Plans and the structure of behavior.
... Beyond creating awareness, feedback allows for behavioural adjustments during goal pursuit. The testoperate-test-exit (T.O.T.E.) feedback loop (Miller, Galanter, and Pribram 1960) is one of the central ideas that describes how feedback influences behaviour change. When people perform an action, they test it and receive feedback from the testing. ...
... The data are consistent with the process of a T.O.T.E. loop (Miller, Galanter, and Pribram 1960), where interviewees tested their performance against their goals to determine if they had achieved them. When they came up short, they made adjustments in their behaviours toward achieving their goals. ...
... The T.O.T.E. feedback loop (Miller, Galanter, and Pribram 1960) works on a similar assumption. The current findings also affirm the ingredients of self-regulation that Baumeister and Vohs (2007) identified: standards, monitoring, self-regulatory strength, and motivation to meet the standard. ...
This paper examines how older adults interact with fitness trackers and how that interaction influences their physical activity. We carried out qualitative interviews with 22 individuals between the ages of 55 and 72 who had used fitness trackers as part of a six-week field experiment investigating the effects of feedback from fitness trackers and the social influence of their spouses. From their comments, we derived an explorative process model explaining the mechanisms and the four stages of effects arising from personalised feedback, namely, cognitive, affective, conative, and intuitive. These effects were grouped into internal and external dimensions. Three types of goal-related decisions determined whether interviewees moved from the internal responses of cognition and emotion to the external response of behaviour change. The findings from this study elucidate how real-time personalised feedback can motivate physical activity among older adults and highlight the goal-related factors that influence this effect.
... The term "working memory" (WM) was proposed by Miller et al. (1960) in reference to the retention of plans for action, which they also referred to as "intentions". They wrote (p. ...
... The WM models of Miller et al. (1960) and Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) were followed by the "multicomponent model" (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974). The multicomponent model had three parts: a verbal working memory ("phonological loop"), a visual-spatial working memory ("visuospatial sketchpad"), and the "central executive", which included a system for controlling the focus of attention. ...
... Humans have WM for many, possibly all, sensory modalities, plus WM for other important information, such as intended actions (Miller et al., 1960;D'Esposito and Postle, 2015). There is published evidence for: ...
All brain processes that generate behaviour, apart from reflexes, operate with information that is in an “activated” state. This activated information, which is known as working memory (WM), is generated by the effect of attentional processes on incoming information or information previously stored in short-term or long-term memory (STM or LTM). Information in WM tends to remain the focus of attention; and WM, attention and STM together enable information to be available to mental processes and the behaviours that follow on from them. WM and attention underpin all flexible mental processes, such as solving problems, making choices, preparing for opportunities or threats that could be nearby, or simply finding the way home. Neither WM nor attention are necessarily conscious, and both may have evolved long before consciousness. WM and attention, with similar properties, are possessed by humans, archerfish, and other vertebrates; jumping spiders, honey bees, and other arthropods; and members of other clades, whose last common ancestor (LCA) is believed to have lived more than 600 million years ago. It has been reported that very similar genes control the development of vertebrate and arthropod brains, and were likely inherited from their LCA. Genes that control brain development are conserved because brains generate adaptive behaviour. However, the neural processes that generate behaviour operate with the activated information in WM, so WM and attention must have existed prior to the evolution of brains. It is proposed that WM and attention are widespread amongst animal species because they are phylogenetically conserved mechanisms that are essential to all mental processing, and were inherited from the LCA of vertebrates, arthropods, and some other animal clades.
... The three fundamental relational needs are put aside, and the focus is on the terminal goal of maintaining the relationship regardless of all the deleterious costs to their well-being, mental and physical health, and sense of safety. According to the goal-oriented theories [37][38][39][40], as shown by Pugliese et al. [19] and consistent with the clinical observations [21,25], a key factor of these relationships is the presence of an internal conflict between the goal of maintaining the relationship (protecting the traumatic and pathological relationship) and the goal of interrupting the relationship (protecting themselves). In the PAD condition, there is a common belief that self-sacrifice and dysregulated altruism are a way to "cure" a problematic partner. ...
... This profile is based on clinical observations and the results of a first pilot study [19]. This profile has been built referring to the theory of goal-oriented behaviors [37][38][39][40]. According to this theory, goals have a pivotal role in explaining psychopathology. ...
... The general aim of this paper has been to fill this gap, helping professionals to recognize the prototypical profile of people with PAD, meant as an IPV risk factor, and intervene before the cycle of violence is activated [21,46]. Hence, the objectives of the paper were mainly four: define the PAD construct, present a cognitive model of PAD based on goal-oriented theories [37][38][39][40], identify the prototypal characteristics of TADs (such as goals, anti-goals, and dysfunctional self-other beliefs), and specific TAD's profiles (Saver, Unworthy, Traumatic and Mixed). We believe that PAD is a fundamental psychological antecedent and a contributing cause of IPV. ...
In the last decade, Pathological Affective Dependence (PAD)—as a risk factor for Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)—has undergone considerable attention among clinical and social psychologists. However, the psychological nature of PAD has been described in discordant terms throughout the literature. We try to give a clear definition of the construct (1), theorize a first cognitive model of PAD (2), and describe the prototypical characteristics of a pathological affective dependent (in terms of goals, anti-goals, and dysfunctional self-other beliefs) based on goal-oriented theories (3). We finally present (4) the resulting specific TADs (typical affective dependent) profiles (Saver, Unworthy, Traumatic, and Mixed). We believe that our manuscript on the PAD makes a significant contribution to achieve the fifth UN Sustainable Development Goal aimed at eliminating “all forms of violence against all women”: in fact, understanding the psychological risk factors of IPV as PAD is an essential protective factor for designing effective prevention social strategies against IPV. Moreover, this work contributes to achieving one of the “outcome targets” of the sixteenth UN Sustainable Development Goal. It is dedicated to the promotion of “peaceful and inclusive societies”, through the reduction of all forms of violence and the protection of children from abuse. Indeed, IPV strongly affects (physical and mental) health and social sustainability of well-being. However, empirical studies on this topic are limited and there is a lack of a theoretical model of PAD. This work represents a theoretical starting point for a broader project aimed at building a cognitive-behavioral protocol and social interventions for the reduction of negative consequences on IPV victims.
... Bien que déjà évoquée quelques années plus tôt par Miller et al. (1960), c'est Alan ...
