial 4.0 Internacional (CC-BY-NC).
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35520/diadorim.2020.v22n1a32012
Recebido em: 31 de janeiro de 2020 | Aceito em: 15 de abril de 2020
PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE EXPANSION IN SÃO TOMÉ AND
PRÍNCIPE: AN OVERVIEW
UM PANORAMA DA EXPANSÃO DA LÍNGUA PORTUGUESA EM SÃO TOMÉ
E PRÍNCIPE
Gabriel Antunes Araujo1
Abstract
This paper describes how the Portuguese language came to be widely spoken in the Republic of São
Tomé and Príncipe and demonstrates how the spread of Portuguese language can be associated with the
endangerment of other languages in the archipelago. A country that has been multilingual since its formation
has moved towards monolingualism, marginalizing native languages or pushing them into obsolescence in
the process. Based on a literature review, we suggest that the spread of Portuguese and its consolidation as
the dominant language are associated with a complex socio-historical process, including urbanization, mass
endangerment of other local languages.
Keywords: Portuguese, language endangerment, multilingualism, language shift, São Tomé and Príncipe.
Resumo
Neste texto, descrevemos como a língua portuguesa se tornou amplamente falada na República de São Tomé
e Príncipe e demonstramos como a expansão do português pode ser associada a uma situação de ameaça das
do século XV caminha em direção ao monolinguismo, marginalizando as suas línguas nacionais e relegando-as
à obsolescência. Sugerimos aqui, baseados em uma revisão da literatura, que a difusão do português e sua
consolidação como língua dominante estão associadas a um complexo processo sócio-histórico que inclui
urbanização, escolarização em massa, mídia, e o desejo das elites locais de permanecerem ligadas a uma
língua imperial e aos benefícios dessa conexão. A escolha da elite dominante ao adotar o português como
da língua portuguesa e criou o cenário de ameaça às demais línguas faladas no território.
Palavras-chave: Português, multilinguismo, línguas ameaçadas, mudança linguística, São Tomé e Príncipe.
1 Associate Professor at University of Macau (Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Macau SAR, China) and
58
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
Introduction
major language in the Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe (STP) and suggest that its expansion
has imperilled other languages spoken in the archipelago. STP, a multilingual country since its
native languages or pushing them into the process of extinction. The spread and dominance of
the Portuguese language in STP are the result of sociolinguistic dynamics within the multilingual
context of the country. However, the present circumstances cannot be described solely to the
language in STP is associated with a complex socio-historical process comprising urbanization,
mass schooling, media, the dominant characteristics intrinsic to imperial languages, and a
These aforementioned factors have led to the erasure of other languages (both indigenous and
transplanted) spoken in the territory. Notably, the coexistence of languages spoken in STP,
including Portuguese, can be attributed to socio-historical processes of domination by groups in
and out of authority. STP has, however, demonstrated a very weak ability to promote linguistic
planning to facilitate the survival of its national languages.
The initial colonization of STP favoured the emergence of a Creole language: the
FERRAZ, 1979;
groups of speakers from the islands, linguistic contributions of African languages, creative
the language of the descendants of slaves who escaped from the sugar mills and formed maroon
communities. Proto-creole speakers were transferred to the islands of Príncipe and Ano Bom,
: FAB), respectively. Following the collapse of
nineteenth century. These industries attracted investment from Portugal and intensive labour,
et al
59
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
Portuguese language expansion in São Tomé and Príncipe: an overview
Gabriel Antunes Araujo
actors. The ethnic group Forro, whose language is Santome or Forro, which is the most widely
spoken creole in the archipelago. The ethnic group Kabuverdianu, descendants of Cape Verdean
contract workers, spoke their language mainly on farms (locally called ‘roças
when the speakers spread to towns. The ethnic group Principense
the twentieth century (MAURER,
. The ethnic group Angolar, speakers of the Angolar language (or Lingua Ngolá), lived
,
the ethnic group Tonga
Portuguese of
the Tongas (BAXTER,
and a small local urban elite speaking, respectively, European Portuguese and a local variety
or were put in place to promote the Portuguese language to the point of it being the main spoken
language, as well as a threat to all other languages spoken in STP. To answer these questions,
we analyse a series of factors, such as the process of colonization in the archipelago during
the two primary economic waves (in the sixteenth and twentieth centuries), importation of
labour to meet the demands of agribusinesses in these waves, process of urbanization since the
last forty years, and sanitary improvements that have increased life expectancy and reduced
child mortality.
