African American Children in Early Childhood Education Teaching about Racial Equity Issues in Teacher Education Programs Article information

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African American Children in Early Childhood Education
Teaching about Racial Equity Issues in Teacher Education Programs
Gloria Boutte,
Article information:
To cite this document: Gloria Boutte, "Teaching about Racial Equity Issues in
Teacher Education Programs" In African American Children in Early Childhood
Education. Published online: 24 May 2017; 247-266.
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CHAPTER 11
TEACHING ABOUT RACIAL
EQUITY ISSUES IN TEACHER
EDUCATION PROGRAMS
Gloria Boutte
ABSTRACT
This chapter addresses the National Association for the Education of
Young Children’s ethical principle of “First Do No Harm” from the per-
spective of racial equity issues that seemingly are not obvious to educa-
tors or often overlooked in the education of Black children. Two
complementary points are made. First, many educators tend to view dis-
crimination in terms of intentional and overt actions, but may not realize
how they can and do inadvertently harm children during everyday class-
room routines, instructional practices, policies, and curriculum that posi-
tion African American culture invisible or abnormal. Second, even
though teachers might not be cognizant or aware of institutional racism
that is endemic in policies, instruction, curriculum, practices, and rou-
tines, their involvement in these practices represents an ethical problem
and violates the “do no harm” principle. While most P-12 teachers and
teacher educators agree in theory with the idea of valuing cultural and
linguistic diversity, changing actions, and deeply-seated teaching prac-
tices and dispositions can only be accomplished by challenging and
African American Children in Early Childhood Education: Making the Case for Policy
Investments in Families, Schools, and Communities
Advances in Race and Ethnicity in Education, Volume 5, 247266
Copyright r2017 by Emerald Publishing Limited
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISSN: 2051-2317/doi:10.1108/S2051-231720170000005011
247
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disrupting normalizing discourses in the policies that inform instructional
practices, curriculum, and the pedagogies used in teacher education pro-
grams and in P-12 schools. This chapter suggests that teacher education
programs use decolonizing frameworks for addressing equity academic
and social issues for African American students. A discussion of institu-
tional levels of oppression and praxis are included. Examples of barriers
and promising practices are shared. An overarching theme is that early
childhood teacher educators must unapologetically, thoughtfully, inten-
tionally, and comprehensively advance issues concerning educational
equity for African American students.
Keywords: African American children; teacher education programs;
equity; microaggressions; macroaggressions; Black students
One day after school, my six-year-old granddaughter, Janiyah, asked in
earnest, “What’s the big deal about White people anyway?” While not
knowing the particular instance that provoked this question and reflecting
in our ongoing discussions about equity issues and developing positive
Black identities, my guess was that Janiyah (who is known for her ability
to read beneath the surface and to incisively cut to the chase) was wonder-
ing why her school curriculum, teachers at her school, and the White chil-
dren received so much positive attention. Recognizing that many readers
may not think that a six-year-old is capable of drawing such sophisticated,
sociopolitical inferences, I join other scholars in acknowledging that young
children have an astute and sophisticated (though sometimes understated)
understanding about racial messages and dynamics (Boutte, 2008;Boutte,
Lopez-Robertson, & Costello, 2011;Delpit, 2007;Tenorio, 2007). As early
childhood educators, we have to be cognizant that young children are very
astute at figuring out the dynamics in society and school even if they do
not always articulate them; they are actively and subconsciously learning
“assigned” racial and gender roles, stereotypes, and the like. Hence, this
chapter makes the case for examining what is being taught (or not taught)
to future and in-service teachers regarding racial equity issues, particularly
as it pertains to African American children.
1
To answer my granddaughter’s complex question, I wanted her to know
two key points: (1) that all humans are a big deal and (2) because of white
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supremacy, which manifests itself in the school curriculum and society,
White people’s worldviews and perspectives have been prioritized while
people of color’s ways of knowing and epistemologies have been and are
still being marginalized, misrepresented, erased, appropriated, and disre-
spected (King & Swartz, 2016). Hence, the illusion is that White people are
the creators of everything, the smartest humans essentially, the prototype
for humanity. I had to tell her that this is incorrect and intentionally mis-
leading and that African Americans and other people of color’s humanity
were just as important as that of Whites.