... The recall from WM is therefore governed by the two recovery processes, but it is the direct access which constitutes the most privileged process. This finding is in line with the widespread conception of WM as a buffer maintaining, in view of online processing, a small amount of information in a state of activation allowing its direct and fast access (Baddeley, 1986;Miller et al., 1960;Newell, 1990). Recollection is affected by CL, which is therefore a determining factor in accessing and maintaining information, as described in the TBRS model (Barrouillet, Bernardin, et al., 2004). ...
... Thus, even if recall from WM is governed by a duality of retrieval processes (the two-stage model provided a better fit than a single-stage model), direct access is the default mode of retrieval from WM. These results agree with the design of WM as a buffer maintaining a small amount of information in a state that allows its direct access (Baddeley, 1986;Miller et al., 1960;Newell, 1990). According to the trichotomous model and the FTT (Reyna & Brainerd, 1995), recollection is supported by the reinstatement of verbatim memory traces that encode the surface form of the items. ...
Our results indicate that active maintenance in WM largely favors a process of direct access to verbatim- type representations rather than an engagement in a reconstruction process. The implication of knowledge in LTM can improve the encoding of these representations, as well as their reactivation in WM, but their beneficial effects are not attributable to the availability of the attentional refreshment mechanism as currently described in theoretical models of WM.
... To answer these questions, it is possible to refer to the theory of goal-directed behavior (see Miceli & Castelfranchi, 1995;Miller, Gallanter, & Pribram, 1960;Castelfranchi & Parisi, 1980;Weiner, 2010) and to the central role of goals in explaining the development of psychopathological symptoms. ...
... Given these many limitations of the existing instruments, a psychometrically robust scale is needed that assesses PAD using a strong theoretical framework that is consistent with recent developments in clinical psychology. Consequently, the present study aimed to fill this gap, and develop a preliminary version of a psychometrically robust scale for assessing PAD using a strong theoretical framework (theory goal-directed behavior, see Miceli & Castefranchi, 1995;Miller, Gallanter, & Pribram, 1960;Castelfranchi & Parisi, 1980;Weiner, 2010) and is consistent with years of clinical observations. Using these four factors to understand the psychological functioning of TAD would likely lead to more reliable decision-making in this area and more consistency across studies. ...
... Г. Миллер, Е. Галантер (Galanter) и К. Прибрам (Pribram) (Miller et al., 1960) раскрыли взаимосвязь между целями и планами, а в 1960 г. опубликовали модель T. O. T. E. («Test -Operate -Test -Exit»), описывающую взаимосвязи структур восприятия и поведения у животных и человека. Согласно модели, программа поведения состоит из иерархически расположенных этапов тестирования и действии. ...
... Ключевое значение в модели принадлежит петле обратной связи, посредством которой происходит коррекция планов действий на этапе тестирования. При достижении соответствия текущего состояния эталонному (задуманной цели) процесс завершается, наступает фаза «выхода» (Miller et al., 1960). ...
Введение. В статье представлен обзор категории «цель» с психологической точки зрения, раскрывается состояние исследования целей в настоящее время. Обобщены результаты порядка 100 литературных источников, включая эмпирические исследования целей. Предпринимается попытка собрать определения цели и обобщить их в единый конструкт. Показаны структура и свойства целей, отношения между средствами и целями, иерархия целей и подцелей, взаимосвязь между целями и планами, процессы постановки и достижения целей. Новизна работы заключается в уточнении категории «цель» с учетом имеющихся на данный момент научных знаний, конструировании психологического феномена «цель» на основе ключевых характеристик, используемых в литературе, выявлены дефициты в сфере изучения целей. Теоретическое обоснование. Теоретические наработки психологии в данной области используются во всех сферах деятельности – в образовании, на производстве, в спорте, системе здравоохранения и быту. Внимание уделяется конфликту целей и распределению ресурсов между несколькими целями, модели T.O.T.E., модели фаз действия «Рубикон», теории разворота Аптера, концепции психологической дистанции до цели, теме целенаправленного поведения с кибернетических позиций. Результаты. Автор дает исторический экскурс, касающийся категории цель конца XIX–XX вв., также отражены результаты исследований современного времени. На основании проведенного анализа установлено, что категория «цель» в XX в. бурно развивается и становится одним из звеньев мотивационной сферы человека. Обсуждение результатов. Категория «цель» в психологии является объектом исследования различных психологических школ и направлений и имеет ключевое значение в прогнозировании поведения, занимает одно из центральных мест в психологии личности. На данном этапе развития психологической науки недостаточно изучены вопросы динамики системы целей в различной экологической среде и во времени, характер связей в системе целей раскрыт в виде иерархических схем, без учета весов самих связей.
... 10 2.1.1 Pracovná pamäť Miller, Galanter a Pribram (1960) používali pojem pracovná pamäť (PP) na označenie pamäti, ktorá umožňuje plánovanie a realizáciu správania (teda interakcie jedinca s prostredím). Vďaka pracovnej pamäti sa tento plán dostane do centra pozornosti a je tak riadený schopnosťou spracovania informácií. ...
... S rozvojom výskumných metód sa približne od 60-tych rokoch minulého storočia objavujú nové poznatky v oblasti psychológie, najmä v súvislosti s problematikou rozdelenia pozornosti či spracovávania informácií kognitívnymi procesmi (porovnaj napr. Miller, Galanter & Pribram 1960, Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968, Schank & Abelson 1977. V tomto kontexte sa o tlmočenie začínajú zaujímať psychológovia a preto boli cieľom raného výskumu tlmočenia predovšetkým fenomény, ktoré umožňujú simultánne tlmočenie, t. j. rozdelenie pozornosti tlmočníka, jeho časový odstup od rečníka atď. ...
Not every student can and wants to become an interpreter. It is based on individual personality traits, motivation and abilities, but it is also related to the quality
of education, the influence of teachers and other role models. Last but not least,
market demands also determine the employability of the interpreter in his/her
profession, and other times, coincidental life events may play a crucial role.
The monograph looks at the academic training of future interpreters through
the prism of the interdisciplinary empirical research findings in the field of cognitive functions and personality traits and abilities. We attempted to interpret the
presented conclusions in the context of their significance for interpreting training
or rather training of future interpreters for their profession, but also in the context
of student personality shaping in general.
In the structure of cognitive skills and personality, there are some aspects that
can be relatively well shaped in the educational process. Others, on the other
hand, are relatively stable and resistant to the process of education and selfeducation. To determine the extent to which the selected aspects can be influenced
by training, it is necessary to identify and characterize the various levels of the
cognitive processes and personality structure. In the monograph, we focused on
cognitive skills, cognitive style, character traits, motivational structure and personality skills that are applied in the interpreting process.
