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Health Benefits of Eating More Plant Foods and Less Meat
Abstract
The health benefits of eating more plant-based foods and less meat are scientifically proven. This chapter examines the evidence in relation to common health and medical conditions, such as cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, cancers, mental health, and dementia. It also analyzes the issues related to gastrointestinal health and diet in light of the presence of fiber and other plant materials. Although the environmental benefits of a plant-based diet are well-established, there are some concerns about the ability of such food choices to supply essential nutrients to the human body, such as protein, iron, vitamin B12, and Omega 3 fatty acids. They are discussed within the framework of a healthy diet. Some of the disadvantages of diets rich on animal proteins, such as heme iron, are highlighted with a warning that the consumption of lab-grown meat may carry similar risks. A balanced plant-rich diet seems a better and easier choice.
... Especially, it is also found that PB diets help to protect the living environment against the climate change because animal husbandry consumes too much water, land, crops and energy [122,123], i.e., it negatively affects the environment with global warming and climate change [85,124,125]. Particularly, PB diets help to avoid negative consequences of animal husbandry in terms of the usage of energy, land and water resources [126], water pollution, soil corrosion, habitat deterioration [127,128], carbon dioxide (C 2 O) emission [129][130][131][132][133], nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions [90,130] and GHG emission [100,134]. ...
The beneficial advantages of plant-based diets towards human beings have been well addressed over the last few decades. More and more people are now enjoying plant-based diets for their physical health, psychological health, animal rights, environment protection, etc. However, there are still many stereotypes about the lifestyle. Hence, this study aims at identifying key factors affecting the plant-based food choices so that we can propose feasible implications to widely promote plant-based diets across communities for their better health, eudemonic well-being and life satisfaction as well as the sustainable survival of our beloved planet—“Mother Earth”. Based on statistical analysis results of data collected from 1477 participants in 10 out of 19 provinces/cities in Southern Vietnam, the plant-based food choice is found significantly affected by not only gender and marriage status but also by a so-called SHOULD Model, where: (1) S refers to Spirituality and Social relationships; (2) H refers to Health concerns; (3) O refers to Opulence of plant-based foods and Outlook on life; (4) U refers to Understanding of human body structures; (5) L refers to Love towards animals; and (6) D refers to Diet knowledge. Among the identified factors, “understanding of human body structures” and “outlook on life” are two new factors proposed in this study, fulfilling the existing literature about the determinants of plant-based food choice. From such findings, some managerial implications are proposed to not only promote plant-based lifestyle but also help to develop plant-based food business in practice.
It appears that a disconnect between food and disease mitigation has occurred with development. In contrast, the chapter examines the link between food and non-communicable diseases, then the threats caused to human health by zoonotic viruses and infections, and finally the prospects of losing the power of antibiotics to improve human conditions. A major contributing factor to these health-related conditions and threats is the excessive consumption of meat and other animal-based products. Replacing them with plant-rich food options can have numerous benefits.
The term “alternative proteins” describes alternatives and substitutes to animal-based foods. This area is gaining popularity fast as humanity tackles the challenges of climate change, biodiversity loss, land- and sea-use changes and food security. Some alternative protein sources have existed for millennia, including tofu, tempeh and seitan, but others, such as cultured meat and 3D food, are new. The chapter follows a historical line in these developments analysing the pros and cons of alternative proteins and offering reflections about their future, potential consumers and challenges.
China is the world's top consumer and largest importer of soybeans used as human food and livestock feed. Since the 1980s, China's meat consumption has been growing despite this being an inefficient way of feeding the world's largest population. It diverts resources which can be used directly for human consumption. If the Chinese people were to maintain or expand their high consumption of soybean-based foods instead of switching to a meat-rich diet, greenhouse gas emissions would be reduced, and natural resource use improved. This chapter examines the trends in soy consumption and production in China and explores people's dietary preferences for soybeans, including concerns about the import of genetically modified soybeans. Without diverting soybeans to animal feed, the demand for them will decrease and will make China more self-sufficient. This study also provides educational guidance about the health benefits of plant-based foods and environmental damage associated with high consumption of animal-based products.
Significance
With a third of all food production lost via leaky supply chains or spoilage, food loss is a key contributor to global food insecurity. Demand for resource-intensive animal-based food further limits food availability. In this paper, we show that plant-based replacements for each of the major animal categories in the United States (beef, pork, dairy, poultry, and eggs) can produce twofold to 20-fold more nutritionally similar food per unit cropland. Replacing all animal-based items with plant-based replacement diets can add enough food to feed 350 million additional people, more than the expected benefits of eliminating all supply chain food loss.
Cardiovascular disease remains the world's leading cause of death. Yet, we have known for decades that the vast majority of atherosclerosis and its subsequent morbidity and mortality are influenced predominantly by diet. This paper will describe a health-promoting whole food, plant-based diet; delineate macro- and micro-nutrition, emphasizing specific geriatric concerns; and offer guidance to physicians and other healthcare practitioners to support patients in successfully utilizing nutrition to improve their health.
Global agricultural feeds over 7 billion people, but is also a leading cause of environmental degradation. Understanding how alternative agricultural production systems, agricultural input efficiency, and food choice drive environmental degradation is necessary for reducing agriculture's environmental impacts. A meta-analysis of life cycle assessments that includes 742 agricultural systems and over 90 unique foods produced primarily in high-input systems shows that, per unit of food, organic systems require more land, cause more eutrophication, use less energy, but emit similar greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) as conventional systems; that grass-fed beef requires more land and emits similar GHG emissions as grain-feed beef; and that low-input aquaculture and non-trawling fisheries have much lower GHG emissions than trawling fisheries. In addition, our analyses show that increasing agricultural input efficiency (the amount of food produced per input of fertilizer or feed) would have environmental benefits for both crop and livestock systems. Further, for all environmental indicators and nutritional units examined, plant-based foods have the lowest environmental impacts; eggs, dairy, pork, poultry, non-trawling fisheries, and non-recirculating aquaculture have intermediate impacts; and ruminant meat has impacts ~100 times those of plant-based foods. Our analyses show that dietary shifts towards low-impact foods and increases in agricultural input use efficiency would offer larger environmental benefits than would switches from conventional agricultural systems to alternatives such as organic agriculture or grass-fed beef.