Year Population
Total Portuguese Santome Lung’Ie Angolar Kabuverdianu
— —
of STP colonization and the role of imported labour in the construction of the local social and
60
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
mass schooling in the late colonial period and popularization of media after independence
language with a high linguistic capital to the detriment and marginalization of other languages.
remarks.
Colonization of São Tomé and Príncipe and the role of its language groups
Portugal set up a colony in STP in the sixteenth century, supported initially by a sugar-
dominated agro-industrial economy and STP being an entrepot for the shipment of slaves
and cocoa were the main drivers of the economy. However, Portugal failed to ensure the
presence of a large contingent of Portuguese speakers in the archipelago during colonial era
(
present in STP during the period of colonization, when the islands were uninhabited, during
the rise of sugarcane culture (decreasing to a minimum when the sugar industry collapsed
in the seventeenth century), during the second agro-industrial surge of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries and at the time of independence in 1975, when the local elite elected it as
have promoted the Portuguese language in the islands and, in doing so, alienated other local
the Portuguese language in STP in the last quarter of the twentieth century and the early part
social and linguistic historical processes and complex coexistence between local and ethnic
groups and their languages.
The de facto colonization of STP was related to sugar production, which began in 1517
with the construction of two sugarcane mills (
could be white or half-breed, but it was also often a freed black slave”. Thus, the Portuguese
61
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
Portuguese language expansion in São Tomé and Príncipe: an overview
Gabriel Antunes Araujo
for re-exportation”.
there appeared to be no demographically relevant European population to spread the language
and serve as a model for a linguistic norm.
Year Native Portuguese Total
—
— — —
—
—
—
? ?
Despite the successful commercial exploitation of cocoa in the last third of the nineteenth
century, STP remained unattractive to Portuguese immigrants. However, after the formal
serviçaes
individuals from Portuguese colonies, such as Cape Verde, Angola, and Mozambique. They
roças) on the islands and had little contact with
of slaves, prompting many protests from the international community (
corporal punishment, private imprisonment, little empathy on the part of employers regarding
62
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
of hired workers to their countries of origin. Even though slavery was nominally abolished in
addition, they were barred from socialising with the local society, which, in turn, considered
hired workers socially inferior (
accounted for approximately a quarter of the total population in this period.
Estado Novo government (
Portuguese-speaking population in the archipelago because these workers were not necessarily
of the Portuguese language in the last decades of the twentieth century, as will be shown below.
Furthermore, Seibert showed the presence of a mestizo population in São Tomé. However,
63
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
Portuguese language expansion in São Tomé and Príncipe: an overview
Gabriel Antunes Araujo
this information to be historically false and refuted by genetic studies of local populations (see
et al.
(
access to certain privileges, commonly intended only for those born in Europe, ensured that
exactly which language was spoken by the mestizo population of São Tomé, on the other
hand, it is reasonable to assume by observing similar situations in the Portuguese Atlantic
(cf.
pressure from European Portuguese, which can be associated with changes attributable to the
and prestige associated with speaking the language of the group to which the mestizos aspired
to belong cannot be disregarded either. Thus, given that the native mestizo Portuguese-speaking
to towns created opportunities for mestizo and Tonga descendants to spread Portuguese. These
opportunities can only be understood with the help of data on urbanization processes in STP.
Urbanization, schooling, media and the role of elites
Urbanization
still lived outside of the towns. The factors responsible for this increase in urban population
included improved living conditions and the attractiveness of the largest towns of São Tomé
64
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
and Príncipe (
Estado Novo government began promoting its São Tomé Urbanization Plan since 1951, which
involved the installation of a series of urban facilities, such as primary and secondary schools,
captaincy, customs, jail, government palace, etc.). The construction of these facilities attracted
Company (Companhia Sãotomense de Comunicações) was erected. The current Ministry of
(
San Tomean agro-industrial system. Besides, a failed land reform forced farmers to migrate to
The importance of cocoa culture in the context of migration from the countryside to
5
farm workers were forced to leave the country. They took with them the technical knowledge
for managing all stages of production (from cocoa seedlings to foreign sales), which had dire
marketing network (
65
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
Portuguese language expansion in São Tomé and Príncipe: an overview
Gabriel Antunes Araujo
farmers, it did not provide the farmers (Tongas, Forros, and Cape Verdean descendants) with
exodus. The failure of agrarian reform and the abandonment of rural properties brought to the
in STP (see BAXTER
Schooling
(
on the São Tomean society.
Formal education, one of the main vehicles supporting any imperial language, faced its
the idea of democratization of education began to take hold (see ,
de facto
was not universalized even in Portugal, the interest in promoting schooling at the periphery of
the Empire was even more challenging. At the end of the colonial period in STP, approximately
group of people in São Tomé had access to education. The enrichment of some Santomeans in
the golden age of the cacao industry can be noted in the presence of black and mestizo students
. However, this was not indicative of a strong education policy in STP.