Cognitive skills can be understood as partial cognitive mechanisms controlled
by the central executive of working memory (or activated long-term memory).
Similarly to the existence of capacity and time limits related to working memory,
the mental energy we have as interpreters is also limited (Gile 1995). And since
we often work at the limit of saturation of this mental energy in the interpreting
process, it is crucial to effectively regulate limited cognitive resources so that interpreting performance does not deteriorate.
Research suggests that the automation of partial processes relieves mental capacity since automated processes (as procedural memory) do not require intense
attention. Simultaneity as a parallel realization of cognitive and linguistic processes can be largely automated and is applied in both basic modes of interpreting. However, compared to simultaneous interpreting, processes related to the
ability to abstract, the ability to understand more complex contexts, the ability to
organize and structure information in long-term memory and their efficient recalling are to a larger extent applied in consecutive interpreting. In simultaneous
interpreting, the ability to react quickly and promptly and flexibility in regulating the fluctuation range of attention under conditions of cognitive and linguistic
processes taking place parallelly are likely to be applied to a larger extent than in
consecutive interpreting.
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The basic cognitive equipment of interpreting students (i.e. cognitive skills and
mental abilities) undoubtedly affects the effectiveness of training and the related
interpreting performance. However, many of these skills and abilities, e.g. working memory coordination processes, mental flexibility or perceptual speed, or
even fluid intelligence, can be developed during training (Macnamara & Conway
2016).
At the same time, however, there are mechanisms that are key to interpreting, but are more resistant to training in terms of academic training lasting several semesters. One of them is, for example, the ability to deal with interference
and disturbing elements. In this case, it is a characteristic that may be related to
the cognitive style of the individual, representing field dependence/independence as a component of the personality responsible for the overall organization of
information (Nakonečný 1997). The cognitive style of impulsivity/reflexivity is
probably to some extent related to décalage and error rate in interpreting.
Speech production, less prone to interference losses, is also likely to be part of
the interpreter’s expertise (Moser-Mercer 2000), which he/she acquires by overcoming automation (Ericsson 2000) during long-term, systematic and intensive
training.
Interpreting performance, but also the speed and efficiency of acquiring and
developing skills and abilities during training are influenced by both internal and
external factors. Important internal determinants of performance are, among other things, motivational aspects of personality (performance motive, orientation
of motivation), physical and mental predispositions. In relation to motivation, it
seems that an increased level of motivation (performance motive) is needed to
mobilize performance-oriented forces. At the same time, it is an important finding that the advantage belongs to those interpreters or students who experience
anxiety in a particular interpreting task (state anxiety), but do not suffer from
high trait anxiety, or individuals who are anxious but master effective strategies
for managing this anxiety in the interpreting process (Kurz 1996, Hodáková 2020).
External determinants include environmental and social impacts (e.g. training
quality). An appropriate combination of all these influences can subsequently
relatively reliably predict the readiness of students for the interpreter profession.
In the monograph, we also dealt with stress factors that affect professional
interpreters and interpreting students. And although the nature and intensity
of stressful situations are quite different in these two groups, for the long-term
successful performance of the interpreter profession but also overall satisfaction
in the professional and private life, it is important to master coping strategies
and principles of mental hygiene. In our opinion, the academic training of future
interpreters can also offer room for such a comprehensive development of students’ personalities.
/119/
When reflecting the research findings in the training of interpreting students,
it is also important to address the question of whether and how the final thesis,
which is one of the prerequisites for successful completion of studies, can be useful for students preparing for the practical interpreting profession and not primarily for an academic career. In this context, it can be stated that in the conditions of
Slovak universities, there is a tradition of elaborating final theses on the topic of
interpreting. We also tried to integrate some interesting findings of student theses
into individual chapters of the monograph. Such theses provide students with the
opportunity to develop their thematic competence and broaden their competence
profile, which increases the chances of their employability on the market. At the
same time, taking part in the research in the role of participants can provide them
with effective feedback on their strengths and weaknesses and opportunities to
develop their own potential. Effective practical interpreting training based on
relevant research findings can also help them to a significant extent.
In all these cases, the teacher of interpreting can have a positive effect on students by his/her own practical experience with the interpreting profession (as
a role model), the ability to translate the conclusions of empirical research into the
didactic process (as a facilitator of cognitive and personal development), and last
but not least, by his/her own passion for research (as a leader).
... The generation of new knowledge via the composition of multiple informative elements is a hallmark of natural intelligence and underpins a variety of sophisticated cognitive processes [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Compositionality enables complex representations to be formed combinatorially from simpler components efficiently and flexibly. ...
... For example, the vector representation v A of an element A depends on B in the composition v A (B) • v B and must be modified if composing with C as in v A (C) • v C . This necessity for a multiplicity of representations of the same object undermines the flexibility and efficiency associated with compositional representation [1,2]. Indeed it is hypothesized that nonlinear computations would be required for a fully compositional theory of grid coding [57]. ...
Neurons in the medial entorhinal cortex exhibit multiple, periodically organized, firing fields which collectively appear to form an internal representation of space. Neuroimaging data suggest that this grid coding is also present in other cortical areas such as the prefrontal cortex, indicating that it may be a general principle of neural functionality in the brain. In a recent analysis through the lens of dynamical systems theory, we showed how grid coding can lead to the generation of a diversity of empirically observed sequential reactivations of hippocampal place cells corresponding to traversals of cognitive maps. Here, we extend this sequence generation model by describing how the synthesis of multiple dynamical systems can support compositional cognitive computations. To empirically validate the model, we simulate two experiments demonstrating compositionality in space or in time during sequence generation. Finally, we describe several neural network architectures supporting various types of compositionality based on grid coding and highlight connections to recent work in machine learning leveraging analogous techniques.
... Mental representations allow thinking in an off-line fashion, namely in the absence of activity-relevant interaction with the environment. When deployed to explain human problemsolving, the human ability for such off-line cognition led some to conceptualize mental representations as analogous to computer programs in that they adequately specify the sequence of operations needed for task completion (Miller et al., 1960) or as adequate descriptions of a desired end state, which consequently motivated the long line of HCI research on plan and intent recognition (e.g., Allen, 1999;Horvitz et al., 1998). ...