As a Black parent, grandparent, and scholar, it is my goal to provide
buffering and healing from the ongoing and pervasive microaggressions
and macroaggressions
2
that Black children and adults receive, albeit some-
times unknowingly by the perpetrators. In this chapter, I reflect on harmful
experiences that many Black children experience on a daily basis in school.
Schools, while not the sole source of oppression, contribute to and harm
the psychological, social, and academic outcomes of Black children. For
example, the negative and pervasive messages about Black people in society
(schools included) undoubtedly contributed to Janiyah (and countless other
Black children) going through a period when they were four-years old and
disliked brown skin or wanted to be “tan.” I share three personal exhibits
to personalize racism and hopefully help teacher educators think about the
role that we can play in interrupting silence and inadvertent corroboration
in the cycle of racism.
EXHIBIT A: JONATHAN WENT FROM LOVING
BROWN SKIN TO LEARNING TO ASSOCIATE IT WITH
NEGATIVE CONNOTATIONS ABOUT BEING BLACK
When Jonathan was five, he wanted to have dark brown skin. Jonathan is
light-skinned and said to himself after getting out the bathtub, “Hmmm, I
am five now. I thought I would have my brown skin by now.” As is the
case in many families, Black people’s skin tones have a range of hues. Since
Jonathan’s dad and I divorced when he was two, and Jonathan lived with
his older sister and I who were both brown, he assumed that he would turn
browner when he turned five. I spent some time discussing how we got our
skin color (biologically from our parents), discussed melanin, read the
book, All the Colors We Are (Kissinger, 1994/2002), and told him that
everyone was the color that God wanted us to be. None of this was
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convincing and Jonathan continued to think he would get brown skin and
was sure he was getting darker when he had a smudge of chocolate on his
arm a few days later. The point is that Jonathan loved being Black and was
eager and excited about one day being browner like the other members of
his family. Fast forward to sixth grade, Jonathan and one of his close
friends decided to hide behind their desks when the teacher and students
left for lunch. They predicted that the teacher would not miss them. Sure
enough, the teacher never knew that they were missing and they spent the
entire lunch period in the classroom. Jonathan and his friend were two of
the three Black students in the class. The other Black student assumed a
“raceless” persona (an attempt to not identify oneself in racial terms) and
assimilated very well, while Jonathan and his friend identified with Black
culture. After discussing the situation with Jonathan, his friend, and his
friend’s parents, our family learned that the White, male teacher basically
ignored or tolerated them and the boys were aware of that. Though before
that day, they had never articulated it to their parents; the pain of such
rejection cannot be imagined by others who have never experienced it.
Jonathan’s positive sense of racial identity as a young child was diminished
by the cumulative effect of society and school microaggressions and macro-
aggressions. Of course, Jonathan’s dad and I intensified our efforts to
affirm Black humanity and to counter the dominant negative narratives
about Black people. It would be great if teachers were also prepared to do
the same. Knowledge bases and pedagogies that can be used by teachers
will be presented later.
EXHIBIT B: YOUNG BLACK CHILDREN ARE
SURROUNDED BY IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT
MESSAGES THAT LIGHT SKIN CARRIES PRIVILEGES
THAT BROWN SKIN DOES NOT
When my other granddaughter Jaliyah, Janiyah’s twin, was four and
attending a predominantly White preschool, she came home one day and
said that she wanted to be tan. As with my son, Jonathan, I took the
opportunity to talk with her about where we get our skin color. Of course I
discussed the beauty of brown and black skin. When I finished, Jaliyah
said, “That is great ‘Dear’
3
, but I still want to be tan! Tan! Tan! Tan!” She
walked away. I chuckled to myself thinking of a preschooler’s sense of fin-
alism and knowing it all, but I was also sad. I realized that Jaliyah had
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figured out that there were privileges that went along with being lighter
(tan was the color she called White people at the time). I intensified my
African studies lessons with Jaliyah and Janiyah and even took them to
Kenya (see Fig. 1 for an example of lessons). A few years when Jaliyah was
six, she came to me one day and shared, “Dear, remember when I wanted
to be tan. Well, I do not anymore. I love being brown. And Black people
have the best hair because we can do anything we want (to) with our hair.”