Background: Considerable attention has recently focused on dietary protein’s role in the mature skeleton, prompted partly by an interest in nonpharmacologic approaches to maintain skeletal health in adult life.
Objective: The aim was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis evaluating the effects of dietary protein intake alone and with calcium with or without vitamin D (Ca±D) on bone health measures in adults.
Design: Searches across 5 databases were conducted through October 2016 including randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and prospective cohort studies examining 1) the effects of “high versus low” protein intake or 2) dietary protein’s synergistic effect with Ca±D intake on bone health outcomes. Two investigators independently conducted abstract and full-text screenings, data extractions, and risk of bias (ROB) assessments. Strength of evidence was rated by group consensus. Random-effects meta-analyses for outcomes with ≥4 RCTs were performed.
Results: Sixteen RCTs and 20 prospective cohort studies were included in the systematic review. Overall ROB was medium. Moderate evidence suggested that higher protein intake may have a protective effect on lumbar spine (LS) bone mineral density (BMD) compared with lower protein intake (net percentage change: 0.52%; 95% CI: 0.06%, 0.97%, I²: 0%; n = 5) but no effect on total hip (TH), femoral neck (FN), or total body BMD or bone biomarkers. Limited evidence did not support an effect of protein with Ca±D on LS BMD, TH BMD, or forearm fractures; there was insufficient evidence for FN BMD and overall fractures.
Conclusions: Current evidence shows no adverse effects of higher protein intakes. Although there were positive trends on BMD at most bone sites, only the LS showed moderate evidence to support benefits of higher protein intake. Studies were heterogeneous, and confounding could not be excluded. High-quality, long-term studies are needed to clarify dietary protein’s role in bone health. This trial was registered at www.crd.york.ac.uk as CRD42015017751.
Environmental and intrinsic factors that alter microbiota structure can trigger aberrant immune responses. The resulting states of dysbiosis take many forms characterized by overrepresentation of pro-inflammatory organisms and pathobionts and loss of beneficial commensals further aggravating the inflammatory state. The pathogenic potential of the dysbiotic community can be linked to specific organisms in some cases but accumulating evidence suggests that intestinal inflammatory diseases are driven by collective functions of highly variable polymicrobial communities. Key challenges are to gain sufficient knowledge of the structure and function of a given disease-causing consortium to understand how inflammation is perpetuated, to identify the protective mechanisms lost in the absence of specific commensals and test interventions to shift a persistent dysbiotic community to a more benign state.
Food production is a major driver of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water and land use, and dietary risk factors are contributors to non-communicable diseases. Shifts in dietary patterns can therefore potentially provide benefits for both the environment and health. However, there is uncertainty about the magnitude of these impacts, and the dietary changes necessary to achieve them. We systematically review the evidence on changes in GHG emissions, land use, and water use, from shifting current dietary intakes to environmentally sustainable dietary patterns. We find 14 common sustainable dietary patterns across reviewed studies, with reductions as high as 70–80% of GHG emissions and land use, and 50% of water use (with medians of about 20–30% for these indicators across all studies) possible by adopting sustainable dietary patterns. Reductions in environmental footprints were generally proportional to the magnitude of animal-based food restriction. Dietary shifts also yielded modest benefits in all-cause mortality risk. Our review reveals that environmental and health benefits are possible by shifting current Western diets to a variety of more sustainable dietary patterns.
A growing body of evidence suggests that adherence to the Mediterranean diet (MD) may protect against cognitive decline and dementia. Many epidemiologic studies and several randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have found positive effects of the MD on cognitive function, but findings remain inconsistent. The aim of this systematic review was to provide an update on the current knowledge of the effects of the MD on cognitive function, cognitive impairment, Alzheimer disease (AD), and all-type dementia. Five databases were searched-PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, CENTRAL, and PsycINFO (1806 to 25 May 2015)-with the use of prespecified criteria. Human studies that were published in English without any restriction on study type, population assessed, intervention period, follow-up time, or publication date, and that examined the association between adherence to the MD and cognitive function or dementia symptoms (as measured by cognitive function tests), were included. Only primary publication types were included. Thirty-two studies from 25 unique cohorts, including 5 RCTs and 27 observational studies, met the inclusion criteria. The majority of studies showed that the MD was associated with improved cognitive function, a decreased risk of cognitive impairment or decreased risk of dementia, or AD. Three studies found no correlation between the MD and AD, 3 further studies found no association between the MD and cognitive impairment, and 5 studies found no association between the MD and cognitive function. There was large heterogeneity, and studies differed with regard to quality. Based on the findings and the limitations in study design, we conclude that adherence to the MD is associated with better cognitive performance. However, it should be noted that the majority of findings come from epidemiologic studies that provide evidence for a correlation between the MD and cognition but not for a cause-and-effect relation. More controlled trials are required to establish a causational relation.
Significance
The food system is responsible for more than a quarter of all greenhouse gas emissions while unhealthy diets and high body weight are among the greatest contributors to premature mortality. Our study provides a comparative analysis of the health and climate change benefits of global dietary changes for all major world regions. We project that health and climate change benefits will both be greater the lower the fraction of animal-sourced foods in our diets. Three quarters of all benefits occur in developing countries although the per capita impacts of dietary change would be greatest in developed countries. The monetized value of health improvements could be comparable with, and possibly larger than, the environmental benefits of the avoided damages from climate change.