Researchers increasingly explore deploying brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) for able-bodied users, with the motivation of accessing mental states more directly than allowed by existing body-mediated interaction. This motivation seems to contradict the long-standing HCI emphasis on embodiment, namely the general claim that the body is crucial for cognition. This paper addresses this apparent contradiction through a review of insights from embodied cognition and interaction. We first critically examine the recent interest in BCIs and identify the extent cognition in the brain is integrated with the wider body as a central concern for research. We then define the implications of an integrated view of cognition for interface design and evaluation. A counterintuitive conclusion we draw is that embodiment per se should not imply a preference for body-mediated interaction over BCIs. It can instead guide research by 1) providing body-grounded explanations for BCI performance, 2) proposing evaluation considerations that are neglected in modular views of cognition, and 3) through the direct transfer of its design insights to BCIs. We finally reflect on HCI’s understanding of embodiment and identify the neural dimension of embodiment as hitherto overlooked.
... In contrast, STM includes the ability to hold limited information temporarily in a retrievable state, typically around 30 seconds (Cascella and Al Khalili, 2021;Cowan, 2015). As defined by Miller et al. (1960), MW is the memory used to plan and execute behaviours. Cascella and Al Khalili (2021) further summarise that WM is a set of processes involving the functional memory element of the STM. ...
This systematic review examines the empirical evidence from previous fMRI studies on brain activation areas for learning and memory patterns for numerals to understand the question of the brain activation areas found from previous fMRI studies on learning and memory patterns for numerals. Relevant articles in the fields of psychology, neuroscience, paediatrics, and education were extracted from the PubMed database. Keyword searches included "learning", "memory", "brain", "digits", "numerals", and "fMRI". The database search was conducted from July 2022 to August 2022. The data collected was limited to English texts, and studies involving animal experiments were excluded. The remaining articles were screened based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Articles included in this review were selected from the database search between 1999 to 2022. Ten full-text articles were identified and evaluated. Examination of brain activation regions in learning and memory patterns for numerals revealed that 30% of studies (n=3) found activation in the hippocampus, inferior parietal lobe and parietal lobe. Subsequently, 20% of the studies (n=2) found activation in the anterior cingulate, caudate nucleus, cerebellum, frontal lobe, inferior frontal gyrus, inferior temporal gyrus, medial temporal lobe, occipital lobe, prefrontal cortex, striatum, and thalamus. The frontoparietal network is considered important for working memory, while the limbic areas are essential for learning and memory. Therefore, future studies should look more closely at the brain's functional and structural regions involved in learning and a more specific memory system.
... Given that human beings constantly work to adapt to reality and pursue a sense of internal and external safety, every human activity is regulated by a plan comprising goals and strategies (Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960;Weiss et al., 1986). Patients come to therapy with a set of needs and priorities and an idea of how they want to engage with the work. ...
This study presents an overview of the development of the main psychoanalytic conceptions regarding safety, an aspect that has received increasing attention within the psychoanalytic literature. After describing the hypotheses of Sigmund Freud, Joseph Sandler, John Bowlby, and Harry Stack Sullivan, the study focuses on the ideas proposed by Joseph Weiss and on control-mastery theory (CMT), a cognitive-dynamic relational theory of mental functioning, psychopathology, and
psychotherapy. Unlike other models, CMT stresses that human beings need to feel that both themselves and the people they love are safe; each person, however, may need something different to feel safe. Two clinical vignettes are used to
illustrate how the therapist can understand, from the outset of the therapeutic process, how to help the patient feel safe, stressing the case-specific nature of the conditions of safety.
... The goal plan is a hierarchical process that controls the sequence of operations (Miller, Galanter & Pribram, 1960). In design problems, designers have a general design method stored in their long-term memory called a general goal plan, which consists of a sequence of general goals to be accomplished. ...
A design consists of a series of design processes and their results in a physical
form, which is called a design product. Studies on style done by historians, critics, and
theorists have commonly paid attention to design products. For them, style is a mode of expression in a work of art, and they use style to characterize relationships among
different persons, periods, or regions. In this thesis, style is studied from a design
processes point of view, and concentrations are on how a style, especially an individual style, comes out from design processes. The scope of design processes in this thesis was limited to the processes of developing a conceptual scheme in a preliminary design stage. Special attention was paid to explore the underlying psychological mechanisms that cause the formation of a style.
The method of inquiry was from cognitive science. The operational definition, the
degree of style, and the measurement of style were developed to complete a fundamental theory of style, which was finally justified by psychology experiments. Four experiments were conducted in this regard with pictures of architecture used throughout as illustrations. In experiment 1 the operational definition was tested by asking college students to sort out pictures of buildings having the same style. Results showed that style is recognized by the common features present in pictures. In experiment 2 the degree of style was studied by asking students to sort out pictures into four resemblance scales. Results showed that the degree of style is in proportion to the number of common features present.
In experiment 3 the measurement of style was observed by having an architectural
historian identify a style in pictures that had various feature combinations. Data showed that three features are the lower boundary for style recognition. Experiment 4 tested the degree of distortion to understand the recognizability of a style. When an expert was asked to recognize distorted pictures, results showed that up to 40% of geometric distortion of a style makes it barely recognizable. Results suggest that if an artifact has at least three features, a style exists. If four common features replicate in a minimum of three different artifacts, an individual style is recognizable.
In regard to the causes of style, the approach was to develop a cognitive model to
predict invariable procedures that occur in design processes on one hand, and to sort out possible design process variables on the other to predict the underlying mechanisms involved. The existence of these constant procedures and design process variables in design processes had been explored and verified in a case study on a famous American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright (Chan, 1990b). More protocol analyses were conducted to observe the function and interaction of design process variables to explain the formation of a style.
The formation of a style was hypothesized as the constant applications of some
design process variables in a design process. These variables are design constraints,
search methods, goals, and the sequential order of applying these variables. The constant applications of the variables ultimately yield common features that define a style. This concept was tested by protocols of a practicing architect collected from laboratory experiments, which included a series of residential designs subjected to sequential changes of design conditions. The method of data analysis was to map protocol data into a cognitive model to observe the underlying mechanisms and variables. Results showed that common features (in design products) and variables (in design processes) appeared across designs. Moreover, there are correlations between these features and variables. Therefore, the style of the subject in this thesis was identified according to the common features and variables.
From the evidence, it is argued first that a style results from certain actions and
interactions of design process variables. Because of the constant applications of these variables, constant cognitive phenomena appear and consequently produce constant forms by which a style is manifested. Second, a style should be described by means of the constant features in design products and by the constantly appearing variables in design processes.