At one point, I thought that I may have over emphasized the love of
Blackness because Jaliyah later said, “Dear, I told (White classmate) that
Black people were the best people in the world because he was thinking that
White people were.” After thinking, “Uh oh”, I explained to her that I never
said Black people were the best people in the world. I said they were the first
people. I reminded her of the trip to the Nairobi National Museum in Kenya
where we got to see the Origins of Humankind Exhibit. I told her all humans
Teaching About Equity in Teacher Education Programs
An
understanding
of oppression
is necessary
to teach for
social justice
and equity.
The program
should focus on
seeing
strengths and
funds of
knowledge in
Black students’
cultures,
families, and
communities.
Educators
must
understand
their own and
children’s
multiple
social
identities.
Ongoing
professional
development
for faculty
members is
needed.
Sample actions include: changing the mission statement for the
program, evaluating every course, evaluating field placements,
thinking about dispositions needed to teach for equity, ensuring
that faculty are supported during annual reviews and tenure and
promotion.
Fig. 1. Four Key Propositions for Transforming Teacher Education Programs to
Better Prepare Teachers to Teach Black Students.
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were valuable. Jaliyah’s shift from wanting to be brown to celebrating
Blackness has implications for educators seeking to understand Black chil-
dren’s emerging sense of racial identity. It also speaks the powerful influence
that adults (e.g., parents and educators) can have in this process.
EXHIBIT C: NEGATIVE MESSAGES ABOUT BLACK
AND BROWN ABOUND AND YOUNG CHILDREN MAY
INTERNALIZE THESE MESSAGES
One day when riding in the car, Janiyah (who was three or four at the
time) mused, “I hate brown. But, I am brown so that must mean I hate
myself.” I was not sure of what to make of these comments, but made men-
tal notes to continue my home history lessons and affirmations. The three
exhibits point out ways that societal and school messages about being
Black can be internalized by young children (Boutte, 2016;Perry, Steele, &
Hilliard, 2003). Early in their lives, many Black children hear and learn the
message that they are devalued. Because many Black children may not
share examples like the ones in the exhibits with their teachers, teachers
often do not know that a part of the unspoken or hidden curriculum in
schools can be hurtful to the psychological wellbeing of Black children.
The following section elaborates on the ethical principle of not harming
children. It is followed by four propositions that can be used to guide
teacher education programs in helping in-service and pre-service teachers
learn to teach Black children in equitable and affirming ways. An emphasis
on the welfare of Black children is important since not only do they make
up the second largest group of students of color in U.S. schools 16%
(U.S. Department of Education, 2016), but also because many scholars
argue that African Americans are the ethnic group whose academic needs
are least likely to be met in U.S. schools for no fault of their own
(Hammond, Hoover, & McPhail, 2005).
FIRST DO NO HARM?: DEFINING HIDDEN
MICROAGGRESSIONS AND MACROAGGRESSIONS
AGAINST BLACK CHILDREN
I readily acknowledge that schools are but one source of the ongoing cul-
tural assaults (microaggressions) that Black children receive. Indeed, I am
well aware of the endemic and institutional nature of racism in society
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(e.g., media, daily interactions). My argument here is that unless teachers
are prepared to be critically conscious about what is taught or not taught
to Black children, it will be difficult to honor the National Association for
the Education of Young Children’s (NAEYC) first ethical principle.
Above all, we shall not harm children. We shall not participate in practices that are
emotionally damaging, physically harmful, disrespectful, degrading, dangerous, exploit-
ative, or intimidating to children. This principle has precedence over all others in this
Code (NAEYC, 2011, p. 3).