Over the last 20 years there has been an increasing interest in the influence of the gastrointestinal tract on appetite regulation. Much of the focus has been on the neuronal and hormonal relationship between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain. There is now mounting evidence that the colonic microbiota and their metabolic activity play a significant role in energy homeostasis. The supply of substrate to the colonic microbiota has a major impact on the microbial population and the metabolites they produce, particularly short chain fatty acids (SCFAs). SCFAs are produced when non-digestible carbohydrates, namely dietary fibres and resistant starch, undergo fermentation by the colonic microbiota. Both the consumption of fermentable carbohydrates and the administration of SCFAs have been reported to result in a wide range of health benefits including improvements in body composition, glucose homeostasis, blood lipid profiles, and reduced body weight and colon cancer risk. However, published studies tend to report the effects that fermentable carbohydrates and SCFAs have on specific tissues and metabolic processes, and fail to explain how these local effects translate into systemic effects and the mitigation of disease risk. Moreover, studies have tended to investigate SCFAs collectively and neglect to report the effects associated with individual SCFAs. Here, we bring together the recent evidence and suggest an overarching model for the effects of SCFAs on one of their beneficial aspects: appetite regulation and energy homeostasis.International Journal of Obesity accepted article preview online, 14 May 2015. doi:10.1038/ijo.2015.84.
Objective To clarify and quantify the potential dose–response association between the intake of fruit and vegetables and risk of type 2 diabetes.
Design Meta-analysis and systematic review of prospective cohort studies.
Data source Studies published before February 2014 identified through electronic searches using PubMed and Embase.
Eligibility criteria for selecting studies Prospective cohort studies with relative risks and 95% CIs for type 2 diabetes according to the intake of fruit, vegetables, or fruit and vegetables.
Results A total of 10 articles including 13 comparisons with 24 013 cases of type 2 diabetes and 434 342 participants were included in the meta-analysis. Evidence of curve linear associations was seen between fruit and green leafy vegetables consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes (p=0.059 and p=0.036 for non-linearity, respectively). The summary relative risk of type 2 diabetes for an increase of 1 serving fruit consumed/day was 0.93 (95% CI 0.88 to 0.99) without heterogeneity among studies (p=0.477, I2=0%). For vegetables, the combined relative risk of type 2 diabetes for an increase of 1 serving consumed/day was 0.90 (95% CI 0.80 to 1.01) with moderate heterogeneity among studies (p=0.002, I2=66.5%). For green leafy vegetables, the summary relative risk of type 2 diabetes for an increase of 0.2 serving consumed/day was 0.87 (95% CI 0.81 to 0.93) without heterogeneity among studies (p=0.496, I2=0%). The combined estimates showed no significant benefits of increasing the consumption of fruit and vegetables combined.
Conclusions Higher fruit or green leafy vegetables intake is associated with a significantly reduced risk of type 2 diabetes.
This review examines whether there is evidence that a strict vegan diet confers health advantages beyond that of a vegetarian diet or overall healthy eating. Few studies include vegan subjects as a distinct experimental group, yet when vegan diets are directly compared to vegetarian and omnivorous diets, a pattern of protective health benefits emerges. The relatively recent inclusion of vegan diets in studies of gut microbiota and health allows us the opportunity to assess whether the vegan gut microbiota is distinct, and whether the health advantages characteristic of a vegan diet may be partially explained by the associated microbiota profile. The relationship between diet and the intestinal microbial profile appears to follow a continuum, with vegans displaying a gut microbiota most distinct from that of omnivores, but not always significantly different from that of vegetarians. The vegan gut profile appears to be unique in several characteristics, including a reduced abundance of pathobionts and a greater abundance of protective species. Reduced levels of inflammation may be the key feature linking the vegan gut microbiota with protective health effects. However, it is still unclear whether a therapeutic vegan diet can be prescribed to alter the gut microflora for long-term health benefits.
Increased vegetable and fruit consumption is encouraged to promote health, including the maintenance of a healthy body weight. Population health strategies (e.g. 5-A-Day or similar campaigns and subsidies on vegetables or fruit) that emphasize increased consumption may theoretically lead to increased energy intake and weight gain.
We undertook a systematic review of trials that sought to increase vegetable and fruit consumption, in the absence of advice or specific encouragement to remove other foods from the diet, to understand the effect on body weight and energy intake. We included only randomised controlled trials. We pooled data using a random effects model for two outcomes: change in body weight and change in energy intake. Sensitivity and secondary analyses were also undertaken, including a one-study removed analysis and analysis by study sub-type to explore sources of heterogeneity.
A total of eight studies, including 1026 participants, were identified for inclusion in the review. The mean study duration was 14.7 weeks (range four to 52 weeks). The mean difference in vegetable and fruit consumption between arms was 133 g (range 50 g to 456 g). The mean change in body weight was 0.68 kg (95% CI: 0.15-1.20; n = 8; I2 for heterogeneity = 83%, p = 0.01) less in the “high vegetable and fruit” intake arms than in the “low vegetable and fruit intake” arms. There was no significant difference in measured change daily energy intake between the two arms (368 kJ; 95% CI: -27 to 762, comparing high vs low; n = 6; I2 = 42%, p = 0.07).
Promoting increased fruit and vegetable consumption, in the absence of specific advice to decrease consumption of other foods, appears unlikely to lead to weight gain in the short-term and may have a role in weight maintenance or loss. Longer studies or other methods are needed to understand the long-term effects on weight maintenance and loss.
Objective To examine and quantify the potential dose-response relation between fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of all cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality.
Data sources Medline, Embase, and the Cochrane library searched up to 30 August 2013 without language restrictions. Reference lists of retrieved articles.
Study selection Prospective cohort studies that reported risk estimates for all cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality by levels of fruit and vegetable consumption.
Data synthesis Random effects models were used to calculate pooled hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals and to incorporate variation between studies. The linear and non-linear dose-response relations were evaluated with data from categories of fruit and vegetable consumption in each study.
Results Sixteen prospective cohort studies were eligible in this meta-analysis. During follow-up periods ranging from 4.6 to 26 years there were 56 423 deaths (11 512 from cardiovascular disease and 16 817 from cancer) among 833 234 participants. Higher consumption of fruit and vegetables was significantly associated with a lower risk of all cause mortality. Pooled hazard ratios of all cause mortality were 0.95 (95% confidence interval 0.92 to 0.98) for an increment of one serving a day of fruit and vegetables (P=0.001), 0.94 (0.90 to 0.98) for fruit (P=0.002), and 0.95 (0.92 to 0.99) for vegetables (P=0.006). There was a threshold around five servings of fruit and vegetables a day, after which the risk of all cause mortality did not reduce further. A significant inverse association was observed for cardiovascular mortality (hazard ratio for each additional serving a day of fruit and vegetables 0.96, 95% confidence interval 0.92 to 0.99), while higher consumption of fruit and vegetables was not appreciably associated with risk of cancer mortality.