66
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
thus revealing a more consistent pattern of the relevance of secondary education in STP in the
The school system in STP generally faces problems related to teacher training and average
seventh grade to the eighth grade, three schools from the seventh grade to the eleventh grade,
education. The main destinations are Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Morocco, Cuba and France.
The Ministry of Education currently uses teaching materials produced in partnership with
these institutions extends beyond the production of teaching materials. The Escola+ project,
education in STP by training senior managers (school principals and school managers) and
supervisors, reforming secondary education programmes, producing textbooks and training high
67
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
Portuguese language expansion in São Tomé and Príncipe: an overview
Gabriel Antunes Araujo
language, with a strong attachment to European Portuguese school standards and denial of the
European and Santomean varieties of Portuguese, the arrival and acceptance of these studies
(see
than investing in the local market and relying on payments from the STP government.
promotion of the Portuguese language in schools at all levels, including the tertiary level,
operate in an integrated manner in the cities of São Tomé and Santo António do Príncipe,
activities in Portuguese. Moreover, the Brazilian Cultural Centre, Brazilian Embassy in São
Tomé and Príncipe, and Brazilian Cooperation Agency promote various activities to support the
Portuguese language and the educational system in the archipelago.
Media
publication of the Boletim Ocial do Governo da Província de S. Thomé e Príncipe
. The Bulletin was
started publishing national and international news, as well as cultural content and topics of local
interest, such as obituaries, police bulletins and demographic data (
Ecuador,
ushering a period of print material focused on local trade and agriculture issues. Until the fall
changed, but the mass arrival of hired workers and land issues exposed the divisions in the
São Tomean society. These divisions were shyly represented in the press. The Portuguese-
of three dominant groups—sometimes among the groups and sometimes between the colony
and the metropolis, that is, the landowners and senior civil servants (Portuguese), elites (black
or mestizo) and European traders and employees of commerce and agriculture. Although the
press and its target audience were mostly Portuguese by birth or choice, the weekly newspaper
A Liberdade
68
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
the Faxiku Bêbêzawa (
formed a unique case of printed materials circulating in a language other than Portuguese.
liturgical matters—appeared in STP, diversifying the available printed materials.
programmes in Portuguese, mainly news, debates, music, soap operas (Portuguese and Brazilian)
and variety shows. Most broadcasts are in the Portuguese language, except for a few Santomean
channels can be accessed by the Santomean public, thus increasing their contact with other
varieties of the Portuguese language.
The role of local elites
of STP are similar to the situation prevalent during the decolonization of Portuguese African
was in fact a foreign and minority language at the time of decolonization, the ruling elites
and the practicality of using an already internationalized language. The choice of Portuguese
could, thus, counteract the problem of having to choose a local language in a multilingual
among the ethnic groups who speak the languages that are not selected7. Portuguese was viewed
as a desirable choice because it was not the native language of any ethnic group; however, it
was, in fact, the language of a particular social group: the ruling elite. Moreover, the choice of
and allowed the people access to Portuguese language users worldwide (,
possible with Portugal. However, the elites did not usually mention the fact that Portuguese was
already their vehicular language, and it would give them a head start and increase the possibility
of perpetuating their power. Both the elites and their descendants had privileged access to
education in Portugal and considered themselves superior to their fellow citizens in the intricate
7 Cape Verde is not included in this multilingual group because there is only one other language in the territory,
69
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
Portuguese language expansion in São Tomé and Príncipe: an overview
Gabriel Antunes Araujo
local social fabric, although they themselves were marginalized by the true Portuguese elites
pre-independence (
this pyramidal model, expelling the European Portuguese people from the top and taking their
place, while keeping the other groups, namely the monolingual Forros, descendants of hired
workers, Angolares, Principenses and speakers of other African languages, at the base of the
social pyramid (
Analysis of demographic and linguistic census data
respondents interviews were Portuguese, Forro, Angolar, Linguie Cape-Verdean and
other
survey questions, they could determine whether the interviewee knew the expression ‘mother
.
Census Total
population Portuguese Santome Lung’Ie Angolar Kabuverdianu
— —
1991
— —
— —
head or the census taker was able to add information to the questionnaire that might not have
is beyond the scope of this article.