Since children’s lived experiences often differ depending on their race, we
have to question whose definitions of disrespect, degradation, exploitation,
and intimidation are used in the ethical principle? The insidious and daily
instances of routine curricular and instructional practices that Black children
are subjected to often escape the ethics radar since educators tend to view
“harm” in terms of physical, intentional, and overt actions. Additionally,
since few educators intentionally harm children, routine acts do not register
as harmful. Yet, the residual effects of living in a racially stratified society do
not escape young children’s detection (Boutte, 2008). As Perry (2003)
explained, there is no other group besides African Americans for whom there
has there been such a persistent, well-articulated, and unabated ideology
about their mental incompetence. The consequences of negative perceptions
and devaluation of Black students’ mental competence has affected how stu-
dents are educated (e.g., tracking into low placements; over-identification in
special education classes; disproportionality in disciplinary actions, suspen-
sions, and expulsions) and has contributed to negative performance trends in
school and later inequities in life (Perry, 2003). I reiterate that a central prem-
ise of this chapter is that most educators do not intentionally harm African
American students; however, since schooling is not neutral and the curricu-
lum and policies are largely Eurocratic (King & Swartz, 2016), even well-
intentioned teachers of all ethnicities can be complicit in causing social and
emotional harm to African American students.
Examples of devaluation can be found in classrooms that do not provide
stories, perspectives, and texts about Black people and families. Likewise,
when Black children are ignored or when teachers hold low or no expecta-
tions for them (while at the same time providing ongoing, positive interac-
tions and high expectations for White students), these actions convey that
Black children are not important or smart. When Black children witness
the disproportionate number of students who are labeled as discipline pro-
blems or as special education students, it sends clear messages Black chil-
dren are the “bad” ones or Black children are the “dumb” ones. Hence, the
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remainder of this chapter presents thoughts about how teacher education
programs might better prepare teachers to teach Black children and other
children of color.
Teacher education programs serve an important role in the process of
transforming the school experiences of Black children from dreadful to desir-
able (Quartz & the TEP Research Group, 2003). However, close examination
of many teacher education programs and pre-K 12 classrooms reveal that
respect for racial equity issues is typically superficial and not supported by
practices, instruction, curriculum, policies, and expected teacher dispositions
(Boutte, 2005;Boutte, 2016;Ladson-Billings, 1994/2009;Darling-Hammond,
2000). Like promising efforts in schools, changes in teacher education pro-
grams need to be systemic as well. As educators, whose goal is to be powers
for good, if we are unwilling to accept the racial and social class inequalities
in schools and society, then we must confront the problems facing Black chil-
dren through informed action (MacNaughton &Williams, 2009).
FOUR PROPOSITIONS THAT TEACHER EDUCATION
PROGRAMS CAN ADDRESS TO PREPARE
EDUCATORS TO EQUITABLY TEACH BLACK
CHILDREN
Four key propositions will be presented to think about what teacher educa-
tion programs may do to systemically address issues of equity. The propo-
sitions are not intended to be exhaustive or prescriptive, but can be used as
food for thought. The propositions shown in Fig. 1 may be used as a start-
ing point for teacher education programs and help to identify the subtex-
tual ideologies that are being taught that may be harmful to Black
children. Each of these will be discussed in turn. Collectively, these proposi-
tions point to actions that can be taken.
1. An understanding of oppression is necessary to teach for social justice
and equity.
2. The program should focus on seeing Black strengths and funds of
knowledge in students’ cultures, families, and communities.
3. Educators must understand their own and children’s multiple social
identities.
4. Ongoing professional development for faculty members is needed.
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In order to address these four propositions and to teach for equity,
teacher education programs need to address: (1) existing knowledge bases
that are used to inform the program of study; (2) instructional approaches
used; and (3) policies (e.g., admission, retention, promotion, and tenure of
faculty). As summarized in the quote below, maintaining the status quo in
teacher education programs is not a choice if educators do not want to con-
tinue to cause harm to Black children.
There is no such thing as a neutral educational process. Education either
functions as an instrument that is used to facilitate the integration of the
younger generation into the logic of the present system and bring about
conformity to it, or it becomes ‘the practice of freedom’, the means by
which women and men deal critically and creatively in the transformation
of their world (Shaull, 1970/1999 as cited in Freire, 1970/1999, p. 16).
In sum, because classrooms and societies are not neutral spaces, they
reflect the ideologies, thoughts, and perspectives of someone or some
institution.