Conclusions This meta-analysis provides further evidence that a higher consumption of fruit and vegetables is associated with a lower risk of all cause mortality, particularly cardiovascular mortality.
OBJECTIVE
Diets with high glycemic index (GI), with high glycemic load (GL), or high in all carbohydrates may predispose to higher blood glucose and insulin concentrations, glucose intolerance, and risk of type 2 diabetes. We aimed to conduct a systematic literature review and dose-response meta-analysis of evidence from prospective cohorts.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
We searched the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, MEDLINE in-process, Embase, CAB Abstracts, ISI Web of Science, and BIOSIS for prospective studies of GI, GL, and total carbohydrates in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes up to 17 July 2012. Data were extracted from 24 publications on 21 cohort studies. Studies using different exposure categories were combined on the same scale using linear and nonlinear dose-response trends. Summary relative risks (RRs) were estimated using random-effects meta-analysis.RESULTSThe summary RR was 1.08 per 5 GI units (95% CI 1.02-1.15; P = 0.01), 1.03 per 20 GL units (95% CI 1.00-1.05; P = 0.02), and 0.97 per 50 g/day of carbohydrate (95% CI 0.90-1.06; P = 0.5). Dose-response trends were linear for GI and GL but more complex for total carbohydrate intake. Heterogeneity was high for all exposures (I-2 >50%), partly accounted for by different covariate adjustment and length of follow-up.CONCLUSIONS
Included studies were observational and should be interpreted cautiously. However, our findings are consistent with protective effects of low dietary GI and GL, quantifying the range of intakes associated with lower risk. Future research could focus on the type of sugars and other carbohydrates associated with greatest risk.
Ongoing research to develop digestion-resistant starch for human health promotion integrates the disciplines of starch chemistry, agronomy, analytical chemistry, food science, nutrition, pathology, and microbiology. The objectives of this research include identifying components of starch structure that confer digestion resistance, developing novel plants and starches, and modifying foods to incorporate these starches. Furthermore, recent and ongoing studies address the impact of digestion-resistant starches on the prevention and control of chronic human diseases, including diabetes, colon cancer, and obesity. This review provides a transdisciplinary overview of this field, including a description of types of resistant starches; factors in plants that affect digestion resistance; methods for starch analysis; challenges in developing food products with resistant starches; mammalian intestinal and gut bacterial metabolism; potential effects on gut microbiota; and impacts and mechanisms for the prevention and control of colon cancer, diabetes, and obesity. Although this has been an active area of research and considerable progress has been made, many questions regarding how to best use digestion-resistant starches in human diets for disease prevention must be answered before the full potential of resistant starches can be realized.
Introduction
The prevention of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has become a real challenge due to its rising prevalence and the lack of an effective cure. Diet and nutrients have gained significant interest as potentially modifiable protective factors.
Purpose
The aim of this review is to provide an updated summary of evidence related to the effect of diet and nutritional factors on the risk of AD and cognitive aging, and discuss the potential mechanisms and confounding factors involved.
Methods
A search was conducted in Medline and Web of Knowledge for epidemiological and clinical studies in the international literature from January 2000 to February 2013 using combinations of the following keywords: “Alzheimer’s disease”, “mild cognitive impairment”, “cognitive function”, “dietary factors”, “omega-3”, “antioxidants”, “B vitamins”, “dietary patterns”, and “Mediterranean diet”.
Results and conclusion
Data from observational studies point to a protective role for certain nutrients, such as omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants or B vitamins, and dietary patterns (Mediterranean diet). However, data from randomized controlled trials do not show a consistent effect. Whether confounding factors such as age, disease stage, other dietary components, cooking processes, and other methodological issues explain the divergent results remains to be established. Moreover, if certain nutrients protect against dementia, it is as yet unknown whether they may have a general effect on brain vascular health or directly interfere with the etiopathogenesis of AD.
This chapter defines sustainable diets and compares the production of animal and plant foods in terms of efficiency and environmental impacts. From a review of the literature, it is concluded that the production of meat protein is less energy efficient than that of plant protein, as it requires much more fossil fuel, water, and land. The chapter also discusses the environmental impacts of food on pollution, biodiversity, and climate change. Relative to plant protein production, animal protein production has a greater detrimental effect on the environment. Research suggests that switching from an animal-based diet to a plant-based diet could significantly attenuate the environment costs and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
While foods of animal origin, including red meat, poultry, seafood, eggs and dairy foods, are good sources of protein and other nutrients including iron, zinc, calcium, vitamin B12 and omega-3 fatty acids, there is increasing evidence to suggest that regular consumption of animal foods may negatively impact health and disease risk. This chapter reviews the evidence linking high intakes of animal foods with chronic disease risk, particularly type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer, and discusses some of the possible mechanisms to explain the association between animal food intake and disease risk. The benefits of plant-based and low-animal food options as solutions to reducing these risks are also discussed, along with implications and recommendations for adopting such diets.
As marketing professionals look for more effective ways to promote their goods and services to customers, a thorough understanding of customer needs and the ability to predict a target audience's reaction to advertising campaigns is essential. The Handbook of Research on Social Marketing and Its Influence on Animal Origin Food Product Consumption is a critical scholarly resource that examines the role of social marketing in understanding and changing behavior regarding the negative impacts of consuming animal-based foods. Featuring coverage on a broad range of topics, such as the psychology of meat consumption, food waste, and meat substitutes, this publication is geared towards academicians, students, and professionals seeking current research on social marketing interventions and the demarketing of meat.
