Content uploaded by Witness Maluleke
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Witness Maluleke on Oct 21, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
633
Journal of the Social Sciences
E-ISSN: 0975-8935 P-ISSN: 0253-1097
Cosmos Impact Factor: 6.120 (2019)
Journal of the Social Sciences
www.apcjss.com
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
634
The use of drones in policing stock theft by the selected rural South
African livestock farmers
Dr. Witness Maluleke
University of Limpopo, South Africa
Faculty of Humanities
School of Social Sciences
Abstract
Stock theft is evidently becoming a worldwide growing problem, with more complexities to combat. The
recorded cases of stock theft in South Africa can be traced back to 1806. This scourge affects livestock
industries in all Nine provinces of South Africa. The 2018 financial year showed estimations of R1 billion
losses suffered in this sector with expectations of further escalation envisaged, with an increase of increase of
2.9% in the 2018/19 financial year. The aim of this study is to explore the use of drones in policing stock theft
by rural South African livestock farmers as an uncoded criminological technological edge.This qualitative
study was confined to the selected areas in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) (Bulwer, Ladysmith and Utrecht), which
were prone to stock theft by the time of conducting it, causing long-term pain and suffering to the rural
livestock farmers. 45 participants were purposively selected and Tesch’s steps were followed for data
analysis.
This study found that turbulent criminological nature in using drones for policing stock theft by South
African rural livestock farmers exist, however, the rural livestock farmers consists of more conservative
segment of the population, refereed as vulnerable part of society [i.e. often the poorest part of a country -
especially rural smallholders]. Moreover, this technological advancement is not new, accessibility remains
one of the main challenges for these rural farmers comparing to countries like America, Argentina, Brazil,
Columbia, Russia and Spain. In conclusion; this study identified three challenges and themes combating and
policing stock theft, namely: (1) Common usage of conventional methods (2) Inadequate related knowledge
and application of the use of drones and (3) Lack of capacity and resources [drones]. Equally,
recommendations on existing opportunities regarding the use of drone in policing stock theft by South
African rural livestock farmers are offered.
Keywords: 1.Agriculture, 2.Criminology, 3.Drones technology, 4.Livestock, 5.Policing.
Introduction and problem formulation
Solving and reducing the number of crimes of stock theft are paramount globally at present based on
economic trends and capital incentives in order to maintain sustainability, profitability and food security
and the emotional effect it has on the agricultural community. Notwithstanding the claim of importance,
livestock theft is a neglected crime in South Africa’s agricultural areas. During the 1990s livestock theft
reached an unprecedented peak in the new South Africa, National Stock Theft Prevention Forum [NSTPF]
(2019:1). 2018/19 stock theft statistics as revealed by the NSTPF reports that 191 head of cattle, 278
sheep and 133 goats are stolen in South Africa each day. The daily direct cost of livestock theft amounts to
R3 406 435. If the animals recovered are deducted from the total, the direct cost of livestock theft comes
to approximately R929 million per year, or R2,55 million per day (AgriOrbit, 2020). The stock theft trends
across South Africa suggests that while considering the low level of reporting this crime, the number of
stock theft reported cases to the local South African Police Service (SAPS) in the 2018/19 financial year
increased by 2,9% compared to the previous financial year. The number of cattle, sheep and goats stolen
was 4,68, 10,89 and 12,98% higher than the previous year. The number of animals stolen over the past
few years has also increased. Between 2014/15 and 2018/19, the number of livestock theft cases
increased by 18,8% and the number of animals stolen by 26,5%. Not only did the number of cases
increase, but more animals were stolen per incident reported. At provincial level, the majority of sheep
were stolen in the Eastern Cape (EC), followed by the Free State (Figure 1). The largest number of cattle
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
635
was stolen in KZN, followed by the Free State, EC and Mpumalanga (MP), with just over 10 000 head of
cattle stolen in each province. The largest number of goats were stolen in KZN, with the North West
following close behind (AgriOrbit, 2020).
Considerably; the World Economic Forum (2018:6) provides that the Fourth Industrial Revolution is
characterised by an unprecedented speed, scale and scope of technological change, with governments
around the world struggling to adapt their approaches to policy and regulation in the face of these
transformations. From artificial intelligence driving decision-making of autonomous controls to new
materials and propulsion systems that will make flying cars a reality, ministries across the globe require
the tools for creative governance that maintains the safety of the skies while enabling the increasing
movement of people and goods. One of the most impactful use cases for Unmanned Aircraft Systems
(UAS), commonly referred to as drones, is the transport of essential goods in a more rapid, efficient or
less expensive manner than ground transport. Many areas of the world are poorly served by existing
infrastructure. Advanced drone operations promise to bring both life-saving and economically important
goods and services to these communities, with especially acute need after a disaster when the usual
modes for transporting goods are no longer functioning. Currently, most governments around the world
lack the oversight mechanisms to take advantage of what is possible in this area with drone technology.
Consequently, as technology evolves, so do the ways in which crimes are committed, but also the ways in
which they are solved. While drone technology has presented law enforcement with prime examples of
both sides of this coin, it appears that at this stage, the positives outweigh the negatives. Although drones
can be dangerous in the wrong hands, they are also a valuable tool for law. This technology can be
equipped with high definition, live feed video cameras, thermal infrared video cameras, heat sensors and
radar which all allow for sophisticated and persistent surveillance. Drones can record video or still
images in daylight or infrared. They can also be equipped with other capabilities, such as cellphone
interception technology, as well as back-end software tools such as licence plate readers, face recognition
andGlobal Positioning System(GPS) trackers. There have also been proposals for law enforcement to
attach lethal and non-lethal weapons to drones (Geldenhuys, 2019a:10).Globally,stock theft is branded as
ancient as livestock farming in the Hilly Flacks, which lay in a half moon ranging through today’s
Palestine, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Irag, recalls Clack (2014:61). In the South Africa context, it is said
that stock theft is not a new crime; it is probably as old as agriculture itself (Geldenhuys, 2012:40). The
author also highlights that among the various difficulties faced by South Africa livestock farmers in
general, stock theft remains one of the biggest challenges, affecting the emerging farmer, commercial
farmer and the community alike. Though the crime of stock theft is ancient, there are signs that stock
theft perpetrators operating in South Africa are operating in organised networks, including organised
cross-border networks that invariably involve local criminals. This problem affects small-scale
subsistence farmers significantly. In one notable incident, a small-scale stock farmer could lose an entire
herd.