Proposition 1: An Understanding of Racial Oppression is Necessary to
Teach for Social Justice and Equity
This proposition is the most important because the key understandings
which result once educators learn how oppression works should become
evident. Generally speaking, emancipatory, decolonizing, and critical peda-
gogical conceptual frameworks can be used to examine how oppression
and discrimination are produced and reproduced in the context of schools
and schooling (Boutte, 2016;Freire, 1970/1999;Lynn, Jennings, & Hughes,
2013). The intent of this short chapter is not to explicate or dictate any one
approach. Teacher educators will need to continuously make the distinction
between institutional levels of oppression (e.g., policies, practices, norms,
customs that systematically reflect and produce racial inequities) and indi-
vidual levels of oppression (individual acts of prejudice). This will help pro-
spective and in-service teachers understand that racialized outcomes
(differential academic and social outcomes for Black and White children)
do not require racist actors and that even well-intentioned educators can
inadvertently harm the very students they are seeking to help if they are
unable to critically examine the existing policies and practices in their class-
rooms. An example of institutionalized classroom norms is the continual
use of textbooks and children’s literature that reflects predominantly White
worldviews and exclude, or only minimally include, African Americans and
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their viewpoints. Often, such books are included as a part of the curriculum
without a critical evaluation of whose voices and stories are being priori-
tized and privileged and whose are missing or tokenized. Had Janiyah and
Jaliyah been in classrooms where teachers understood that all children
are being fed an unhealthy diet of whiteness as the norm, the teachers
would have provided ongoing affirmations of a large range of human
possibilities perhaps being brown (African American) would not have
been viewed by the girls as abnormal or problematic. In such classrooms,
all children (including White children) learn to be critically conscious and
learn to critique the invisibility, inaccuracies, and misrepresentations of
people of color in the media, in books, and in the classroom.
Teacher education programs that are guided by decolonizing and eman-
cipatory frameworks such as the ones mentioned below will make knowl-
edge about institutional and systemic inequities foundational. Ideally, this
information could be introduced in an early course and reinforced in a
substantive manner throughout the program of study. Four recommended
models/theories of understanding colonization and decolonization are:
(1) Freire’s Dimensions of Oppression and Antidialogical Action (Freire,
1970/1999); (2) Fanon’s Stages of Colonization (Fanon, 1963); (3)
Woodson’s Miseducation of the Negro (Woodson, 1933/1990); and (4)
Enriquez’s Six Steps of Colonization (Enriquez, 1992). Teacher educators
may choose to focus on one or two of these (or others), but will find com-
mon themes across all of them.
Once students in teacher education programs understand how oppression
and colonization work, one of the following five decolonizing and emanci-
patory models and theories can be used as a complement and can inform
programmatic actions and changes: (1) Friere’s Theory of Dialogical Action
(Freire, 1970/1999); (2) Strobel’s Process of Decolonization (Strobel, 2001);
(3) Halagao’s Decolonizing Curriculum (Halagao, 2010); (4) Woodson’s
The Education of the Negro (African Emancipatory Pedagogy) (Woodson,
1919); or (5) Lanenui’s Process of Decolonization (Laenui, 2000). Again,
these lists are not intended to be exhaustive and a description of each of
these is beyond the scope of this chapter. Many of these are readily accessi-
ble and comprehensive to pre-service and in-service teachers.
Of course, teacher educators must first become conversant with these
knowledge bases as well. Otherwise, discussions about Black children’s
experiences may get hijacked and transposed to a focus on the individual
levels of discrimination faced by the majority White pre-service and in-
service teaching force or diverted to focus solely on issues of social class or
other social identities. Often, the needs of White pre-service and in-service
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teachers are privileged over the needs of the children and efforts are made
to ensure that they (teachers/pre-service teachers) do not experience dis-
comfort (Boutte & Jackson, 2013). For example, when White pre-service
and in-service teachers complain about talking about race too often, many
teacher educators are not prepared to explain the necessity of pedagogies
and content related to Black students (Evans-Winters, & Hoff, 2011).
Additionally, teacher educators frequently do not explain the relationship
to the focus on Black students to the pervasive academic and social trends
that Black children are facing. Importantly, no discussion of the ethical
obligation to reverse these trends is typically included. In turn, important
topics, strategies, and information is left uncovered and pre-service and in-
service teachers leave teacher education programs ill-prepared to teach
Black students; thus, often subjecting students to cultural assaults via the
curriculum, instruction, testing, placements, and other policies. From an
ethical standpoint, the expectation should be that teachers should be willing
to place themselves in periods of discomfort as they learn how to teach in
emancipatory ways on behalf of the children.