70
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
language was assigned to each resident. The data revealed that in fact, more than one answer
was possible, such that the census question was understood more or less as ‘what languages do
Born
in
STP
Population
%
STP Population
%
Portuguese
%
Santome
%
Lung’Ie
%
Angolar
%
Kabuverdianu
1.9
99.7
1.7
11.7
TOTAL 174,646 100% 98.4
(171,851)
36.2
(63,221)
1
(1,746)
6.6
(11,526)
8.5
(14,844)
knowledge of the Portuguese language across all age ranges can be related to the abandonment of
1.
nine out of ten individuals in the age range speak Portuguese, which shows the extent
of spread of Portuguese among the younger strata. The decline in this age range may
be related to the fact that some children from this age range may not speak a language
Moreover, the decline can possibly be ascribed to the fact that previous censuses did not
separate knowledge of language by age group. Thus, the decline may be ascribed to the
not necessarily mean that fewer people classify Portuguese as a language they know.
71
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
Portuguese language expansion in São Tomé and Príncipe: an overview
Gabriel Antunes Araujo
cannot rule out the fact that self-reported data might have led to the underreporting of the
use of creole languages, especially among young Santomeans schooled in Portuguese.
speakers.
according to data from previous generations (discussed in the next item), presented in
there is indeed a decline in the number of speakers of creole languages among children
speakers, according to the literature, seem to be underestimated and overestimated,
language is evident among children, and there are even a few elderly monolingual
et al
which is an adequate description. T
its ethnolinguistic vitality, although its relative isolation from the rest of the island might
have contributed to language maintenance.
MAURER
72
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
related to the character of the value assigned to the self-declaration on the census as an
element of data collection. Censuses do not require census takers to ask for a formal
discourse supporting transmission, language teaching in schools and other opportunities
the language as a common element for the ethnic group, that is, an element of linguistic
‘Ê
pa no sêbê ya lung’Ie ê bilêtê no’
(the three terms are used in a prejudiced manner), have been fed not only by colonial
forces but also by other ethnic groups (e.g.
government actions may have stimulated people within the Angolar group not to declare
themselves—in front of a census taker possibly from the Forro ethnic group—as speakers
example, ancestors are of distinct groups, as is the case with many individuals who have
declaration.
5.
have decreased, which can be inferred from patterns of intergenerational change. This
decrease indicates a shift towards a society in which Portuguese is increasingly used
as the language by everyone. Moreover, the putative decrease in the number of Creole
creoles are used in lesser domains. The economic outlook of São Tomé state, historical
in the last quarter of the twentieth century and the existence of multiple sociolinguistic
norms (
about identity and perception towards Portuguese and between Creole speakers.
73
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
Portuguese language expansion in São Tomé and Príncipe: an overview
Gabriel Antunes Araujo
population that is able to use and disseminate the Portuguese language, especially over the last
forty years.
Conclusion
Actual acts of language policy implementation by the government are relatively rare in
São Tomé and Príncipe because such acts involve the consumption of scarce public resources,
) a linguistic instrument with the aim
of standardizing the spellings of indigenous languages (see ;
employment of foreign labour, are the factors that have led to the framework of linguistic
stage for the obsolescence of other languages. Alongside twentieth-century phenomena such as
and political prestige of Portuguese—, there is a framework of abandoning ethnic languages for
Portuguese in STP. This is not the same variety as European Portuguese. However, European
commonly used language in the country. There is neither a visibly endangered language (…)”.
STP is the target of pilot projects and investigations that result in partnerships, which are soon
discontinued and replaced with new projects to evaluate what went wrong in the previous
projects. The considerably high level of instability of the government does not guarantee the
Countries as a founding member, it did not result in public policies to promote Portuguese by
74
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
public-school system.
limited opportunities to implement language policies because their implementation is a minor
concern given all the other problems facing the country.
References
Interferências linguísticas: Um contributo para o ensino da língua portuguesa
em São Tomé e Príncipe.
Fonologia e método pedagógico do lung’Ie. Tese de doutorado,
Fonologia do lung’Ie.
, M.;
Tomé, São Tomé e Príncipe. Trabalhos em Linguística Aplicada
Língua e Instrumentos Linguísticos
, M. Dicionário Angolar/Português
, A. C.; , M.;
Cadernos de Estudos Linguísticos,
, A. C. Vogais e Ditongos no Português Vernacular de São Tomé
O Português na África
Atlântica. São Paulo: Humanitas
, T. Dicionário Livre Santome-Português. São Paulo: Hedra
M. Reconstrução fonológica e lexical do protocrioulo do Golfo da Guiné. Tese
M.;
75
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
Portuguese language expansion in São Tomé and Príncipe: an overview
Gabriel Antunes Araujo
, A. A reforma do ensino secundário em São Tomé e Príncipe. Apresentação do
, A. C.; , V. R. (orgs.). Actas do Colóquio
Internacional São Tomé e Príncipe numa perspectiva interdisciplinar, diacrónica e sincrónica.