Clack (2014:40) expresses that stock theft is a property crime and therefore economic in nature. In
responding to stock theft, the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (DAFF) Deputy Minister
General [i.e Now-2019, the Minister of Police - Bheki Cele] (2014) (in Pakistan, 2014:1) highlights that
stock theft should be given the same level of priority and attention as cash heists in the fight against
crime, since livestock farming contributes a significant percentage to food security, job creation and
economic growth. Therefore, the government should ensure that the support to livestock farming is
satisfactory. This was supported by Maluleke and Mofokeng (2016:64), that the available devices in
combating stock theft (Radio Frequency Identification - RFID, ZigBee,Wireless Sensor Node / Network -
WSN, Wireless-Fidelity - Wi-Fi and Deoxyribonucleic Acid - DNA technology to be used with the
conventional methods of combating this crime, such as brand-marking and tattooing, with more emphasis
placed on the current legislative framework of the Stock Theft Act (No. 57 of 1959) and Animal
Identification Act (No. 6 of 2002) respectively, while invalidating the use of the new the Criminal Law
(Forensic Procedures) Amendment Act (No. 37 of 2013) (the “DNA Act”) and other related international
Acts (World Organisation for Animal Health standards - OIE standards), Maluleke (2016). Agri-alert,
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
636
2013; and Burger, 2012) (in Maluleke, 2017a:1018) provides that in dealing with issues of stock theft; the
use of technology in combating stock theft in South Africa is gaining momentum daily. This process is
guided by the concept described as “effective stock theft control and monitoring system.” Therationale of
this system encompasses the following mechanisms to monitor and prevent stock theft in a given
location, asguided by the Agri-Alert system, among others, as well as enhance productivity for the
livestock farmers: Activity alarm- Global Positioning System (GPS) alarm - Water-level monitoring - Panic
alarm and Temperature alarm. The available systems provide for livestock farmers to monitor their
animals’ movements and any disturbances, using their cell phones. GPS coordinates are also available
everywhere, for the farmers in question to receive Short Message Service (SMS) in this regard. This
system makes use of sensors fixed around an animal’s neck, and sends signals to the base station as soon
as abnormal or unexpected behaviour occurs. The base tower then sends an SMS message to the
cellphone of the farmer, informing him of this behaviour. Furthermore, the Electronic Identification (EID)
is another system, which is nothing more than a data capture system, livestock producers can decide how
to effectively integrate it into their programs. For basic compliance; the simplest option might be to
purchase the uniquely numbered RFID ear-tags and maintain simple records for animals by means of the
ear-tags. Furthermore, majority of livestock farmers in the selected rural areas of South Africa continues
losing out to stock theft, with ineffective justice system options on offer (Magistrates’Court vs Traditional
Court). Their respective silo workmanship destroys the inefficient relationship between the local courts
and these farmers, further causing increases of stock theft cases. Thus, role-players in the South African
Criminal Justice System (CJS) should find ways to improve and expedite the handling of stock theft cases.
It is noted that dealing with stock theft cases remains a specialised field for prosecutors, the existing skills
levels of court officials dealing with these matters need to be appropriate and adequate. Furthermore, the
training of livestock farmers and responsible stakeholders of either of the available courts should be
improved (Maluleke, 2017b).
Subsequently; the biggest increase to biggest decrease in crimes for 2018 indicated reported stock-theft
cases to be at 26 902 for 2017 and 28 849 for 2018, recording an increase of +7.2% (Staff Writer,
2018:1).The statistics also showed that stock theft had increased across all nine provinces compared with
2016/2017. These increases were: 14,9% for the Northern Cape, 11,8% for Limpopo, 9,7% for the Free
State, 9,3% for MP, 8% for North West, 7,7% for the Western Cape, 6,1% for KZN, 3,2% for the EC, and
1,1% for Gauteng (GP). Total stock theft cases were: 6 322 in KZN, 6 217 in the EC, 4 032 in the Free State,
3 447 in North West, 3 135 in MP, 2 187 in Limpopo, 1 558 in the Northern Cape, 998 in GP, and 953 in
the Western Cape. The highest number of stock theft cases were reported in the following areas of EC:
Mthatha (274 cases), Maluti (258 cases), Sulenkama (248 cases), and Qumbu (227 cases). In response to
the provide statistics, Willie Clack, Chairperson of the National Livestock Theft Prevention Forum
(NLTPF) points out that, based on single day in South Africa annual stock theft statistics from 2013/2014
to 2017/2018, an average of 251 sheep, 182 cattle and 117 goats were being stolen every. “In cases
where people farm with limited numbers of livestock, their livelihood is simply destroyed. Producers
need to take control of their own destiny in relation to livestock theft, as one of the biggest myths in the
criminal justice system is that the police are able to prevent crime,” Clack (2018) (inPhillips, 2018:2).
The impact of this crime suggests that stock theft is a crime familiar to the farming community, since it
not only holds financial implications but has the ability to harm its victims psychologically and
emotionally (Clack & Kruger, 2014) (in Doorewaard, 2015:52). Furthermore, in view of the nature and
extent of the crime, stock theft has evidently become a global and growing problem, which is more
complex in nature than a mere property-related crime. The 2012 indicate that stock theft had cost the
South African economy more than R430 million, and the year 2014 saw this figure exceeding well over
R500 million, according to Radebe (2012); South African Press Association [SAPA](2014) (in
Doorewaard, 2015:52).Ruthun (2016:1) advocates that stock theft from South African farms is costing the
sector close to R1 billion, with the year the recent (2018) study conducted by a team of academics from
Unisa finding that there were more than 29,000 cases of stock theft reported in SA in the last financial
year. Willie Clack, an academic at University of South Africa (UNISA), told Business Day that stock theft
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
637
resulted in a loss of about R1.3billion to the farming community in that year, these figures showed a sharp
rise in comparison to a study done in 2012, which found that stock theft had resulted in the loss of
R486.6m in the period under review (Makhaye & Mikhize, 2018:). Coleman (2018:1) supports that the
estimated R1 billion in losses currently suffered by South African livestock industry as a result of stock
theft and it is expected to escalate as the incidences of stock theft increase in all provinces.
Considering the inception of the 4th Industrial Revolution at our disposal, the cost of human capital is
rising and the use of drone technology in policing stock theft can assist rural livestock farmers to
lowerinputs costs by reducing numbers of security personnel required for surveillance, without
compromising on their current security systems. With this notion considered, the researcher thinks that
the findings of this study will prompt readers of the study to think of other contexts, settings or situations
facing similar problem across South African rural areas and elsewhere, and to recognise the existing
similarities. This study did not involve broad claims, but invited study readers to make connections
between elements associated with the study participants in line with their own experiences on the use of
this technology. Thus, the researcher will explore and give a rich description of this study subject so that
the study findings can be applied to other settings in order to contribute to the building of a new and
technological pool of knowledge in respect to the policing of stock theft in selected KZN areas and
elsewhere, focusing on drone technology.The collected data was contextualised in a rich and descriptive
manner, focusing on the use of drone technology in policing stock theft by South African rural livestock
farmers. It is envisaged that the contextualisation of this technology will be disseminated to the relevant
stakeholders in the South African rural settings and other parties interested in the policing of stock theft
and its impact on policy-making.
For recourse; drones can be positively used to help livestock farmers in multiple ways, policing of stock
theft included. They can be used drones to obtain an aerial overview of the area in which they keep their
livestock. Thermal imaging and high definition cameras allow farmers to track and monitor their livestock
remotely, identifying any issues in real time, thus enabling them to resolve issues quickly and efficiently.
Agricultural Farmers can use drones paired with a Multispectral sensor and the right Agronomist to
capture accurate data for the health of their plantations, water distribution and pesticide schedules
needed into today's precision farming. The implementation of drones in the agricultural sector will
increase yield and reduce costs to help combat water shortages and over spraying of pesticides (Airborne
Drone, 2019:1).