Being able to discuss oppression and being able to name the institutional
inequities is an important part of teacher education programs. This entails
discussing issues of power and naming whiteness. For instance, instead of
referring to teachers generically, discussions about what it means for chil-
dren of color to be taught by the majority White teaching force should be
had. Likewise, talking about content areas in a neutral fashion will need to
be problematized. That is, whose history is being taught and whose is not.
Colorblindness will have to be replaced with color-sightedness (Boutte et al.,
2011). Because decolonizing and emancipatory pedagogies necessarily
counter the status quo, teacher educators should read academic literature
and learn strategies for responding to expected pushback when discussing
issues of race and oppression (Boutte & Jackson, 2013;Picower, 2009).
Once teacher educators are familiar with the literature on decolonizing
and emancipatory theories, they are in a position to think about structural
changes that need to occur in the program. It will be important to deliberate
and identify which courses the decolonizing theories will be included. The
objectives and outcomes of identified courses should be revised accordingly.
Beginning with the departmental mission statement, it is important to
officially declare that a focus of equity will be a central part of the program
of study (Powers-Costello et al., 2012) and it is equally important to acti-
vate and enforce the mission. The mission statement must be supported by
changes in the program of study as well as ongoing professional develop-
ment for faculty. Faculty can think together about what is needed in terms
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of field placements, support for supervising teachers, recruitment and reten-
tion of critically conscious teachers of color, and other experiences for stu-
dents in their programs. Likewise, some thought should be given to
supporting faculty members who are teaching about equity and racial
issues since repercussions such as lower course evaluations (which affect
annual reviews, tenure, and promotion) have been shown to occur espe-
cially for faculty of color (Evans-Winters & Hoff, 2011).
Proposition 2: Teacher Education Programs Should Focus on Seeing
Strengths and Funds of Knowledge in Black Students’ Cultures, Families,
and Communities
Transformation of teacher educator programs to become more responsive
to the needs of Black children will require shifting the gaze from viewing
African American students as problematic to seeing their possibilities,
strengths, and funds of knowledge. To do this, university educators will
need to substantively examine ways to address the cumulative hegemonic
reinforcements that are inherent in the content that is included in the pro-
gram of study. This includes examining reading materials for deficit per-
spectives about Black people as well as determining if structural inequities
in schools and society are addressed. There is a need to illuminate the
inherent strengths, beauty, and humanity of African American children,
families, and communities and to disrupt the prevailing discourse of Black
inferiority in schools and society. Since there has been an overemphasis on
what is wrong with Black students, families, and communities and what
they need to change, the intent should be to focus on how to build on exist-
ing strengths that exist among Black people and institutions (Boutte, 2016).
A recurring theme throughout programs of study in teacher education
should be that African Americans have a long tradition of excellence in
education, socialization, and mastery of their environment and circum-
stances (Hilliard, 2002;King, 2005;Perry et al. 2003).
Proposition 3: Educators Must Understand Their Own and Children’s
Multiple Social Identities
In addition to learning about oppression and how to combat it in educa-
tional circles, an important realization is that educators are a key part of the
equation regarding the success or failure that children face in schools.
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Therefore, it is important for educators to reflect on their own social identi-
ties (e.g., race, gender, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, religion,
age) and how one’s identities affect teaching decisions. Everyone has mem-
bership in multiple social groups. Remembering that teaching is not neutral,
naming one’s social identities is essential. Likewise, understanding children’s
various social identities is critical. A key insight is that, while there is a tre-
mendous amount of variation among and within people’s social identities
(e.g., Black people are not monolithic and some may seek to assimilate into
mainstream cultures, others may not, and some may be in between), the sys-
tem of oppression uses the social identity structure to assign dominant and
subordinate status to individuals and groups in society (Boutte, 2016). These
groups predispose us to unequal roles (Harro, 2000a). For example, as a
group, men are privileged and women are disprivileged. They make more
money on the average for the same jobs, are disproportionately represented
as CEOs, principles, legislators, national presidents, etc. Likewise, Blacks, as
a group have been positioned with less status than Whites. This does not
mean that no Blacks receive privileges, but it means that most of the conven-
tional policies and practices in schools and society place African Americans
at a disadvantage. Understanding this will help educators see how their own
individual identities play out in society. It is also important to understand
the intersections among our social identities. For example, a Black person
from an upper socioeconomic status will likely fare better in schools and
society than a Black person who is poor.