Cognitive impairment and dementia are not an inevitable consequence of the aging process. Implementation of preventable health care strategies that include evidenced-based dietary plans can greatly reduce the incidence and delay of cognitive decline. Epidemiological studies and randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that the quality of an individual's diet is related to his or her risk for common mental disorders and cognitive performance. Current research has shown supportive evidence for several antioxidant and nutrient-rich dietary patterns that help maintain cognitive health. These include the MeDI dietary plan, the DASH diet, and the MIND dietary plan, which share foundational components of both the MeDI and DASH diets, with an emphasis on green leafy vegetables.
There is a growing recognition about the role of diet on modulating the composition and metabolic activity of the human gut microbiota, which in turn influence health. Dietary ingredients and food additives have a substantial impact on the gut microbiota and hence affect human health. Updates on current understanding of the gut microbiota in diseases and metabolic disorders are addressed in this review, providing insights into how this can be transferred from bench to bench side as gut microbes are integrated with food. The potency of microbiota-targeted biomarkers as a state-of-art tool for diagnosis of diseases was also discussed and it would instruct individuals with healthy dietary consumption. Herein, recent advances in understanding the effect of diet on gut microbiota from an ecological perspective, and how these insights might promote health by guiding development of prebiotic and probiotic strategies and functional foods were explored.
The intakes of whole cereal grains (WCGs) have long been linked to decreased risks of metabolic syndromes (MetS) and several chronic diseases. Owing to the complex range of components of cereals, which may show synergistic activities to mediate these protective effects, the mechanisms by which the benefits of whole cereals arise are not fully understood. The gut microbiota has recently become a new focus of research at the intersection of diet and metabolic health. Moreover, cereals contain various ingredients known as microbiota-accessible substrates that resist digestion in the upper gastrointestinal tract, including resistant starch and non-starch polysaccharides such as β-glucan and arabinoxylans, making them an important fuel for the microbiota. Thus, WCGs may manipulate the ecophysiology of gut microbiota. In this review, the scientific evidence supporting the hypothesis that WCGs prevent MetS by modulating gut microbiota composition and functions are discussed, with focuses on cereal intake-related mechanisms by which gut microbiota contributes to human health and scientific evidences for the effects of WCGs on modulating gut microbiota. Once strong support for the association among WCGs, gut microbiota and host metabolic health can be demonstrated, particular cereals, their processing technologies, or cereal-based foods might be better utilized to prevent and possibly even treat metabolic disease.
Background:
Plant-based diets are recommended for coronary heart disease (CHD) prevention. However, not all plant foods are necessarily beneficial for health.
Objectives:
This study sought to examine associations between plant-based diet indices and CHD incidence.
Methods:
We included 73,710 women in NHS (Nurses' Health Study) (1984 to 2012), 92,329 women in NHS2 (1991 to 2013), and 43,259 men in Health Professionals Follow-up Study (1986 to 2012), free of chronic diseases at baseline. We created an overall plant-based diet index (PDI) from repeated semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaire data, by assigning positive scores to plant foods and reverse scores to animal foods. We also created a healthful plant-based diet index (hPDI) where healthy plant foods (whole grains, fruits/vegetables, nuts/legumes, oils, tea/coffee) received positive scores, whereas less-healthy plant foods (juices/sweetened beverages, refined grains, potatoes/fries, sweets) and animal foods received reverse scores. To create an unhealthful PDI (uPDI), we gave positive scores to less-healthy plant foods and reverse scores to animal and healthy plant foods.
Results:
Over 4,833,042 person-years of follow-up, we documented 8,631 incident CHD cases. In pooled multivariable analysis, higher adherence to PDI was independently inversely associated with CHD (hazard ratio [HR] comparing extreme deciles: 0.92; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.83 to 1.01; p trend = 0.003). This inverse association was stronger for hDPI (HR: 0.75; 95% CI: 0.68 to 0.83; p trend <0.001). Conversely, uPDI was positively associated with CHD (HR: 1.32; 95% CI: 1.20 to 1.46; p trend <0.001).
Conclusions:
Higher intake of a plant-based diet index rich in healthier plant foods is associated with substantially lower CHD risk, whereas a plant-based diet index that emphasizes less-healthy plant foods is associated with higher CHD risk.
Purpose
The study’s purpose is to explore reasons behind meat consumption. It aims to find out what motivates meat consumers and explore the opportunities of social marketing to counteract negative environmental and health trends.
Design/methodology/approach
An exploratory Australian survey of Sydney consumer red meat choices is used covering dietary preferences; meat eating patterns, reasons and levels of concern for economic and environmental issues. Analysis of dietary guidelines and marketing campaigns in relation to the survey findings is conducted.
Findings
The survey highlights: (1) lack of awareness about the link between meat consumption and environmental wellbeing; (2) widespread inaccuracy of health messages related to meat consumption; (3) influence of the meat industry in promoting excessive meat consumption; (4) pervasiveness of the link between red meat consumption and national identity, social status, prestige and masculinity; and (5) urgent need for government-supported social marketing interventions and the demarketing of meat.
Originality/value
This is the first study to propose social marketing based on the health and environmental co-benefits of reduced red meat consumption.
Although fiber is well recognized for its effect on laxation, increasing evidence supports the role of fiber in the prevention and treatment of chronic disease. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the health benefits of fiber and its fermentation, and describe how the products of fermentation may influence disease risk and treatment. Higher fiber intakes are associated with decreased risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and some forms of cancer. Fiber may also have a role in lowering blood pressure and in preventing obesity by limiting weight gain. Fiber is effective in managing blood glucose in type 2 diabetes, useful for weight loss, and may provide therapeutic adjunctive roles in kidney and liver disease. In addition, higher fiber diets are not contraindicated in inflammatory bowel disease or irritable bowel syndrome and may provide some benefit. Common to the associations with disease reduction is fermentation of fiber and its potential to modulate microbiota and its activities and inflammation, specifically the production of anti-inflammatory short chain fatty acids, primarily from saccharolytic fermentation, versus the deleterious products of proteolytic activity. Because fiber intake is inversely associated with all-cause mortality, mechanisms by which fiber may reduce chronic disease risk and provide therapeutic benefit to those with chronic disease need further elucidation and large, randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm causality.Teaching Points• Strong evidence supports the association between higher fiber diets and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and some forms of cancer.• Higher fiber intakes are associated with lower body weight and body mass index, and some types of fiber may facilitate weight loss.• Fiber is recommended as an adjunctive medical nutritional therapy for type 2 diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and certain liver diseases.• Fermentation and the resulting shifts in microbiota composition and its activity may be a common means by which fiber impacts disease risk and management.