The importance of drones in farming practices suggests that the livestock control is the method by which
the health and position of livestock on farmland is monitored. Various methods are used, depending on
the size of the stock, but each method should provide the opportunity to obtain information regarding the
condition and position of the livestock. Tracking, inspecting, and monitoring livestock across a large
agricultural area poses challenges, mainly relating to time and efficiency. It is common for farmers to use
GPS to track their stock, but they are still required to physically go to the animal to inspect it, so this
method isn’t as efficient as it could be. Farming drones provide one of the most efficient ways for farmers
to monitor their livestock and farming drone platforms can be customised to suit a variety of needs, so it
is advisable for farmers to have several drones for different purposes. Drones work by way of several
propellers which lift them into the air, with the height, speed, and direction being controlled by an
operative on the ground via remote control. Drones can be employed to monitor livestock, assess crop
health, assess drought conditions, and even to apply pesticides. The key is to have the right drone
accessories for the job that you intend to carry out. For example, a high definition camera will provide
clear, concise footage, whilst thermal imaging software will allow you to pick up areas of heat across your
crops and livestock. Farmers typically requireUnmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAVs) to be pre-programmed for
flight, using the ground station software to demand that the flight path is contained within their flying
height and property line, creating a restricted box around the property. When operating in this way, each
cattle check can then be part of a routine consisting of auto-launching the system for flight, and also
monitoring the live video feed on screen. Since all video is recorded by the system's ground station
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
638
software, there is no real need to worry when cattle pass the point of view quickly (Airborne Drone, 2019:
1 & 2).
Methods and materials
Qualitative research approach was used in this study, with non-probability sampling: purposive sampling
adopted. The locations of this study were; Bulwer, Ladysmith and Utrecht in the KZN Province
respectively. The real population of this study consisted of officials who form part of ‘Anti-Stock Theft
Structures’ within the selected areas in KZN Province. For the purpose of this study, these structures are
referred to as “stakeholders”. These stakeholders were selected from the communal level and South
African Police Service (SAPS), KZN, as follows: Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF)
officials, SAPS Stock Theft Units (STUs) members, and livestock farmers as follows: 24:8 - Livestock
farmers – Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). 1 South African Stock Theft Units (SAPS STUs) Provincial
Coordinator – Key Informant Interviews (KIIs); and 12+2=14 Stock Theft Unit (STU) officials - FGDs and
KIIs. 2 DAFF officials - Under ‘Animal Production Section:’ Assistant Directors: Animal Technicians and
Animal Production officials - KIIs. Overall, 45 participants were selected in this study. For data analysis,
the Tesch’s eight-steps process was followed.
Preliminary literature review
Crime on farms has been an integral part of South African history; in fact, the KZN Department of
Community Safety and Liaison [DCSL] (2008:16) observes that “what is certain is that at some point in
the mid-1990s, the age-old cycle of theft and counter-theft, which had long been integrated into
communal life, was ratcheted up to a new level.” Now, more than a century later, little has changed and
the current strength of livestock prices has led to a record number of reported livestock thefts across the
country, as stated earlier. This has led to considerable public debate over how best to deal with the
problem of stock theft.The problem of stock theft on farms appears to be widespread, and often involves
serious financial and personal losses to farmers. The isolation of many rural areas, the ease of access to
most properties through improved road systems and modern vehicles, the increasing value of chemicals,
machinery and equipment on farms, and the portable nature of livestock and equipment, mean that farms
are an inviting target for thieves, vandals and other criminals. It should also be noted that stock theft is
still regarded as an African crime that forms part of rural criminality.
The use of drones in livestock industry and security
McGrath (2018:2) contends that new technologies can help beat hunger across the globe. However, the
use of drones in policing stock theft by rural South African livestock farmers as an uncoded criminological
technological edge is currently evident (i.e. 2019). The use of this technology could transform how the
rural livestock farmers farm. It should also be acknowledged that while resolving supply chain issues is a
part of the problem, farming techniques also need to be improved if they are to meet demand or serve
impoverished communities. This technology can improve livestock farming and production practices, this
will have a transformational effect in developing nations that currently witness the highest levels of food
losses post-harvest. Most of the increase in agricultural production over the coming decades will come
from yield improvement as increasing arable land is difficult. Therefore, this technology, aided with
precision agriculture will probably play a role in boosting productivity while preserving some resources
by optimising or reducing the use of inputs like seeds, fertilisers and crop-protection products.” For these
solutions to be successful, there will need to be buy-in at a global level from both government and
investor stakeholders. Ultimately, it is these two groups that have the greatest opportunity to improve the
rural livestock farmers’ activities.
Precisely, Rodrik (2018:3) mentions trade and technology present opportunities of leveraging existing
capabilities, providing a more direct and reliable path to development for the South African rural
livestock farmers in this regard. When they demand complementary and costly investments, thus, they
are no longer a shortcut around traditional manufacturing-led development. New technologies reduce the
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
639
prices of goods and services to which they are applied. They also lead to the creation of new products,
policing of stock theft in South African rural livestock farmers. Consumers benefit from these
improvements, regardless of whether they live in rich or poor countries.Upon closer inspections by
Rodrik (2018:4) reveals that the Global Value Chains (GVCs) and new technologies exhibit features that
limit the upside to and may even undermine developing countries’ economic performance, regarded as
pathways for prosperity commissions, South African rural livestock farmers are no exception. One such
feature is an overall bias in favour of skills and other capabilities. This bias reduces developing countries’
comparative advantage in traditionally labour-intensive manufacturing (and other) activities, and
decreases their gains from trade. This (i.e. GVCs) makes it harder for low-income countries to use their
labour-cost advantage to offset their technological disadvantage, by reducing their ability to substitute
unskilled labour for other production inputs. These two features reinforce and compound each other. The
evidence to date, on the employment and trade fronts, is that the disadvantages may have more than
offset the advantages.
Drones can be used to deliver goods, even far-flung places become instantly accessible. The power of
technology to bring positive change is well documented and well understood across the planet. However,
when its benefits are distributed unequally across different strata of society, technology creates barriers,
dividing peoples and inhibiting social development and economic growth, with South African rural
livestock farmers included. This experience shows that right technology, employed in the right way, can
instead create bridges. The commercial drone delivery is used as a recent (i.e. 2019) example, to this
course, using drones to deliver goods, even the most far-flung, hard to reach places in remote and rural
areas become instantly accessible and connected, this can also be linked to the use of drones in policing
stock theft by rural South African rural livestock farmers, with that, speedy and efficient alternatives to
using automobiles, trucks, and trains to traverse treacherous terrain, drones can get to these places in
minutes. Drones are seen as part of a larger smart logistics initiative, bringing people, places and goods
closer together, faster and more conveniently. Whether it is an emergency situation, where minutes
shaved can mean lives spared, to simply being able to speed necessities and goods to people who need
them, drones make impractical routes practical. Further, with the cost of deliveries in some countries’
rural areas estimated to be five times greater than in urban areas, using drones at scale can help equalise
economic opportunity and access to affordable consumer goods between regions by bringing down the
cost of rural logistics (Liao, 2019:4).