, Herman. Language Decline and Death in Africa: causes, consequences and
challenges.
BAXTER, A. Semicreolization? The restructured Portuguese of the Tongas of São Tomé, a
Journal of Portuguese Linguistics
BAXTER,
O Português na África Atlântica
, M. Linguistic variation and change in the Portuguese of São Tomé. PhD Thesis,
Lingua
Prosódia do português de São Tomé: o contorno entoacional das sentenças
declarativas neutras
S. F. Concordância nominal em duas variedades do português: convergências e
divergências. Veredas
S. F. Concordância nominal na variedade urbana do português falado em São
Tomé. Ciências Humanas e Sociais em Revista
S. F.; , S. R. Concordância nominal e verbal: contribuições para o debate
sobre o estatuto da variação em três variedades urbanas do português. Alfa: Revista de Linguística
CADBURY,Labour in Portuguese West Africa
A. Cabo Verde: formação e extinção de uma sociedade escravocrata (1460-
1878)
EBERHARD, D. M.; ; C. D. (eds.). Ethnologue: Languages of the
76
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
World.
www.ethnologue.com
P. Small farmers and Estates in São Tomé, West Africa. PhD. Dissertation. Yale
Downs, R.; Reyna, S. (eds.). Land and society in contemporary Africa. Hannover: United Press
FERRAZ,The Creole of S. Thomé.
Comunicação Pública
R. A History of São Tomé Islands, 1470-1655: The Key to Guinea. San Francisco:
R. Propriedades de subcategorização verbal no português de São Tomé.
R. Construções ditransitivas no Português de São Tomé. Tese de doutorado,
Tomé e Príncipe. Revista Cientíca da UEM: Série ciências sociais
Das portugiesische Kreolisch der Jlha do Príncipe
Country Report: Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe, . Disponível em
Inquérito aos Indicadores Múltiplos 2014 de São Tomé
e Príncipe, Relatório Final
S. Cocoa Culture on São Tomé and Príncipe: The Rise and Fall of Cocoa on the
Agricultural History
The Angolar Creole Portuguese of São Tomé (West Africa): its grammar and
sociolinguistic history
D. Língua e Sociedade Partidas: a polarização sociolinguística do Brasil. São
77
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
Portuguese language expansion in São Tomé and Príncipe: an overview
Gabriel Antunes Araujo
, D.; BAXTER, A.; O português afro-brasileiro. Salvador: EDUFBA,
MAURER, P. L’angolar: Un créole afro-portugais parlé à São Tomé. Hamburg: Helmut Buske
Verlag, 1995.
MAURER, P. Principense (Lung’Ie): Grammar, texts, and vocabulary of the Afro-Portuguese
Creole of the island of Príncipe, Gulf of Guinea.
, A. C.; , V. R. (orgs.). Actas do Colóquio
Internacional São Tomé e Príncipe numa perspectiva interdisciplinar, diacrónica e sincrónica.
,
A. Relações de poder e quotidiano nas roças de S. Tomé e Príncipe: de nais
de oitocentos a meados do presente século
A. Atlas da lusofonia: São Tomé e Príncipe
História ethnographica da Ilha de São Thomé.
A modern slavery
NUNES, A. B.
Estudos de Economia
B. Baltes.
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
A. A.; , P. A luta pela descolonização e as experiências de alfabetização
Estudos Históricos (Rio de Janeiro), 25
et al. (org.), Actas
do Colóquio Internacional sobre ensino/aprendizagem do francês e do português no contexto
plurilingue africano
, E.; , A. (eds.). Actas do colóquio
sobre crioulos de base lexical portuguesa.
Portugal no contexto europeu,
78
Diadorim, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 22, número 1, p. 57-78, 2020.
volume 1, Instituições e Política
Comrades, Clients and Cousins: Colonialism, Socialism and Democratization in
São Tomé and Príncipe.
Camaradas, clientes e compadres: colonialismo, socialismo e democratização
em S. Tomé e Príncipe.
Creole societies
in the Portuguese colonial empire
, A. B.; Formação superior e desenvolvimento: estudantes
universitários africanos em Portugal
da vida social. Anuário Antropológico
C. M. S. As ilhas de São Tomé no século XVII. Centro de História de Além-Mar,
S; P;
Human Biology
, F. A Ilha de São Tomé
M. F. Studies in Portuguese and Creole: With special reference to South Africa.
statistics.