... For the development of passenger assistance systems, it is relevant to know which mechanisms influence discomfort in order to provide appropriate information in relevant situations. According to the cognitive passenger discomfort model introduced in Ittner et al. (2020) (adapted in Figure 1), the driver regulates the driving task in a feedbackloop (Miller et al., 1960;Carver and Scheier, 2002) with the environmental situation, where (s) he has full information about the own cognitive state at each point of the process (Figure 1 bottom, "Driver" box, without the crosses). The driver has information about his/her attention focus (Input-Function), his/her own driving experience and driving style preferences (Reference Value), about thresholds used for the estimation of a situation's criticality (Comparator), and their planned actions (Output-Function). ...
The front seat passenger is often neglected when developing support systems for cars. There exist few examples of systems that provide information or interaction possibilities specifically to those passengers. Previous research indicated that the passive role of the passenger can frequently lead to a feeling of discomfort, potentially caused by missing information and missing control with respect to the driving situation. This paper investigates if and how different aspects of cognitive processes as defined in a previously published model can be approached with a technical system to reduce discomfort in passengers. Five prototypical passenger assistance systems are created which provide missing information (for example about the attentiveness of the driver) or the possibility to have more influence as a passenger. In a static simulator study with N = 40 participants, these systems were investigated with respect to their influence on measures of discomfort. Participants experienced in a counterbalanced order car following and braking scenarios on the highway with different time headways (within-subjects), with and without one of the passenger assistance systems (between-subjects). Based on the subjective measures for each experienced situation, three systems were identified as particularly useful in reducing discomfort. These displayed the attentiveness of the driver, the safety distance to a vehicle in front or provided the possibility to signal the driver that the recent safety distance is too small. These best proposals significantly reduced passenger discomfort in the tested Following and Braking scenarios for different time headways. In the post inquiry, more than 64% of the passengers confirmed the helpfulness of the rated system in reducing their discomfort in each case and about 75% of the passengers reported an interest in using it in their vehicle. This demonstrates opportunities to improve the everyday driving experience beyond classical assistance systems by explicitly considering the needs of passengers.
... They studied telegraph operators and found that as operators became increasingly skilled, they used predictable patterns in word and phrase structures to more efficiently organize on-going actions. Later, researchers recognized that in order for behavior to be effective and fluid, action must be based on anticipated future states of the environment and of the self (Lashley, 1954;Miller et al., 1960). ...
... Essa causalidade responsabiliza a estrutura, enquanto modelo conceitual, por discernir os fatos e antecipar a reação decorrente de uma possível alteração em seus elementos. O refinamento desse entendimento lógico está em reconhecer que, quando se fala sobre qualquer plano e/ou sobre qualquer sistema de relações, não se define estrutura, visto que seu significado advém, essencialmente, de uma ordem finalista construída e sustentada por meio de um plano hierarquicamente ordenado que objetiva garantir sua existência e a continuidade (Dilthey, 1924;Miller et al., 2013;Moulyn, 1957;Spengler, 1918Spengler, /2013. ...
O ensino em Administração é tecnocrático e cúmplice de imposições capitalistas que alienam os indivíduos conforme desígnios do mercado. O esquivo a uma formação humanista, reflexiva e crítica prejudica a constituição de uma compreensão em relação a uma realidade que é socialmente construída a partir de uma capacidade de agência silenciada. O objetivo deste estudo teórico é abordar o conhecimento como meio de microemancipação perante as formas de alienação que permeiam a sociedade e a formação dos administradores. Propõe-se que o conceito de microemancipação, por intermédio da razão crítica, ilumine a consciência do administrador quanto à s consequências de suas intervenções socioeconômicas.
... Later, Epley and Gilovich (2001) developed the insufficient adjustment model, which describes the adjustment process via TOTE units (Miller et al., 1986), which were originally developed to explain a wide range of human behavior. TOTE in this case represents an acronym for the sequence of four successive phases, namely, Testing, Operating, Testing, and Exiting (Eisenberger et al., 2005). ...
After considering a more or less random number (i.e., an anchor), people’s subsequent estimates are biased toward that number. Such anchoring phenomena have been explained via an adjustment process that ends too early. We present a formalized version of the insufficient adjustment model, which captures the idea that decreasing the time that people have to adjust from anchors draws their estimates closer to the anchors. In four independent studies (N = 898), we could not confirm this effect of time on anchoring. Moreover, anchoring effects vanished in the two studies that deviated from classical paradigms by using a visual scale or a two-alternative forced-choice paradigm to allow faster responses. Although we propose that the current version of the insufficient adjustment model should be discarded, we believe that adjustment models hold the most potential for the future of anchoring research, and we make suggestions for what these might look like.
... This mental image is then used to analyse spatial cues and guide the navigation progressively along the path. Many authors have adopted, after this period, a more practical approach in regard the exploration of wayfinding and the analysis of human behavior and related processes to mental cards construction [29,78]. ...
This doctoral thesis, in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) field, addresses the question of mobility assistance for people with intellectual disability (ID). The main goal is to use a user-centred approach to design and evaluate a navigation aid system (NAS). Navigating independently through the environment is necessary to participate in different social activities and thus, it represents a key factor of social inclusion. Usually, people with ID encounter various navigation challenges, for instance: (1) Memorise a familiar path. (2) Remember and execute complex navigation instructions. (3) Poor adaptation when conditions change due to bus stop changes for example. In order to understand the human navigation behavior and different systems designed for this purpose, the state of the art was explored aiming to identify key elements to define the main research questions: What could be the contribution to improve human spatial navigation skills? How the spatial knowledge acquisition could be improved?How could an adapted navigation aid system be designed for people with ID? In this work, the pedestrian navigation behavior is explained using a detailed model of wayfinding, which is thecognitive process behind human navigation behavior. This model is designed to highlight people needs during the navigation task and offers an opportunity to design NAS to address them more efficiently. In addition, an ontology, about human navigation, was developed to define different key words used in this navigation field including the previous model. This ontology plays an important role in establishing a strong communication between different stakeholders that collaborate in this research field (researches in psychology, human-computer interaction, etc). Furthermore, new augmented reality (AR) glasses were tested to design a navigation aid system, and were compared to a smartphone. This comparison helped to investigate the effect of the device on navigation performance and memorisation of road landmarks. At the end, the designed system was adapted during co-design workshops gathering people with ID and professionals of the institution Udapei – IMPRO (http://www.udapei59.org/). The system was tested considering two navigation tasks: (1) road crossing and (2) path following. Different aspects of road safety were considered during the co-design of the system. The obtained results are promising, and the users feel comfortable and confident about using the AR glasses on a daily basis when travelling to new destinations. This positive feedback is encouraging to upgrade the system and extend its scope to cover the entire spatial knowledge acquisition process (all states of the Wayfinding Model).