In China, approximately 10.5% relates to the value of drones in the security industry, the policing of stock
theft by rural South African livestock farmers can be seen as a growing trends and a sector to explore by
the South African government. Moreover, many characteristics similar to the developing Chinese market
of the last decade, including a rapidly growing rate of mobile and internet penetration, the lack of
nationwide logistics infrastructure, a relatively weak bricks-and-mortar retail system, and price
disparities across different areas, Liao (2019:4). Positively,drones’ deliverieshave the potential to
completely change the face of global logistics. Various essential functions are shown by this technology; a
notable example can be based on drones’ operations cited as ‘Mapping Global Transformations’ in
Indonesia. Putting drones into operation for electronic-commerce deliveries and other logistics-related
services can help give Indonesians access to unprecedented efficiency and reliability of services. It will
also play a role in making same-day and next-day delivery a reality across the country. This, in turn, will
raise the bar for customer service throughout the country, with the rural South African livestock farmers
to form part of this global change. As this pilot drone flight in Indonesia shows when the private sector,
local governments, and groups such as the Forum’s Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution (C4IR),
collaborate effectively, barriers fall and bridges are created (World Economic Forum. 2019:1).Ferreira
and Lombard (2018:9) provides that Drones have a number of uses on livestock farms. Specific software
is available that can identify and count animals. Drones with infrared cameras can give an indication of
animal health by monitoring animals’ temperature and timeously informing the producer of any changes
in health status. Animal health, feed troughs and water points can be inspected and evaluated according
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
640
to an automated daily flight plan, which leaves the farmer more time for other tasks. Various companies
market drones for security purposes. These drones are installed outside the house and are controlled
from inside. In this way, a farmer can easily inspect the yard without having to leave the house if
suspicious behaviour is observed. Drones have another interesting use: to inspect solar panels for dead or
damaged cells. The difference in temperature is immediately noticeable if an infrared camera is used and
the necessary attention can be given quickly to the specific panel.
Drones in South Africa: Legislation and requirements
The South African Civil Aviation Authority (SACAA) announced early in 2014 that there was no legislation
to regulate drones at that stage and that flying these devices was considered illegal. Legislation for
theflying of drones was introduced later and took effect in 2015. The law distinguishes between
remotecontrolled aircrafts (drones), toy aircrafts and model aircrafts. The use of drones for commercial
purposes is strictlycontrolled, while the flying of private drones is exempt from some regulations. General
rules and flight-free zones apply to private pilots. In the case of the private use of drones (or as a hobby)
the pilot does not have to register the drone. In addition, the law does not require these pilots to be
licenced; they should, however, take the statutory requirements regarding their liability, privacy and
other legal requirements of other institutions into account. If the pilot plans to make money with his/her
drone by providing a commercial service, the drone must be registered. The pilot must obtain two
licences before he/she may legally provide services to the market, namely a valid licence to fly a drone
and an operator’s certificate, Ferreira and Lombard (2018:9).The website of Drone Crew (2015:1)
highlights that to operate the drones commercially in South Africa, the operators have to comply with five
license requirements for operators of drones in South Africa: (1) Registered Remote-piloted Aircraft
Systems (RPAS) - drone; (2) Remote-piloted Aircraft Systems Pilot Licence (RPL-RPAS) Pilot Licence - for
the pilot (3) ASL - Air Services Licence - from Department of Transport; (4) Remote-piloted Aircraft
Systems Letter of Approval (RLA)-RPAS (for each drone); and (5) Remote Operator Certificate (ROC) -
approved ops manual), including registration of all drones used for commercial purpose. Operators must
meet the legal requirements set out by the SACAA, and are audited regularly for compliance.
Drones costs, general rules and importance in livestock monitoring
Ferreira and Lombard (2018:9) states that Drones can cost a pretty penny. Entry level drones currently
used in the agricultural sector cost approximately R30 000. Smaller drones that cost around R20 000 are
available, but tend not to be very reliable in strong winds and over long distances. Larger, more accurate
drones cost between R60 000 and R110 000 without a camera. The price of a standard camera ranges
between R15 000 and R60 000. The price of infrared cameras ranges from R30 000 to R90 000. Top-class
infrared and high-definition cameras will cost up to R230 000. The combination of a top-quality
commercial drone and top-class camera therefore costs approximately R350 000, without any extra
batteries. These can cost up to R7 000 per battery for top-class drones, with some using up to six batteries
on a single flight of 30 minutes long. The variation in cost is great and it is difficult to link exact prices to
drones. One thing is clear; this equipment is farfrom cheap and this is exactly how it should be regarded
as an equipment that form part of the farming enterprise’smanagement tools, more than just a toy.
The existing general rules for the use of drones in policing stock theft in South Africa suggest that Private
and commercial drones should comply with certain general rules, asapproved by the SACAA. No remote-
controlled aircraft or drone may be flown near a manned aircraft. This can lead to large-scale losses if it
crashes into the manned aircraft. A drone is also not allowed within a radius of 10 kilometres (km) from
an airport,airstrip or helicopter landing pad. All major hospitals have a helicopter landing pad. A drone
may not weigh more than 7 kilograms (kg). Pilots should fly their drones at least 50m away from another
person or group of people. This means that sport fields, schools, stadiums, social events and beaches
should be avoided. The distance rule applies to any public road and all property the pilot has no
permission to fly over. Drones may not be flown near controlled, limited or prohibited flight areas. These
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
641
areas include prisons, courts, crime scenes, power plants andall national parks in South Africa. Drones
may not be used for transport or delivery. This rule, however, is expected to change in future. Drone
pilots should always handle the device in a safe way and always keep it in sight.They may only fly in
daylight and in goodweather conditions. The devices shouldbe inspected before each flight,Ferreira and
Lombard (2018:9).
The Airborne Drones (2015:1) provides that livestock control refers to the monitoring of stock in terms of
positioning and health. Stock control methods vary with the stock sizes, but should be capable of
supplying information on the position of the stock and the condition they are in;Tracking and inspecting
livestock on large agricultural grounds can be a challenging task. Although GPS tracking enables the
controller to find the stock easily, the controller still has to go to the animal to inspect it;A novel way of
monitoring livestock is to employ the UAS-[a]. The advantage of these systems is that they can cover large
areas, provide GPS location as well as visual information, and produce a low-noise footprint, which does
not scare the animals. UAS can be equipped with multiple camera types or sensors to provide accurate
and complete information, thereby reducing stock control time and costs, including collecting data from
active transponders embedded in livestock;Livestock can be controlled and monitored by using
Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS-[b]). Aircraft systems with thermal cameras enable the farmer to locate
the positioning of livestock. The UAS can also retrieve additional information about the livestock;RPAS or
drones allow surveillance of large spaces, even during night hours, and monitor the position and
movement of livestock;In addition, they are a much more ecological option, as drones do not generate any
kind of pollutants. All the above takes place at a much lower cost than for traditional methods;Farmers in
New Zealand (NZ) demonstrated how a quad copter could herd livestock around vast farms; farmers
typically require systems to pre-program the UAV system for flight, using the ground station software to
command that the flight path be contained within their property line. When doing this, each cattle check
can be a part of a routine that consists of auto-launching the plane for flight, and monitoring the live video
feed on-screen. Since all video is recorded by the UAV’s ground station software, there is no special need
to worry when cattle quickly pass the point of view; and ‘Fluorescent Spray’ paint that is unique to each
cattle head will make your job of auditing your livestock easy (Airborne Drones, 2015:1).