Background:
Reported associations between protein intake from different sources and type 2 diabetes (T2D) have been inconsistent.
Objective:
We prospectively examined the relations of total, animal, and plant protein intakes with incident T2D.
Design:
We followed 21,523 participants (women: 61.7%) between 1990 and 2007 from the Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study who were free of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and kidney stones at baseline. We also conducted a meta-analysis that included the results from our cohort and from 10 previous prospective studies.
Results:
A total of 929 new cases (4.3%) of T2D were documented during a mean of 11.7 y of follow-up. Multivariate-adjusted ORs for incident T2D in the highest compared with lowest quintiles of total and animal protein intakes as percentages of energy were 1.23 (95% CI: 0.96, 1.56; P-trend = 0.029) and 1.29 (95% CI: 0.99, 1.67; P-trend = 0.014), respectively. These associations appeared to be greater in men and in participants with normal baseline plasma glucose, body mass index, or blood pressure. Plant protein intake was inversely associated with incident T2D in women only (OR; 0.60; 95% CI: 0.37, 0.99). In the meta-analysis of 11 prospective cohort studies with 505,624 participants and 37,918 T2D cases (follow-up range: 5-24 y), pooled RRs for the comparison of the highest with lowest categories of total, animal, and plant protein intakes were 1.09 (95% CI: 1.06, 1.13), 1.19 (95% CI: 1.11, 1.28), and 0.95 (95% CI: 0.89, 1.02), respectively. Associations between animal protein intake and T2D were similar across sex, geographic region, length of follow-up, study quality, and method of expressing protein intake. An inverse association between plant protein intake and T2D was observed in women (RR: 0.93; 95% CI: 0.85, 1.00) and in US populations (RR: 0.91; 95% CI: 0.84, 0.97).
Conclusion:
Higher intakes of total and animal protein were both associated with increased risks of T2D, whereas higher plant protein intake tended to be associated with lower risk of T2D.
Despite its nutritional benefits, there is an increasing body of evidence to suggest that regular consumption of red meat may negatively impact health and disease risk, including the risk of most common chronic diseases. This chapter reviews the current evidence linking red and processed meat intakes with chronic disease, obesity and mortality risks and discusses possible mechanisms to explain these associations. Research on the health benefits of diets low in red meat, including vegetarian, vegan, Mediterranean and other plant-based diets, is also reviewed.
Despite its nutritional benefits, there is an increasing body of evidence to suggest that regular consumption
of red meat may negatively impact health and disease risk, including the risk of most common chronic
diseases. This chapter reviews the current evidence linking red and processed meat intakes with chronic
disease, obesity and mortality risks and discusses possible mechanisms to explain these associations.
Research on the health benefits of diets low in red meat, including vegetarian, vegan, Mediterranean and
other plant-based diets, is also reviewed.
Results of the relationships between dietary whole-grain consumption and the risk of all-cause, CVD and cancer-specific mortality are mixed. We summarised the evidence based on a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Pertinent studies were identified by searching articles in the MEDLINE and EMBASE databases up to 20 January 2016 and by reviewing the reference lists of the retrieved articles. Random-effects models were used to calculate summary relative risks (SRR) and 95 % CI. In all, eleven prospective studies (ten publications) were included in the meta-analysis. There were a total of 816 599 subjects and 89 251 cases of all-cause mortality. On the basis of the highest
v.
the lowest categories of intake, whole grains may be associated with a lower risk of mortality from all causes (SRR 0·87; 95 % CI 0·84, 0·90), CVD (SRR 0·81; 95 % CI 0·75, 0·89) and all cancers (SRR 0·89; 95 % CI 0·82, 0·96). For each 3 servings/d increase in whole-grain intake, there was a 19 % reduction in the risk of all-cause mortality (SRR 0·81; 95 % CI 0·76, 0·85), a 26 % reduction in CVD mortality (SRR 0·74; 95 % CI 0·66, 0·83) and a 9 % reduction in cancer mortality (SRR 0·91; 95 % CI 0·84, 0·98). The current meta-analysis provides some evidence that high intake of whole grains was inversely associated with the risk of all-cause, CVD and cancer-specific mortality. Further well-designed studies, including clinical trials and in different populations, are required to confirm our findings.
This paper presents the results of a systematic literature review of greenhouse gas emissions for different food categories from life cycle assessment (LCA) studies, to enable streamline calculations that could inform dietary choice. The motivation for completing the paper was the inadequate synthesis of food greenhouse gas emissions available in the public domain. The paper reviewed 369 published studies that provided 1,718 global warming potential (GWP) values for 168 varieties of fresh produce. A meta-analysis of the LCA studies was completed for the following categories: fresh vegetables (root vegetables, brassica, leaves and stems); fresh fruits, (pepo, hesperidium, true berries, pomes, aggregates fruits and drupes); staples (grains, legumes, nuts, seeds and rice); dairy (almond/coconut milk, soy milk, dairy milk, butter and cheese); non-ruminant livestock (chicken, fish, pork); and ruminant livestock (lamb and beef). The meta-analysis indicates a clear greenhouse gas hierarchy emerging across the food categories, with grains, fruit and vegetables having the lowest impact and meat from ruminants having the highest impact. The meta-analysis presents the median, mean, standard deviation, upper and lower quartile, minimum and maximum results for each food category. The resultant data enables streamline calculations of the global warming potential of human diets, and is illustrated by a short case study of an Australian family’s weekly shop. The database is provided in the Appendix as a resource for practitioners. The paper concludes with recommendations for future LCA studies to focus upon with respect to content and approach
Meat is an important food for human nutrition, by especially providing high quality protein and also some essential micronutrients, in front iron, zinc and vitamin B12. On the other hand a high intake of red and processed meat is associated with an increased risk for diseases, especially type II diabetes and colorectal cancer, as several epidemiological studies and meta-analyses have shown. This review summarizes meta-analyses of publications studying the association between red and processed meat intake and diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, colorectal and other cancers, and all- cause mortality. Various potential mechanisms involved in the increased disease risk are discussed. Furthermore the beneficial effects of healthy alternatives for meat, like fish, nuts, vegetables and fruits, pulses and legumes, whole grains, and dairy products, are reviewed by including selected papers and recent meta-analyses.