... Automaticity, however, is not all-or-none, but rather a process that develops with action experience and mastery (e.g., Bargh, 1989;Uleman, 1989). Such gradation in automaticity reflects the hierarchical nature of action (e.g., Carver & Scheier, 1990;Gallistel, 1980;Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960;Powers, 1973;Vallacher & Wegner, 1985;von Bertalannfy, 1968). In an action hierarchy, an action's molecular components become progressively integrated into increasingly superordinate levels by virtue of means-ends relations. ...
... The theory argues that people adopt and implement plans to achieve goals in order to be consistent with their values. Image theory states that decision-making occurs in three sequential structures that are called images (Miller et al., 1960). The first image consists of the decision-maker's principles and values. ...
This paper aims to research the relationship between business owners’ strategic intentions underlined by attitudes and their basic human values in the form of motivational types. The study is focused on business owners’ attitudes towards gaining power opposed to revenue generation, profit withdrawal time horizon, investment in research and development, adherence to ethical standards, and filling a role in society. Unfolding the association between strategically significant attitudes of business owners and their personal values is crucial. This is a cross-sectional survey study using Spearman's rank correlation analysis. Purposive sampling was conducted to collect data based on the authors’ personal network over a period of five years through a questionnaire among 682 business owners from 39 countries. The results showed that business owners’ strategically significant attitudes related to their intentions can be not only value-expressive and value-ambivalent as found in previous studies, but also value-unmanifested and value-quasi-manifested. The theoretical and
practical implication of the paper is that studying the relationship between strategic intentions and individual values applying a normative approach weakens the validity of the findings.
... The term WM was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram (1960) and became the title for a multicomponent model in Baddley and Hitch's (1974) work. WM is derived from short-term memory (STM) but STM refers to the storage of information and WM includes the manipulation of the stored information (Baddeley, 2010;Wen, 2015). ...
The purpose of this paper is to suggest a working model to use vocabulary lists (VL). When college students’ VLs were analyzed, it was found that they had made their lists simply for memorization. They were then given instruction about the relationship between working memory (WM) and a VL. In particular, the role of WM in language learning was explained, the relationship between WM and long-term memory (LTM) was emphasized and an explanation was given about how a VL can reduce the burden of WM. Nine participants were put into 3 groups (advanced, intermediate, and low-intermediate) with the task to make a VL and hand it in every week. Their VLs were analyzed and evaluated in terms of recall. First, all the groups learned the so called ‘connection’ between WM and LTM. Second, the participants realized that language knowledge or world knowledge could be retrieved from LTM. Third, they realized that non-linguistic or linguistic information is necessary for better memorization and recall. Consequently, their VLs were full of contents-related information, compared with their previous VLs. Even though each group showed different abilities in collecting relevant information, every group changed their approach to making a VL by improving it to support language development.
... ion implies that each action can be seen as the outcome of simpler actions, and hence the concepts of goals and means can be used interchangeably depending on the level of explanation. The proposal of such a hierarchical structure of actions has been widely accepted in several areas of psychological research (Carver & Scheier, 1981;Gallistel, 1985;G. A. Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960;Mischel, 1974;Powers, 1973;Schank & Abelson, 1977;Vallacher & Wegner, 1987). ...
The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation, Second Edition, addresses key advances made in the field since the previous edition, offering the latest insights from the top theorists and researchers of human motivation. The volume includes chapters on social learning theory, control theory, self-determination theory, terror management theory, and regulatory focus theory and also presents articles from leading scholars on phenomena such as ego depletion, choice, curiosity, flow, implicit motives, and personal interests. A special section dedicated to goal research highlights achievement goals, goal attainment, goal pursuit and unconscious goals, and the goal orientation process across adulthood. The volume sheds new light on the biological underpinnings of motivation, including chapters on neuropsychology and cardiovascular dynamics. This resource is also packed with practical research and guidance, with sections on relationships and applications in areas such as psychotherapy, education, physical activity, sport, and work. By providing reviews of the most advanced work by the very best scholars in this field, this volume represents an invaluable resource for both researchers and practitioners, as well as any student of human nature.
In this chapter, I outline an argument against explanatory relevance of neural representations. After clarifying the concept of neural representation and distinguishing it from person-level mental representation, I argue that a truly representational explanation requires that the content of neural representations be explanatorily relevant. I then argue that this is inconsistent with the requirements for mechanistic constitution, and consequently a constitutive mechanistic explanation cannot be representational. The inconsistency stems from the fact that naturalistic analyses of representational contents render them either non-local to, or not mutually dependent with cognitive phenomena (the details of this argument are expounded in Chaps. 5, 6, and 7). This argument is then compared with its forerunners in the literature – the arguments about causal exclusion of contents; the arguments about internalism/externalism about meanings and mental state individuation; and from methodological solipsism. I also defend this argument from prima facie objections.
A prerequisite for copying innovative behaviour faithfully is the capacity of observers’ brains, regarded as ‘hierarchically mechanistic minds’, to overcome cognitive ‘surprisal’ (see 2.), by maximising the evidence for their internal models, through active inference. Unlike modern humans, chimpanzees and other great apes show considerable limitations in their ability, or “Zone of Bounded Surprisal”, to overcome cognitive surprisal induced by innovative or unorthodox behaviour that rarely, therefore, is copied precisely or accurately. Most can copy adequately what is within their phenotypically habitual behavioural repertoire, in which technology plays scant part. Widespread intra- and intergenerational social transmission of complex technological innovations is not a hall-mark of great-ape taxa. 3Ma, precursors of the genus Homo made stone artefacts, and stone-flaking likely was habitual before 2Ma. After that time, early Homo erectus has left traces of technological innovations, though faithful copying of these and their intra- and intergenerational social transmission were rare before 1Ma. This likely owed to a cerebral infrastructure of interconnected neuronal systems more limited than ours. Brains were smaller in size than ours, and cerebral neuronal systems ceased to develop when early Homo erectus attained full adult maturity by the mid-teen years, whereas its development continues until our mid-twenties nowadays. Pleistocene Homo underwent remarkable evolutionary adaptation of neurobiological propensities, and cerebral aspects are discussed that, it is proposed here, plausibly, were fundamental for faithful copying, which underpinned social transmission of technologies, cumulative learning, and culture. Here, observers’ responses to an innovation are more important for ensuring its transmission than is an innovator’s production of it, because, by themselves, the minimal cognitive prerequisites that are needed for encoding and assimilating innovations is insufficient for practical outcomes to accumulate and spread intra- and intergenerationally.