The Airborne Drones (2015:2) further highlight that ‘Airborne Drones’ provides the modern farmer with
a complete airborne UAV platform that enables remote sensing and records geo-referenced data types
that include various airborne UAV platforms. Airborne Drones focus on the design, manufacture and
marketing of long-range UAVs (10 and 20 kilometres) with payloads of up to 8 kilograms for industrial-
strength commercial use. Long-range drone products have the potential to have huge benefits for
commerce and business. Solutions can be developed and customised to meet specific client requirements.
Services could include support and training during implementation, as well as post-implementation.
Airborne Drones services an international base of clients ranging from South Africa to the United Arab
Emirates (UAE). Clients include representatives from the following industries: Marketing, real estate,
security, agriculture, game farms, wildlife management, electrical installations, telecommunications,
travel and tourism, sheet metal manufacture, satellite electronics, wind farms, industrial rope access,
restaurants and food, environmental affairs and military applications.
In relation to effective surveillance with drones, Miles (2014:3) reports that Theuns Bester from
Johannesburg has been involved in television broadcasting for most of his life and specialises in Closed-
Circuit Television (CCTV) security. His latest project, aerial video and photography, was started only a few
months ago, after he realised, thanks to numerous enquiries from farmers, that there was an enormous
opportunity in agriculture for surveillance. One of Bester’s partners is a Free State farmer who provides
him with insight into exactly what farmers require, thereby helping to make the system more efficient.
Bester is also working with an Eastern Cape farmer who needs to monitor remote water points over
20 kilometres (km) from the homestead. The problems faced by this farmer are typical of obstacles faced
by many: livestock going missing in remote, hilly, densely-vegetated areas, and ongoing security
problems. Bester says that the remote water points can be monitored with an aerial drone, but they are
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
642
also looking at installing fixed Internet Protocol (IP) cameras, which the farmer can access any time with
the click of a button on his laptop at home. “Obviously, with the remote locations we would also need to
incorporate solar power solutions,” says Bester. A drone can be used for day or night patrols. It can fly for
45 minutes and has a top speed of 120 kilometres per an hour (km/h).
Programmable and convenient
Once the farm has been plotted on a map on the computer and the GPS coordinates of areas that require
monitoring have been recorded, the data is used to programme the drone’s regular flight path. It flies at
maximum speed until it approaches the coordinates, then it slows down to take live video footage of the
‘hotspot’ from a pre-programmed altitude. The drone can also be used to search for missing stock. Where
it is unable to obtain an adequate visual sighting through dense bush, the drone switches to its thermal
imaging camera. Other applications for farmers include counting game or livestock, aerial mapping of
farms, and checking pivots and water levels in dam (Miles, 2014:3). This verbatim expression:“Enough is
enough” explains the decision a farmer and his wife made after some of their cattle were brutally maimed
on their farm. Cutting the tendons of the cattle with a Panga, these thieves immobilise some of the
animals. The cattle become easy prey, from where the thieves cut out the choicest parts of the meat -
often while the animal is still alive. After seeing a Television (TV) broadcast on Dagbreek about the
possibilities a drone can offer a farmer, this couple decided to contact Haevic for help. With this verbatim
expression: “We want to catch them red handed”, Mr Bennie van Jaarsveld* (*Fictitious name in order to
hide the true identity of this farmer) told the Haevic Team (2015:2).The result was an eight-arm, multi-
rotor drone with a camera fixed to its undercarriage. While the drone is flying, the live video stream is
conveyed to a ground station where the farmer can see in real time what is happening on his farm. Mr van
Jaarsveld can now use the drone to survey different areas of his farm. As these criminals tend to hide in
the bushes near the water holes on his farm, he can now launch his drone from his vehicle to investigate
the immediate vicinity around the different water points. Strangely enough, monitoring the areas on a
farm where criminal activities are rampant does not necessarily lead to arrests. However, scouting your
farm with an “eye-in-the-sky” drone repeatedly has proved to minimise the thieving activity, if not
bringing it to an end altogether. Haevic is deservedly extremely proud to play an important role by means
of the aerial detection of criminals (Haevic Team, 2015:2).
Van Wyngaardt (2015:3) reports that the SACAA has approved Public Display Technologies’ (PDTs)
Rocketmine division as the first commercial RPAS operator for several key South Africa business sectors,
including mining, agriculture and construction. Unmanned aerial vehicle service provider Rocketmine
received its commercial operating licence for RPAS on 16 October 2015. South Africa took the lead in the
aviation industry when SACAA director, Poppy Khoza, announced in May that the commercial use of RPAS
would be regulated from 1 July 2015. The need for regulation was prompted by a huge demand for the
commercial use of drones in SA and subsequent safety concerns. The strict SACAA application process
ensures that drone operators meet all standards for safety, security and privacy. “Using drones to conduct
operational duties has produced high-quality data in a fraction of the time and at a percentage of the
costs. In the mining industry, in particular, most high-risk tasks conducted by our drones have eliminated
the safety risk for mining staff” (SACAA director, Poppy Khoza (2105) (in Van Wyngaardt, 2015:4).
Rocketmine division head, Chris Clark, as cited in Van Wyngaardt (2015:4) enthuses that “there is no
doubt that drones are set to revolutionise the way in which many key industries in South Africa conduct
their business.” SACAA unmanned aircraft systems manager, Albert Msithini, noted that the department
was “delighted” to issue the licence to PDT. SAACA issued the first civilian pilot’s licence for unmanned air
vehicles / civil remote-piloted aircraft on 16 October 2015. “The regulations were promulgated by the
PDT of South Africa, which is among the first organisations that regularly engaged the SACAA to develop
and promulgate the RPAS regulations in several key South Africa business sectors, including mining,
agriculture and construction” (Van Wyngaardt, 2015:4).The commercial use of drones has already shown
huge success in the mining and agricultural sectors, as well as construction, forestry and insurance
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
643
industries. This was likely to expand rapidly, as the approval of SACAA licences opened up assessment
and operational capacity.
It is believed that the latest drone tech could cut your livestock security costs as stock theft in South
Africa amounts to nearly R1 billion a year, with 40% of incidents going unreported. Your farm may be a
soft target for thieves that know your security team’s movements. Using drone technology can make your
farm more secure. This was when it was established that from South African farms totalled more than
R788 million between 2013 and 2014. The available statistics indicate that livestock farmers are losing
thousands of sheep, cattle and goat to theft yearly. Factual, farms situated near border posts are hit
hardest by livestock thieves. Experts believe that the situation will worsen, as food security amongst the
unemployed continues to weaken. Clack ([sa]) [i.e. stock theft expert, Willie Clack, a senior lecturer at the
University of South Africa in the Department of Correctional Management] (in Ruthun, 2016:1) states that
approximately 40% of livestock theft incidents go unreported in South Africa. Livestock theft not only
impacts your ability to meet revenue targets, it also places added strain on your profitability as you will
need to reinvest your profit into replenishing livestock shortages for your next purchase order. Hiring
more security personnel and patrolmen may seem like the easiest solution to abating livestock theft on
your farm, however, as the cost of human capital rises, adding more security personnel will also add to
your costs and reduce your profits.