Meat is one of the staples of the human diet, which provides high-quality nutrients, but that also constitutes a relevant source of cholesterol and saturated fatty acids. Epidemiologic studies have linked consumption of red or processed meat with obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancers. Most epidemiological studies suggest that a high intake of meat, especially processed meat, is associated with increased colorectal cancer risk. Potential reasons for the association between high meat intake and colorectal cancer risk include some chemicals naturally contained in meat, or generated by the processing and cooking. From the literature it can be concluded that there is enough epidemiological evidence linking processed meat intake and colorectal cancer risk, but there is limited evidence regarding unprocessed red meat intake and the disease. On the contrary, there is only limited evidence linking meat intake with other diseases such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes or other cancers. Nevertheless, the literature suggest that dietary intervention may be a promising approach for prevention of cancers of the colon, esophagus, liver, stomach and bladder, and type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease which still need to be confirmed by further well designed prospective studies and experimental research.
Dietary proteins are important modulators of glucose metabolism. However, few longitudinal studies have evaluated the associations
between intake of protein and protein type and risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D). We investigated the associations between total,
animal, and vegetable protein and incident T2D in 72,992 women from the Nurses' Health Study (1984–2008), 92,088 women from
Nurses' Health Study II (1991–2009) and 40,722 men from the Health Professionals Follow-up Study (1986–2008). During 4,146,216
person-years of follow-up, we documented 15,580 cases of T2D. In pooled multivariate models including body mass index, participants
in the highest quintiles of percentage of energy derived from total protein and animal protein had 7% (95% confidence interval
(CI): 1, 17) and 13% (95% CI: 6, 21) increased risks of T2D compared with those in the lowest quintiles, respectively. Percentage
of energy intake from vegetable protein was associated with a moderately decreased risk of T2D (comparing extreme quintiles,
hazard ratio =0.91, 95% CI: 0.84, 0.98). Substituting 5% of energy intake from vegetable protein for animal protein was associated
with a 23% (95% CI: 16, 30) reduced risk of T2D. In conclusion, higher intake of animal protein was associated with an increased
risk of T2D, while higher intake of vegetable protein was associated with a modestly reduced risk.
To examine and quantify the potential dose-response relationship between red and processed meat consumption and risk of all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality.
We searched MEDLINE, Embase, ISI Web of Knowledge, CINHAL, Scopus, the Cochrane library and reference lists of retrieved articles up to 30 November 2014 without language restrictions. We retrieved prospective cohort studies that reported risk estimates for all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality by red and/or processed meat intake levels. The dose-response relationships were estimated using data from red and processed meat intake categories in each study. Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled relative risks and 95 % confidence intervals and to incorporate between-study variations.
Nine articles with seventeen prospective cohorts were eligible in this meta-analysis, including a total of 150 328 deaths. There was evidence of a non-linear association between processed meat consumption and risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, but not for cancer mortality. For processed meat, the pooled relative risk with an increase of one serving per day was 1·15 (95 % CI 1·11, 1·19) for all-cause mortality (five studies; P<0·001 for linear trend), 1·15 (95 % CI 1·07, 1·24) for cardiovascular mortality (six studies; P<0·001) and 1·08 (95 % CI 1·06, 1·11) for cancer mortality (five studies; P<0·001). Similar associations were found with total meat intake. The association between unprocessed red meat consumption and mortality risk was found in the US populations, but not in European or Asian populations.
The present meta-analysis indicates that higher consumption of total red meat and processed meat is associated with an increased risk of total, cardiovascular and cancer mortality.
Background:
In a previous study, higher concordance to the MIND diet, a hybrid Mediterranean-Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet, was associated with slower cognitive decline. In this study we related these three dietary patterns to incident Alzheimer's disease (AD).
Methods:
We investigated the diet-AD relations in a prospective study of 923 participants, ages 58 to 98 years, followed on average 4.5 years. Diet was assessed by a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire.
Results:
In adjusted proportional hazards models, the second (hazards ratio or HR = 0.65, 95% confidence interval or CI 0.44, 0.98) and highest tertiles (HR = 0.47, 95% CI 0.26, 0.76) of MIND diet scores had lower rates of AD versus tertile 1, whereas only the third tertiles of the DASH (HR = 0.61, 95% CI 0.38, 0.97) and Mediterranean (HR = 0.46, 95% CI 0.26, 0.79) diets were associated with lower AD rates.
Conclusion:
High adherence to all three diets may reduce AD risk. Moderate adherence to the MIND diet may also decrease AD risk.
Objectives:
Happiness has been associated with a range of favorable health outcomes. The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between happiness and health behaviors, stress, and environmental aspects of exercise in a Korean national representative sample.
Methods:
This cross-sectional study was conducted using multiple-stratified random sampling on the Korea Census of 2005. In October 2009, investigators conducted 15-min face-to-face interviews with 1,530 South Korean volunteers aged between 30 and 69 years. The questionnaire included questions about sociodemographic factors, perceived stress, smoking, drinking, healthy diet, exercise, exercise environment, and happiness levels.
Results:
The multivariate analysis revealed that middle-aged participants were less likely to be happy than younger and older participants, and higher happiness was associated with being part of a couple, higher income, lower stress, healthy diet, exercise, and certain exercise environments (e.g., mountain trails).
Conclusions:
Besides individual-level sociodemographic conditions, such as income or psychological status, community-level conditions, such as environment, should be considered when national and community public welfare policy is established.