Working memory is a core cognitive function that supports goal-directed behavior and complex thought. We developed a spatial working memory and attention test on paired symbols (SWAPS) which has been proved to be a useful and valid tool for spatial working memory and attention studies in the fields of cognitive psychology, education, and psychiatry. The repeated administration of working memory capacity tests is common in clinical and research settings. Studies suggest that repeated cognitive tests may improve the performance scores also known as retest effects. The systematic investigation of retest effects in SWAPS is critical for interpreting scientific results, but it is still not fully developed. To address this, we recruited 77 college students aged 18–21 years and used SWAPS comprising 72 trials with different memory loads, learning time, and delay span. We repeated the test once a week for five weeks to investigate the retest effects of SWAPS. There were significant retest effects in the first two tests: the accuracy of the SWAPS tests significantly increased, and then stabilized. These findings provide useful information for researchers to appropriately use or interpret the repeated working memory tests. Further experiments are still needed to clarify the factors that mediate the retest effects, and find out the cognitive mechanism that influences the retest effects.
Military and political leaders often claim that we are facing a complex future, but do not specify why this is so. Is the world truly becoming more complex? If so, why and how is it becoming more complex? This monograph uses multidisciplinary analysis and synthesis to answer these questions. Using these tools, it develops a complex adaptive systems view to explain the underlying trends that drive changes in the operational environment, from the micro to the macro. Increasing growth of technological capability provides an incredible integrating capability that allows for individual and group development. The tempo and tendencies of this relationship result in an operational environment that is increasingly diverse, particularized, and subject to rapid change. Rather than a flat world, the operational environment is shown to be an increasingly differentiated, dancing landscape that requires creative, flexible, and agile responses from the Joint force.
One-hundred and twenty-two undergraduates completed a survey assessing beliefs that WM is a stable trait, or that it is quality that can be improved with skill training. They then read an authentic set of journal articles in a special issue, which discussed whether a program called CogMed is or is not effective in promoting WM functioning. Students evaluated the usefulness of the articles for understanding the issue and justified their decisions. Students believing that WM is malleable evaluated articles questioning CogMed’s effectiveness as less useful, and one recognizing its promise as more useful. They were also less likely to question the quality of methods used in pro-CogMed articles. Students believing that WM is a fixed trait, however, evaluated belief-inconsistent articles more critically as uninteresting, task-irrelevant, having poorer-quality argumentation, and having less trustworthy authors. Limitations and future directions of the current work are discussed.
Este capítulo apresenta aplicações da modelagem baseada em agentes (Agent-Based Modeling, ABM) a pesquisas do desenvolvimento humano em formato tutorial. As seções a seguir foram organizadas visando oferecer panoramas breves sobre as origens, conceitos, principais métodos e técnicas de modelagem em geral, e ABM em especial, apoiando a análise de um modelo computacional elaborado para comparar o desempenho de agentes operando segundo as teorias de Jean Piaget (1896-1980) e Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934).
Working memory is a system that allows for the maintenance of goal-relevant information in the face of concurrent processing and/or distraction. Working memory plays a role in many real-world cognitive tasks such as reading, reasoning, planning, and problem-solving. It consists of multiple components, including domain-general mechanisms associated with attention control and domain-specific processes associated with short-term storage. It is also a limited capacity system and working memory capacity is highly correlated with general fluid intelligence. This chapter provides a review of cognitive models of working memory, the measurement of working memory capacity, and evidence linking working memory capacity and intelligence. Several theoretical frameworks, such as executive attention theory and process overlap theory, are also discussed.
To perform reliably and confidently from memory, musicians must able to recover from mistakes and memory failures. We describe how an experienced singer (the second author) recovered from mistakes and gaps in recall as she periodically recalled the score of a piece of vocal music that she had memorized for public performance, writing out the music six times over a five-year period following the performance. Five years after the performance, the singer was still able to recall two-thirds of the piece. When she made mistakes, she recovered and went on, leaving gaps in her written recall that lengthened over time. We determined where in the piece gaps started ( losses) and ended ( gains), and compared them with the locations of structural beats (starts of sections and phrases) and performance cues ( PCs) that the singer reported using as mental landmarks to keep track of her progress through the piece during the sung, public performance. Gains occurred on structural beats where there was a PC; losses occurred on structural beats without a PC. As the singer’s memory faded over time, she increasingly forgot phrases that did not start with a PC and recovered at the starts of phrases that did. Our study shows how PCs enable musicians to recover from memory failures.
Working memory is an ensemble of components that temporarily hold information in a heightened state of availability for use in ongoing information processing. Working memory is crucial for everyday behaviours such as remembering names and faces, following recipes, remembering the gist of a conversation, and making decisions based on multiple factors. In this Review, we examine how working memory relates to other aspects of information processing to understand age-related decline in working memory. We first contrast several theoretical approaches to working memory. We then discuss benchmark behavioural findings on working memory during ageing and describe general underlying mechanisms that might explain age-related declines and stability. In particular, we emphasize how attention and executive function interact with knowledge. Finally, we assess the relevance of these findings for theories of working memory. Even as executive functions decrease in efficiency with age, some basic attention functions and preserved knowledge can help to blunt the effects of ageing on working memory. Working memory, or the ability to temporarily hold information in mind, underlies many everyday behaviours. In this Review, Naveh-Benjamin and Cowan discuss age-related changes in working memory capacity and how working memory interacts with other cognitive capacities, relating both to theories of working memory.
Gegenwärtig wird der Ruf nach einer Steigerung der ‚Reflexionsfähigkeit’ von Lehrer:innen im Zuge von Schul- und Unterrichtsentwicklung, von Schüler:innen im Zuge der Erwartung der Gestaltung des eigenen Lern- und Bildungsweges und von Lehramtsstudierenden und Referendar:innen im Zuge ihrer Professionalisierung lauter. Die daraus erwachsenden aktuellen Herausforderungen im Bildungswesen wurden auf einer Tagung der DGfE-Sektion Schulpädagogik im Herbst 2021 an der Universität Osnabrück diskutiert. Der vorliegende Herausgeber:innenband vereint Beiträge, die aus ausgewählten Symposien hervorgegangen sind und vielfältige Perspektiven auf das Reflexionsparadigma eröffnen. In einem ersten Teil werden die theoretischen Diskurse zu Reflexion und Reflexivität vertieft. Daran schließen sich Aufsätze an, die die Perspektive auf Reflexion und Reflexivität in der Lehrer:innenbildung richten sowie die Thematik in Bezug auf Schule und Unterricht untersuchen.