Drone technology can be best used save time and money in the livestock farming sector, it should be
noted that getting from checkpoint to checkpoint on a farm is time consuming, especially when it comes
to surveying perimeter fences and hotspots. Thus, the UAVs, or drones, can assist security teams on farms
in saving time and resources. If your security team relies on a fleet of light commercial vehicles to move
around, you’d no longer need to invest in as many vehicles for patrol operations. A drone can fly the
perimeter and flag problem areas that require intervention by your security team. Sending reaction units
to problem areas, only when the need arises, will reduce the number of vehicles you need on the plot. This
cuts your costs with regards to servicing, maintenance and repair of vehicles. Minimising response times
is crucial when it comes to reducing livestock theft, and by having ‘eyes in the sky’ through drone
technology you will be able to allocate resources to problem areas more precisely, Ruthun (2016:1). To
this end, drones can assist rural livestock farmers with the following advantages:Taking over perimeter
and fence surveillance;monitoring livestock movement; investigating problematic areas or hotspots;
covering rugged terrain over shorter period of time; and reducing the amount of on-site patrolmen and
vehicles required, Ruthun (2016:1).
This technology can also reduce dependence on human capital by the rural livestock farmers, with the
investment spend on a drone remaining a once off practice and it will not draw weekly wages, and they
(i.e. rural livestock farmers) will not have to deal with labour matters like you do with human capital.
These farmers can reduce number of patrolmen on a farm, as drones can report directly to their ‘Reaction
Units.’ It remains fact that security personnel can get tired or distracted from their task, while drones can
be programmed to do exactly what you want it to. Sending a drone to conduct surveillance tasks will
allow you to decrease your reliance on human capital, without compromising on your ability to react to
situations when the needarises, Ruthun (2016:1).
‘The Cattle Watch’ products include ‘State-of-the Art’ remote monitoring / Internet of Things (IoT)
solution that allows farmers of small and large cattle herds to manage their stock more effectively. This
organisation also develops innovative technologies in the field of remote monitoring systems / IoT for
cattle herds, sheep and goats. The purpose of the identified systems is to prevent animal theft through
‘GPS’ and ‘Satellite tracking’, providing early theft warning as well as ‘Geo-Fencing’ to prevent animals
straying out of the designated grazing area. The purpose of the system is to increase by 25% the cattle’s
herd yield (weaning calves while saving 10% of operational cost). These system provides an easy and
automated animal counting technology that makes it even easy for farmers to count a large number of
stock in a matter of minutes and is able to monitor the health of animals and help curb the spread of
diseases. The adopted technologies are based on Artificial Intelligence, Deep Learning and Mass Data
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
644
algorithms, this is one of the operational systems for monitoring cattle herds in the market. For
consideration; the cattle-finder and counter can be effectively used to find lost cattle. This system detects
the physiological condition of each animal every 30 seconds and deliver real time reports to a mobile
device. Any unusual cattle behaviour can be identified and a Drone can be deployed to take video footage
of the hostile area. This system can operate in areas with or without cellular coverage and is easy to
install and operate and its uses 50 grams’ receiver that collects ear tag transmission from up to 400 mitre.
It uses Bluetooth connectivity between the receiver and smartphone, practically, figure and shows how
this system works. Operationally, this system based on satellite collars when is no cellular coverage and
on cellular collar when cellular coverage exists, Cattle Watch (2019a:1) and Cattle Watch (2019b:1),
Cattle Watch (2017b:1) and Cattle Watch (2017d:1), Cattle Watch (2016:1). Moreover, two reputable
drones for the policing of stock theft are discussed in the preceding paragraphs:
The Vanguard, this refers to one of the most popular UAV, is a long range surveillance drone with a
configurable Data Link Video Range and flight times. The Vanguard drone system is our solution to
security and surveillance needs. It is also ideal for inspection and detection where fine detail such as
cracks and signs of wear are needed. The Vanguard has a dual camera configuration which gives you the
ability to see what the Vanguard sees in real time and allows you to interchange between the two cameras
while in flight. The Thermal camera allows you to detect objects, which you can then zoom in on when
switching to the 10x Optical Zoom camera. And with a first-of-its-kind dual antenna station, the Vanguard
provides the clearest image even when it has been pushed to its limits (Airborne Drone, 2019:1). The
Falcon is the new air frame and motor configuration is the new best in its class of light payloads with
flight times of up to 50 minutes. This makes the Falcon ideal for small to medium farms that require the
flight time of a fixed wing but the precision of a quadcopter. The capture resolution of a quad copter
allowing precision mapping of more complex areas such as construction sites and open mines. With the
Long Range First Person View (FPV) System and Directional Antenna System rated at 12 kilometres and
flexible light payloads the FALCON is a real workhorse, with the range for all your needs and features
unsurpassed in its class. It is ideal for Inspection and Mapping on a budget and designed to withstand the
strongest winds. The Falcon's open source design allows for low cost maintenance and the ability to
repair the system easily by yourself in the field with generic tools and a set of optional spares (Airborne
Drone, 2019:1). Table 1 indicates the difference between the discussed drones herewith.
Table 1: The difference between Falcon and Vanguard
The Falcon X8
Vanguard
Ideal for agricultural farming
Ideal for livestock farming
Ideal Sensor multispectral
Zoom Camera ideal for animal detection
Way point guidance for autonomous flying
without pilot
Able to operate at night
Low cost of operation
Thermal Camera ideal to mark livestock
Source: (Airborne Drone, 2019:1)
To aid to the use of drones of policing stock theft by rural South African communities; theft [i.e. stock
theft] and hostile alarm is designed to provides real time and early warning for theft / hostility / illness.
This system is based on satellite collars when is no cellular coverage and on cellular collar when cellular
coverage exists. ‘Geo-fence’ is also used as a cellular based system with Geo fence and _+ 60 meter cattle’s
location. Geo-fencing and dedicate “Anti-Theft” electronics fence protection sends alerts every time when
there is a disturbance. This ‘state-of-the art’ remote monitoring / IoT solution that allows farmers of small
and large cattle herds to reach a yield of 80%. The ‘cattle counter and finder’ is adopted as herd
management software for computer or smartphone. All the cattle (cows and calves) are equipped with
ear or belt tags which count and identifies the behaviour of the cattle/ calf. While, illness identification
can send alerts on oestrus, pregnancy, walking, running, panic, laying, Calving, Bulls performance etc.
High cattle and calf mortality due to insufficient early disease prevention and a lack of real time
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
645
monitoring, Cattle Watch (2017a:1), Cattle Watch (2017b:1), Cattle Watch (2017c:1) and Cattle Watch
(2017e:1).
Notably, the Nigeria’s Osun State use drones in its bid to address the growing problem of livestock theft
and attacks in the region, with the problem focused on exiting conflicts between herdsmen and crop
farmers. Farmers have been accusing herdsmen in the area of failing to control their cattle and thus in
turn they end up damaging their crops. In return, the herdsmen have accused the crop farmers of stealing
their cattle. All in all, this conflict, is estimated to cost Nigeria approximately $16 billion (i.e. 240 billion)
in potential revenues every year. More alarming is that the conflicts between the cattle herders and crop
farmers in Nigeria's Osun State has seen thousands dead with little or no solution in sight by authorities.