AimThe aim of the present study was to explore the association between a Mediterranean‐style diet and cognitive performance, dementia, Alzheimer's disease and associated mortality in ageing populations. MethodsA systematic search of Ovid Medline, Embase and Cinahl plus databases for papers published from September 1970. ResultsTen prospective cohort studies and one cross‐sectional study were included in this review. Higher adherence to a Mediterranean‐style diet was associated with significantly decreased risks for all‐cause dementia, Alzheimer's disease, Alzheimer's disease mortality and infarcts detected by magnetic resonance imaging. Adherence to a Mediterranean‐style diet was not, however, consistently associated with tests of cognitive performance and was not associated with the presence of white matter hyper‐intensities in the brain. In four of six studies, subjects in the highest tertile for Mediterranean diet adherence had a 28–48% lower risk for development of dementia or Alzheimer's disease than subjects in the lowest tertile. For subjects with Alzheimer's disease, those in the highest tertile of adherence to a Mediterranean‐style diet had a 73% lower mortality risk than those in the lowest tertile (fully adjusted hazard ratio 0.27, 95% CIs: 0.10–0.69, P for trend = 0.003). Conclusions
There is strong evidence for the protective role of a Mediterranean‐style diet against cognitive decline and development of Alzheimer's disease. Strategies should now be sought to promote this eating pattern in older Australians. Support for dietitians in implementing this change has potential to reduce the high health‐care costs associated with cognitive decline on ageing.
Osteoporosis is a common chronic condition associated with progressive loss of bone mineral density (BMD) and compromised bone strength, with increasing risk of fracture over time. Vegetarian diets have been shown to contain lower amounts of calcium, vitamin D, vitamin B-12, protein, and n-3 (ω-3) fatty acids, all of which have important roles in maintaining bone health. Although zinc intakes are not necessarily lower quantitatively, they are considerably less bioavailable in vegetarian diets, which suggests the need for even higher intakes to maintain adequate status. At the same time, healthy vegetarian diets tend to contain more of several protective nutrients, including magnesium, potassium, vitamin K, and antioxidant and anti-inflammatory phytonutrients. On balance, there is evidence that vegetarians, and particularly vegans, may be at greater risk of lower BMD and fracture. Attention to potential shortfall nutrients through the careful selection of foods or fortified foods or the use of supplements can help ensure healthy bone status to reduce fracture risk in individuals who adhere to vegetarian diets.
We conducted a meta-analysis to summarize evidence from prospective cohort studies about the association of fruits and vegetables consumption with the risk of stroke.
Pertinent studies were identified by a search of Embase and PubMed databases to January 2014. Study-specific relative risks with 95% confidence intervals were pooled using a random-effects model. Dose-response relationship was assessed by restricted cubic spline.
Twenty prospective cohort studies were included, involving 16 981 stroke events among 760 629 participants. The multivariable relative risk (95% confidence intervals) of stroke for the highest versus lowest category of total fruits and vegetables consumption was 0.79 (0.75-0.84), and the effect was 0.77 (0.71-0.84) for fruits consumption and 0.86 (0.79-0.93) for vegetables consumption. Subgroup and meta-regression showed that the inverse association of total fruits and vegetables consumption with the risk of stroke was consistent in subgroup analysis. Citrus fruits, apples/pears, and leafy vegetables might contribute to the protection. The linear dose-response relationship showed that the risk of stroke decreased by 32% (0.68 [0.56-0.82]) and 11% (0.89 [0.81-0.98]) for every 200 g per day increment in fruits consumption (P for nonlinearity=0.77) and vegetables consumption (P for nonlinearity=0.62), respectively.
Fruits and vegetables consumption are inversely associated with the risk of stroke.
Epidemiologic evidence for the relation between carbohydrate quality and risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D) has been mixed.
We prospectively examined the association of dietary glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) with T2D risk.
We prospectively followed 74,248 women from the Nurses' Health Study (1984-2008), 90,411women from the Nurses' Health Study II (1991-2009), and 40,498 men from the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (1986-2008) who were free of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer at baseline. Diet was assessed by using a validated questionnaire and updated every 4 y. We also conducted an updated meta-analysis, including results from our 3 cohorts and other studies.
During 3,800,618 person-years of follow-up, we documented 15,027 cases of incident T2D. In pooled multivariable analyses, those in the highest quintile of energy-adjusted GI had a 33% higher risk (95% CI: 26%, 41%) of T2D than those in the lowest quintile. Participants in the highest quintile of energy-adjusted GL had a 10% higher risk (95% CI: 2%, 18%) of T2D. Participants who consumed a combination diet that was high in GI or GL and low in cereal fiber had an ∼50% higher risk of T2D. In the updated meta-analysis, the summary RRs (95% CIs) comparing the highest with the lowest categories of GI and GL were 1.19 (1.14, 1.24) and 1.13 (1.08, 1.17), respectively.
The updated analyses from our 3 cohorts and meta-analyses provide further evidence that higher dietary GI and GL are associated with increased risk of T2D.
Growing evidence suggests that effects of red meat consumption on coronary heart disease (CHD) and type 2 diabetes could vary depending on processing. We reviewed the evidence for effects of unprocessed (fresh/frozen) red and processed (using sodium/other preservatives) meat consumption on CHD and diabetes. In meta-analyses of prospective cohorts, higher risk of CHD is seen with processed meat consumption (RR per 50 g: 1.42, 95 %CI = 1.07–1.89), but a smaller increase or no risk is seen with unprocessed meat consumption. Differences in sodium content (~400 % higher in processed meat) appear to account for about two-thirds of this risk difference. In similar analyses, both unprocessed red and processed meat consumption are associated with incident diabetes, with higher risk per g of processed (RR per 50 g: 1.51, 95 %CI = 1.25–1.83) versus unprocessed (RR per 100 g: 1.19, 95 % CI = 1.04–1.37) meats. Contents of heme iron and dietary cholesterol may partly account for these associations. The overall findings suggest that neither unprocessed red nor processed meat consumption is beneficial for cardiometabolic health, and that clinical and public health guidance should especially prioritize reducing processed meat consumption.