Intentionality has been understood as the ability to think and behave in accordance with goals previously elaborated by the individual, or the teleological property of mind. In this sense, intentional mental states are typically characterized by displaying contents secondary to the achievement of cognitive and/or behavioral goals underlying the constitution of beliefs, judgments, desires, and expectations directed toward the external world or the subject itself. If, on the one hand, the philosophical interest in the theme goes back to the scholastics, in the scientific sphere, the first empirical research programs on the characteristics and functional role of intentionality for psychological functioning only started in the first decades of the last century. In this entry, the relationship between intentionality and the possible will be analyzed from the role played by intentionality in the formulation, execution, and evaluation of possible action plans. To this end, the rich intersection established between intentionality, free will, and context in determining action directions will be used as a background for the discussion of how the dimension of the possible is established in intentional action through the interaction between intentional autonomy, free choice, and socio-contextual events. Prior to this discussion, we will present a summary of the state of the art in philosophical and scientific studies about intentionality, aiming to provide introductory information about its ontological, neurocognitive, and conceptual characterization.
Intuitive use is a notoriously vague concept. Several research groups have been developing a wealth of definitions and ways of measuring intuitive use that show only few commonalities. Here we review previous approaches combined with newer theoretical developments in psychology. From this review we propose that high effectiveness, low cognitive effort and a strong metacognitive feeling of fluency are the defining characteristics of intuitive use whereas many other measures are typical correlates of these defining characteristics. Distinguishing between defining characteristics and typical correlates allows researchers and practitioners to refer to a common measurement definition of intuitive use while maintaining their flexibility to adapt measures according to their needs.
Motivation science has advanced tremendously in the past decade. However, it is now clear that future progress is going to be stalled by the extent of disagreement among motivation scientists to some basic, yet controversial, questions. To help move motivation science toward greater coherence, the editors recruited prominent scholars to debate their contrasting perspectives. Such debate is not only interesting, but it also makes future research, discoveries, collaborations, and applications more fruitful. Because many excellent handbooks on motivation exist, the editors wanted to try something different—be provocative. They wanted to provoke creative ideas among the authors and readers. To achieve that end, they asked 10 thought-provoking questions that define contemporary motivation science’s most important, controversial, and provocative ideas. The questions deal with the nature of motivation, cultural differences in motivational processes, evidence-based strategies to enhance motivation, unresolved controversies, predictions of the future, and more. This volume features 67 individual author responses to these questions. Multiple authors shared their current thinking and insights to the same controversial question. This volume provides readers with a rare opportunity to see how different theorists and researchers recognize, evaluate, and prescribe solutions to the same motivation problem. By sharing current thinking and providing innovative insights into the important questions and controversies in the study of motivation, this volume informs readers about cutting-edge theory and research in motivation that they can use to generate fresh and effective applications and interventions.
After 45 years of strong development, global application and ongoing criticism, the contours of what constitutes NLP remain vague, to insiders and outsiders alike. NLP experts use more or less different definitions and criteria for the tools, techniques and foundation principles of NLP. This situation has made it nearly impossible to satisfy the request for research evidence of NLP’s effectiveness in coaching.
The purpose of this paper therefore is to commence a discussion of the challenges facing NLP in gaining legitimacy as a coaching approach without an evidence base. The paper critiques the extant literature on NLP coaching, and briefly reviews wider literature of NLP evidence in other contexts, notably the therapy world. This paper offers a summary of and critique of a recent Delphi Poll conducted to identify which of the tools, techniques and theoretical frameworks are considered to be NLP. The paper discusses the challenges for NLP evidencing its effectiveness in coaching and proposes empirical outcome based research utilising the core principles, skills, tools and techniques that have gained consensus in this Delphi Poll.
Information processing lies at the heart of human performance. This chapter describe the characteristics of the different important stages of information processing, from perception of the environment to acting on that environment. It begins by contrasting different ways in which information processing has been treated in applied psychology, and then describes processes and transformations related to attention, perception, memory and cognition, action selection, and multiple-task performance. The chapter adopts as a framework the information-processing model depicted. Stimuli or events are sensed and attended and that information received by the sensory system is perceived, that is, provided with some meaningful interpretation based on memory of past experience. The chapter also describes the means by which comprehension is achieved. It provides information on the unification subsystem, including the corpus of knowledge it requires and the operations it performs.
Task analysis (TA) has been one of the primary tools of human factors from the very beginning. This chapter begins by defining TA as the study of who should do what, why it is necessary and finally how and when it should be done. The demand for TA only arose when the use of technology became more pronounced or even indispensable, especially when tools changed from being simple to being complex. All TA methods make use of the principle of decomposition, of breaking something into its constituent parts, to reason about activities and how they are related and organized. There are two fundamentally different approaches to TA and task description. They are structural tasks and functional tasks. The main development is the use of functional rather than structural analyses to account for the dynamic couplings among the functions (or tasks) necessary to accomplish an activity.
We try not just to reconcile but to “integrate” Cognitivism and Behaviorism by a theory of different forms of purposiveness in behavior and mind. This also implies a criticism of the Dual System theory and a claim on the strong interaction and integration of Sist1 (automatic) and Sist2 (deliberative), based on reasons, preferences, and decisions. We present a theory of different kinds of teleology. Mere “functions” of the behavior: finalism not represented in the mind of the agent, not “regulating” the behavior. Two kinds of teleological mental representations: true “Goals” in control-theory, cybernetic view, with “goal-driven” behavior (intentional action); vs. Expectations in Anticipatory Classifiers: a reactive but anticipatory device, explaining the “instrumental” (finalistic) nature of Skinner’s reinforcement learning. We present different kinds of Goals and goal processing and on this ground the theory of what “intentions” are. On such basis, we can discuss Kathy Wilkes’s hint about the necessarily linguistic formulation of “intentions”; with the hypothesis that her intuition is not correct for any kind on “intention” which may be represented in sensory-motor format, but correct for “volition” and our will-strength for socially influencing ourselves.
Our research on the construction of the professional identity of beginner school teachers, whose theoretical framework is the psychophenomenological approach (Vermersch, 2012) highlights how these teachers are flexible in adjusting to what happens in the classroom, whether it’s an outdoor event or student reactions. The collection of the verbalizations of the action, in the first person, with the help of the explicitation interview (Vermersch, 1994), reveals moments of improvisation in class and adjustment situations, Related to student information and current decision-making. We address the challenge for the training of future teachers that represents the awareness of these adjustments in class and the postures that accompany them.
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