The reportedly low-cost solution using GPS enabled drones, monitor cattle movement in the area and will
also evaluate the impact of cattle grazing on farmlands, Tobor (2018:1). Considerably, farmers in
countries like Australia and Israel have embraced UAV technology to radically transform how they take
care of their livestock, they use cattle monitoring drones for this exercise. From the comfort of their
homes, livestock farmers use aerial surveillance, high definition cameras and state of the art sensors to
keep a close eye on the location, health and general well-being of their cattle. Notable Five (05) reasons
on the use drones in policing stock theft are outlined and discussed by Dairy and Agriculture Technology
Now (2017) herein:
1) Finding lost or stolen cattle: Cattle in large farms sometimes wonder outside their owner’s property
perhaps using a breach in the fence, creatingpossible headache for livestock farmers trying to locate them
over very wide tracts of land. As a recourse; cattle drones offer a significant advantage because they have
the ability to survey thousands of acres of land within a short period of time.The thermal imaging sensors
have the ability to detect the location of cattle across a broad range of landscapes that could pose a
challenge for both human eyes and ordinary cameras and this is because thermal images can see through
opaque objects like trees or bushes even if it is in the middle of the night.
2) Scaring away predator animals: Coyotes lead the list of predators that eat the farmers’ livestock but
they are also joined on the list by bears, mountain lions, and bobcats. The livestock farmers can
sometimes face legal action if they kill predator animals especially if they are an endangered species and
so drones may provide a solution that not only keeps cattle safe but also spares the lives of animals just
looking for a meal. Large UAVs with loud propellers are cite to be very intimidating to predators and so
they provide a good way of scaring them off.
3) Cattle herding: Farmers no longer have to leave their homes so as to direct cattle back to their pen
because using a UAV is far easier and quicker. Nature designed sheep and cows to instinctively be afraid
of anything foreign that might be a threat to them so they run the other way anytime a drone comes
relatively close to them and this allows farmers to be able to keep cattle from wandering too close to
dangerous places like cliffs.
4) Monitoring of ill, injured or distressed cattle: If an animal has been sick or injured and a farmer
would like to keep a close eye on its condition without having to constantly go to its physical location,
then a good way to do this is by using a small and quiet drone designed to appear as harmless as a bird in
order to get close enough to check on an animal’s condition without panicking it.
5) Production efficiency: Farming is like every other business in the world in that its primary objective
is profit. This means that any efficiency that can be utilised should be implemented even in the area of
saving on labour costs. Drones can radically reduce the number of workers a farmer needs to hire in
order to herd cattle, monitor their bulk feeding as well as check on their well-being and so lower labour
costs means higher profits.Negatively, while the recreational and commercial use of drones has
skyrocketed in recent years, criminals and terrorists increasingly use the technology for nefarious
purposes. The misuse of drones poses unique security challenges for countries which necessitates strict
regulations for drones to make life difficult for those whose aim it is to cause destruction, hardship and
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
646
embarrassment. Law enforcers across the globe must familiarise themselves with this rather new modus
operandi of criminals so as to not be caught off guard (Geldenhuys, 2019b:18).
Discussions of study findings: Identified emerging study challenges and themes
There are issues that emerged during the fieldwork period and that the researcher thoughtswere
important for this study. The use of drones’ technology for policing stock theft by South African rural
livestock farmers seems to be a new concept to the selected livestock farmers in the selected KZN areas.
Another development is that local SAPS STU officials and Anti-Stock Theft Associations are
knowledgeable about drone technology. However, the interviewed participants noted that they faced
various difficulties associated with drone technology use. The data was collected around the presented
themes. However, there was an indication that an improvement had to be made with the use of drone in
policing stock theft within the selected KZN areas. This study acknowledges some areas where the
stakeholders in KZN Province did well in policing stock theft without the use of this technology. It was
also noted that the primary analysis of study data shows that there is still more to be done to police this
crime effectively.
A decline in the willingness of livestock farmers and other stakeholders to combat, investigate, prevent,
preserve and protect livestock using drone policing stock theft was also noticed in the introduction and
problem formulation section of this study. Apart from that, stock theft statistics as depicted in the latter
section negative picture is painted by an increase in the reported cases of stock theft to the local SAPSas
witnessed in the specified period (i.e. 2017/2018), which calls for undivided attention in responding to
this crime. Therefore, the following themes were identified during the fieldwork process: Therefore, the
following themes were identified during the fieldwork process:
Theme 1: Common usage of conventional methods to combat stock theft
It remains of importance to understand the operation of stock thieves. The participants indicated that
there are various types of stock thieves. For instance, they work individually or in groups, and some of the
local native residents are receivers and couriers in stock theft operations. There are also have national
buyers, facilitators and exporters, making this type of operation very lucrative. This study found that the
livestock farmers in the selected areas of KZN rely on the conventional methods to combat stock theft, for
example branding, ear marking and gum marking deserve special mention. However, the aid of drones in
policing stock theft can positively yield great results.
Theme 2: Lack of capacity and resources to use drone technology in policing stock theft
It was evident that the selected STUs tasked to combat stock theft in KZN do not have adequate capacity
and resources to respond effectively against stock theft. In essence, they are operational, but with limited
capacity (i.e. lack of drone technology use included) and resources. Lack of training on their part makes it
difficult to use this technology.
Theme 3: Inadequate knowledge and application of the use of drone technology in policing stock
theft
In stock theft cases where there is no prima facie evidence before the STU members to initiate
investigation or carry out an arrest, drone technology can be positively used to link the potential suspects
with the crime in question. In light of this finding, drone technology is widely used internationally and
locally to solve stock theft cases. To police stock theft in the specified areas plagued by this scourge in
KZN Province can be very problematic. The participants also stated that it is difficult to deal with the high
prevalence of stock theft in the selected areas of KZN Province. They indicated that the available stock
theft statistics do not lie as indicated in the introduction and problem formulation section of this study.
However, they questioned the analysis performed by the SAPS after recording the listed statistics, further
calling for the induction of drones in policing stock theft in terms of validity and reliability.
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
647
Conclusion and recommendations
In conclusion, there are many opportunities regarding the use of drones in the agricultural sector. In the
near future, South African farmers may see a larger variety of different drones available and they should
become more affordable as new service providers enter the market. Then again, producers must make
sure that they comply with the law and use service providers who meet the necessary requirements,
Ferreira and Lombard (2018:9). Furthermore, the following recommendations are presented by this
study:
Theme 1: Inadequate knowledge and application of the use of drone technology police stock theft
by rural South African livestock farmers
Recommendations and strategies for improving Theme 1
The local livestock farmers rely heavily on branding and tattooing to protect their livestock against stock
theft. However, it is suggested that they combine the conventional methods with the available
technological means, which will not be costly for them. This study recommends the use of this technology
to aid to the available conventional methods of policing this crime by the rural South African livestock
farmers. It should be accommodated that a single use of any method for combating stock theft cannot
effectively and completely address this crime at all. Drones are exciting in terms of technology and could
undoubtedly have a lasting and positive impact on a range of industries, including law enforcement. Using
drones in law enforcement adds a whole new dimension to surveillance, safety and security. Drones can
provide a bird's eye view on crime, at a low cost, while saving valuable time which can save the lives of
missing persons as well as those of law enforcement officers who have to respond to crime. Drones seem
to have an important place in the future of how law enforcement officers will respond to crime
(Geldenhuys. 2019a:15).
