ArticlePublisher preview available

The Association of Parent-Reported Executive Functioning, Reading, and Math Is Explained by Nature, Not Nurture

Developmental Psychology

October 2020
56(12)

DOI:10.1037/dev0001126

Authors:

Rasheda Haughbrook

Florida State University

Elsje van Bergen

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

According to the hybrid model (van Bergen, van der Leij, & de Jong, 2014), the significant association among executive functioning (EF), reading, and math may be partially explained by parent-reported EF’s role as a common risk and/or protective factor in reading and math (dis)abilities. The current study used a sample of 434 twin pairs (Mage 􏰀 12.12) from Florida to conduct genetically sensitive modeling on children’s parent-reported EF, reading, and math skills to determine the common and unique etiological influences among the three domains. EF was measured through parent report and reading and math were measured with standardized test scores drawn from Florida’s Progress Monitoring and Reporting Network as well as standardized parent-administered assessments collected by mail. Our trivariate Cholesky modeling showed that no matter which parent-reported EF component was modeled, the overlap of parent-reported EF with reading and math was explained by common genetic influences. Supplemental analysis suggested that this might in part be due to general parent report of problem behaviors. Additionally, significant environmental influences, with higher shared environmental overlap than previous work, were also found for reading and math. Findings indicate that poor parent-reported EF is a common cognitive risk factor for reading and math disabilities, which is driven by a shared genetic basis among all three domains.

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The Association of Parent-Reported Executive Functioning, Reading, and

Math Is Explained by Nature, Not Nurture

Mia C. Daucourt and Rasheda Haughbrook

Florida State University

Elsje van Bergen

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

Sara A. Hart

Florida State University

According to the hybrid model (van Bergen, van der Leij, & de Jong, 2014), the significant association

among executive functioning (EF), reading, and math may be partially explained by parent-reported EF’s

role as a common risk and/or protective factor in reading and math (dis)abilities. The current study used

a sample of 434 twin pairs (M

age

⫽12.12) from Florida to conduct genetically sensitive modeling on

children’s parent-reported EF, reading, and math skills to determine the common and unique etiological

influences among the three domains. EF was measured through parent report and reading and math were

measured with standardized test scores drawn from Florida’s Progress Monitoring and Reporting

Network as well as standardized parent-administered assessments collected by mail. Our trivariate

Cholesky modeling showed that no matter which parent-reported EF component was modeled, the

overlap of parent-reported EF with reading and math was explained by common genetic influences.

Supplemental analysis suggested that this might in part be due to general parent report of problem

behaviors. Additionally, significant environmental influences, with higher shared environmental overlap

than previous work, were also found for reading and math. Findings indicate that poor parent-reported

EF is a common cognitive risk factor for reading and math disabilities, which is driven by a shared

genetic basis among all three domains.

Keywords: executive functioning, reading, math, twins

Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dev0001126.supp

During a single class, schoolchildren are expected to sit in their

seats and not speak out of turn, while following multistep instruc-

tions, alternating attention between different assignments, and

integrating new and previously learned information on demand

(Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2006). The coordination of such

complex demands requires a high degree of self-regulatory ability

in order to adapt one’s thoughts and actions to respond to current

contextual needs. The mechanism that drives goal-directed self-

regulation, like controlling one’s behavioral impulses based on

classroom rules or focusing one’s attention to listen to a teacher’s

lesson, is hypothesized to be the brain’s central executive, or

executive functioning (EF; Baddeley, 1998). Specifically, EF rep-

resents the processing efficiency of an individual’s cognitive con-

trol system (Stanovich, 2009;Toplak, West, & Stanovich, 2013),

which is driven by prefrontal cortex functioning (Welsh & Pen-

nington, 1988;Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser, 1991), and proffers

individuals with the ability to adapt their cognitive processes and

behaviors to their present goals (Toplak et al., 2013).

In terms of academic achievement, EF has been shown to have

significant associations with both reading (Daucourt, Schatsch-

neider, Connor, Al Otaiba, & Hart, 2018) and math (Clark,

Pritchard, & Woodward, 2010), which may be attributable to EF’s

role as a common cognitive risk and protective factor among

learning (dis)abilities. In support of the principle of common

underlying causes among learning disabilities, previous work on

reading and math has shown that students already experiencing an

academic skill deficit in one domain are four to five times more

likely to experience a deficit in an additional academic domain

compared to typically developing students (Landerl & Moll,

2010). On the other hand, high EF skills may help children do

well in both the reading and math domains (Ten Eycke &

This article was published Online First October 22, 2020.

XMia C. Daucourt and Rasheda Haughbrook, Department of Psychol-

ogy, Florida State University; XElsje van Bergen, Department of Bio-

logical Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; XSara A. Hart, De-

partment of Psychology and Florida Center for Reading Research, Florida

State University.

We thank the twins and their families for making this research possible.

This research was supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National

Institute of Child Health & Human Development Grant HD052120. Views

expressed herein are those of the authors and have neither been reviewed

nor approved by the granting agencies. Mia C. Daucourt was supported by

the Legacy Fellowship from the Florida State University, Rasheda Haugh-

brook was supported by the McKnight Fellowship from the Florida Edu-

cation Fund, and Elsje van Bergen was supported by the VENI Fellowship

(451-15-017) from NWO.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mia C.

Daucourt, Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 West

Call Street, Tallahassee, FL 32304. E-mail: daucourt@psy.fsu.edu

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Developmental Psychology

ISSN: 0012-1649 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dev0001126

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Given that countless studies have documented the wide-ranging benefits of self-regulation, determining if and how self-regulation can be improved is an important scientific and societal priority. Existing theories suggest that the deterioration of self-regulation is partially shaped by perceptions of effort. Therefore, one promising way to sustain self-regulation may be to cultivate a growth mindset, which has been shown to affect behavior in part by altering effort attributions. Although growth mindsets-the belief that a given trait can be improved through practice-have been studied extensively, particularly in the domain of intelligence, little research has examined the effects of promoting a growth mindset specifically about self-regulation. Here five studies test how promoting a growth mindset of self-regulation impacts actual self-regulation in daily life and the laboratory. In Study 1, relative to an active control that received relationship training, an intensive self-regulation training program emphasizing a growth mindset led participants to persevere longer on impossible anagrams, which was partially mediated by altering attributions of mental fatigue. Relatively, the self-regulation training also led participants to notice more opportunities for self-control in daily life and more successfully resist everyday temptations. The subsequent four studies isolated and abbreviated the growth mindset manipulation, demonstrated improved persistence and decreased effort avoidance, and attempted to further examine the critical mediators. Collectively, results indicate that a growth mindset of self-regulation can change attributions and allocation of effort in meaningful ways that may affect the willingness to attempt challenging tasks and the perseverance required to complete them. Extensive research indicates that self-regulation-the ability to direct one's attention, thoughts, moods, and behavior in line with one's personal goals-is among the most critical skills in life. High levels of self-regulation predict better academic achievement, greater professional success and income, stronger interpersonal relationships, more fulfillment, and better health (. Given that self-regulation underlies such a diversity of highly valued outcomes, it would be of great value to identify successful interventions that can allow individuals to effectively develop and exert such control. An emerging consensus is forming that one powerful determinant of self-regulation is how an individual experiences and interprets effort

The Association of Parent-Reported Executive Functioning, Reading, and Math Is Explained by Nature, Not Nurture

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