In order for pre-service and in-service teachers to fully comprehend the
complexities involved in understanding their own and students’ social identi-
ties readings and experiences will be necessary across their program of study.
Two suggested readings are from Harro (2000a, b) that focuses on social
identities and the cycle of socialization as well as the cycle of liberation.
Reflection activities that require educators to think about messages that they
learned (often unknowingly and subconsciously) about different social
groups will be an important part of the process of becoming critically con-
scious educators a prerequisite for transforming teacher education pro-
grams to focus on racial equity. An example can be seen in Table 1. Such
activities should not be done quickly and should allow time for deep probing
in terms of messages that were learned from parents, television, books,
school, and other sources. They should also be periodically revisited.
Since focusing on racial identities will be particularly useful in under-
standing students, educators should seek to first understand their own
racial identities as well since educators’ dispositions and knowledge bases
affect how they teach children. They may find it useful to reflect on racial
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stages of identities that help understand the process of racialization in the
United States such as: (1) White Stages/Schemas of Racial Identity (Helms,
2008); (2) Black Stages of Racial Identity (Cross, 1991;Cross & Vandiver,
2001); (3) Biracial Stages of Racial Identities (Root, 1992); and (4) Biracial
Stages of Racial Identities (Poston, 1990). These racial stage theories may
be useful to use early on in teacher education programs and revisited often.
Even though most of them are presented in linear stages that does not cap-
ture the sometimes curvilinear, circular, or recursive nature of racial devel-
opment, they may provide a useful heuristic to reflect on how people are
thinking of their racial group.
Proposition 4: Ongoing Professional Development for Faculty Members is
Needed
If teacher education programs are going to do a better job of doing their
part in contributing to the academic and cultural success of Black students,
then ongoing professional development that targets this topic will be neces-
sary. It is important for all faculty members to be conversant with the body
of academic literature on educating African American students and what it
means for their respective coursework. Faculty may find it helpful to find
other teacher education programs that are doing this well or at least mak-
ing systemic and ongoing efforts to transform their programs to be more
responsive to preparing teachers to effectively work with Black students.
Ongoing professional development is necessary because new information
and strategies are always developing (Powers-Costello et al., 2012).
Professional development can take many formats such as reading groups,
Table 1. Childhood Messages.
Groups Messages from
Your Parents/
Guardians,
books, media,
and friends
How Were They
Communicated?
(e.g., verbally;
tacitly;
physically)
Messages That You
Will Communicate/
Have Communicated
to Your Own
Children or Your
Students?
How will the
messages be
communicated to
your own children or
students or How were
their communicated?
Africans/
African
Americans
Source: Boutte (2016), (p. 40).
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monthly meetings, inviting in resource people or visiting other programs 
virtually or on site. Possible topics can include:
•Developing and activating mission statements that address racial equity
issues.
•Decolonizing pedagogies
•Guidelines for addressing racial equity issues
•Program, departmental, or school/college policies that provide support
for teaching about racial equity issues.
It may be necessary to invite consultants to lead some sessions.
Nevertheless, the professional development sessions should be tailored to
the specific needs of the faculty member as well as to the population
enrolled in the teacher education program.
Collectively the four propositions presented can help to activate the
largely untapped and latent educational and political power of teacher
educators and teachers to change current educational trends that are
harmful to African American and other children of color. I return now to
one of the earlier scenarios about Jaliyah. When Jaliyah was five, she
selected a book from the school library titled, A Mom Like No Other
(Taylor-Butler, 2004). She asked me to read it to her. When I finished, she
said, “It seems so real.” The storyline and illustrations reflected a Black
mother and her young daughter doing routine things such as reading
together, eating soul food and Chinese food, and getting dressed. The
child’s hair is in cornrows with beads and ribbons and the mother has a
short afro. The mother and child are both beautifully brown. Jaliyah’s
unprompted comment and enjoyment of the book confirm the importance
of all children being able to see themselves in books and in the curriculum.
Presumably, most of the stories that had been read in school seemed con-
trived to her. Such invisibility of one’s lived experiences (while amplifying
the experiences of Whites) is harmful and violates the ethical code, “First
do no harm.” As I close this chapter, I want to reiterate the need for
thoughtful changes to teacher education programs that are guided by
frameworks that are emancipatory for Black children and all children. It is
not enough to add a few “multicultural” books here or there, but the total
experience (e.g., teachers’ interactions with students, all content areas, dis-
ciplinary policies) must be carefully rethought and transformed. Racial
issues and differential treatment of children by race (intentionally or unin-
tentionally) cannot be ignored in a society that institutionalizes racism
(Lee, 2008).
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CONCLUSION
While the issues addressed in this chapter are not unique to the early child-
hood years, this stage is a foundational starting point because young chil-
dren are very impressionable and it may indeed be possible to ward off
some of the cumulative, counterproductive effects of schooling that are
often compounded over time (Noguera, 2001). This chapter is intended to
propose changes that to teacher preparation programs that emphasize
the continuous need to illuminate counter-hegemonic policies and practices
that undermine prevailing dominant, negative narratives about Black
people. Teacher educators who seek to actively fight against oppression
and to be guided by ethical principles, and the right thing to do, will hope-
fully be motived to develop courage to speak up in an informed and collec-
tive manner with others who wish to prepare teaching populations to teach
for racial equity. This is not an intellectual journey, but one that requires
action. It is not enough to remain silent or to be an “intellectual bystander”
while children’s lives are being damaged each day.
We did not create this world, but, as teacher educators, we are in the
process of recreating and shaping it. Teacher educators will need to under-
stand that education is not a neutral, “objective” process. It can serve vari-
ous political and cultural interests, including socialization, social control,
assimilation, domination, liberation, or transformation (King, 1991). Early
childhood teacher education coursework should have students learn to
argue from various epistemological stances. For example, history should be
told from various perspectives not just the typical Eurocratic ones
(King & Swartz, 2016). Strategies such as using dialogue poems to tell stor-
ies from different perspectives (The Center for Advanced Research on
Language Acquisition, 2006) should be best practices featured in all teacher
education programs and implemented in all classrooms. Ethnomathematics
and ethnoscience should be included in Mathematics and Science Methods
courses (Boutte & Hill, 2006;Boutte, Kelly-Jackson, & Johnson, 2010).
This would entail demonstrating how mathematics and science is practiced
within Black culture (e.g., teaching about geometric tessellations and pat-
terns through hairstyles, African baskets, African fabrics; teaching about
geometry through graffiti). Culturally relevant pedagogy and restorative
disciplinary approaches should be taught. Pre-service and in-service
teachers need to be taught about Critical Literacy versus literacy for its
own sake. Finally, for sociopolitical reasons, teacher educators can demon-
strate how teaching about issues of equity is grounded in standards like
the Common Core Standards. For example, teaching about multiple
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perspectives is but one of many standards that can be used to teach African
American history.
In sum, teacher educators have an ethical responsibility to teach pre-
service and in-service teachers about power, privilege, and hegemony. The
difficulty of this task is inherent to the task itself, particularly because pre-
service teachers, the majority of whom are White females, are often people
for whom “traditional” schooling has worked well. It may be difficult for
them to identify with others for whom schooling is not working well. Here
it will help to appeal to their desire to effectively teach all children and to
change the persistent social and academic outcomes for Black children.
Examining long-term academic and social outcomes of Black children in
school and discussing alternative frameworks and pedagogies that have
been shown to work can go a long way in doing no harm.
NOTES
1. Although this chapter specifically focuses on African Americans, the discus-
sion can readily and easily be extrapolated to other minoritized groups.
2. Microaggressions refer to the brief verbal, behavioral, or environmental indig-
nities and assaults that communicate hostile, derogatory, denigrating, and hurtful
messages to people of color (Allen, 2012;Solorzano, Ceja, & Yosso, 2000;Sue
et al., 2007). Microaggressions have “deleterious and long term consequences”
(Torres & Driscoll, 2010, p. 1095). Macroaggressions refer to institutionalized sys-
tems and structures within P-12 districts and schools that perpetuate racial
microaggressions.
3. My grandchildren call me “Dear,” which is short for “My dear.”
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