Theme 2: Inadequate knowledge and application of the use of drone technology to police stock
theft by rural South African livestock farmers
Recommendations and strategies for improving Theme 2
The policing actions to be instituted in the selected area of KZN Province in policing stock theft should be
vigorously monitored and corrective measures implemented on an ongoing basis to ensure protection
and preservation of livestock.The reporting of stock theft cases should be strongly encouraged, and the
SAPS performance indicators, as published in the SAPS Annual Performance Plan, should be utilised
effectively in this regard in conjunction with the proposed Statistics South Africa intervention to indicate
the extent of stock theft within a specified financial year across the province. The researcher recommends
intensification of collaboration around rural safety and cross-border crimes by strengthening and
maintaining relationships with all relevant stakeholders, as well as with neighbouring countries; use of
drones in policing this crime remains of importance in this regard.
Theme 3: Knowledge and application of the use drone technology to police stock theft by rural
South African livestock farmers
Recommendations and strategies for improving Theme 3
It was clear that knowledge of the application of drone technology in policing stock theft was limited from
the participants’ perspectives. The researcher recommends that more SAPS STU members be trained
specifically in the use of this technology. It would be best if each SAPS STU in the selected KZN areas could
have designated drone technology experts working along with the respective forensic laboratories across
the country. This will assist the STUs tremendously with their investigation of this crime. The value of this
application is gaining momentum daily as an effective tool to be used in most forms of policing,
investigations and prevention, irrespective of either criminal or civil nature.Furthermore, the researcher
recommends that a specific National Instruction focusing on the use of drones in policing stock theft in
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
648
the rural selected areas of KZN Province should be initiated, which can specifically contain a full
description of functions related to this technology. Other relevant stakeholders should also be trained in
this application to capacitate them to intensify the mobilisation against stock theft in the selected areas.
References
1. AgriOrbit [Online]. (2020). Livestock theft: The short end of the stick. Available at:www.agriorbit.com
(accessed: 2020/09/22).
2. Airborne Drones [Online]. (2019). Livestock and agriculture farming: Drones for livestock and
agricultural farming. Available at: www.airbornedrones.co (accessed: 2019/07/12).
3. Airborne Drones [Online]. (2015). Wildlife and game monitoring. Available at:
www.airbornedrones.co (accessed: 2015/12/03).
4. Clack, W. (2014). Livestock theft comparison. Wolboer Wool Farmer, South Africa, Vol (2), No. 1: 40,
2307-0226.
5. Clack, W. (2014). What is livestock theft? The Dairy Mail, South Africa, August, Vol (21), No. 8:41,
1561-4301.
6. Cattle-watch [Online]. (2016).Available at: www.cattlewatch.co.za (accessed: 2019/07/12).
7. Cattle Watch [Online]. (2017a). Cattle counter and finder Available at: www.cattlewatch.co.za
(accessed: 2019/07/12).
8. Cattle Watch [Online]. (2017b). Geo-fence. Available at: www.cattlewatch.co.za (accessed:
2019/07/12).
9. Cattle Watch [Online]. (2017b). How “cattle-finder & counter” find lost cattle Available at:
www.cattlewatch.co.za (accessed: 2019/07/12).
10. Cattle Watch [Online]. (2019). How it works. Available at: www.cattlewatch.co.za (accessed:
2019/07/12).
11. Cattle Watch [Online]. (2017c). Illness identification.Available at: www.cattlewatch.co.za (accessed:
2019/07/12).
12. Cattle Watch [Online]. 2019. Product. Available at: www.cattlewatch.co.za (accessed: 2019/07/12).
13. Cattle Watch [Online]. (2017d). Theft alert and drone operation – Cattle Watch drone. Available at:
www.cattlewatch.co.za
14. Cattle-watch [Online]. 2016. Theft early warning - Real time theft / hostility / illness early warning.
Available at: www.cattlewatch.co.za (accessed: 2019/07/12.
15. Cattle Watch [Online]. (2017e). Theft and hostile alarm Available at: www.cattlewatch.co.za
(accessed: 2019/07/12).
16. Coleman, A. (2018). Stock theft is on the rise, farmers warned. November 27, Farmer’s Weekly
[Online]. Available at: www.farmersweekly.co.za (accessed: 2019/07/17).
17. Dairy and Agriculture Technology Now [Online]. (2017). 5 Reasons to use cattle monitoring drones.
Available at: www.dairynow.ca (accessed: 2019/07/12).
18. Doorewaard, C. (2015a). Livestock theft: An analysis of the perpetrator - Part 1. Servamus –
Community-Based Safety and Security Magazine. Vol 108 (3): 52-53.
19. Doorewaard, C. 2015b. Livestock theft: An analysis of the perpetrator - Part 2. Servamus -
Community-Based Safety and Security Magazine. Vol 108 (4): 52-53.
20. Drone Crew [Online]. (2015). Legal Drones in South Africa. Available at: www.dronecrew.co.za
(accessed: 2015/12/03).
21. Geldenhuys, K. (2019a). Drones allowing a bird’s eye view on crime. Servamus – Community-Based
Safety & Security Magazine, April: 10-15.
22. Geldenhuys, K. (2019b). Drones - A threat from above – When criminals use drones to commit crime.
Servamus – Community-Based Safety & Security Magazine, April: 16-18.
23. Geldenhuys, K. (2012). Stock theft workshop in Pretoria. Servamus - Community-Based Safety &
Security Magazine, June: 40.
24. Ferreira, A & Lombard, W.A. (2018). Drones: The new wind beneath our agri-wings. Stockfarm. The
magazine for livestock farmers, December, Vol 8 No. 8-9.
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
649
25. Focus Group Discussions (Livestock farmers). (2016). Interview. Ladysmith (KZN). (Notes in
possession of researcher).
26. Focus Group Discussions (KZNSouth African Police Service Stock Theft Units). (2016). Interview.
Ladysmith (KZN). (Notes in possession of researcher).
27. Haevic Team [Online]. (2015). Haevic’s drone to fight cattle thieves in Namibia. Available
at:www.haevic.co.za (accessed: 2015/12/03).
28. Liao, J. (2019). Here’s how drone delivery will change the face of global logistics. Available
at:www.weforum.org (accessed: 2019/07/11).
29. Key Informant Interview (Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries officials). (2016).
Interview. Kwa Zulu-Natal. (Notes in possession of researcher).
30. Key Informant Interview (South African Police Service Stock Theft Units members). (2016).
Interview. Utrecht (Newcastle) and Pietermaritzburg, KZN. (Notes in possession of researcher).
31. Kwa-Zulu Natal Department of Community Safety and Liaison. (2008). Stock theft in Kwa-Zulu- Natal.
KZN Department of Community Safety and Liaison: Pietermaritzburg.
32. Maluleke, W. 2017a. An exploration of technological models in combating stock theft in South Africa.
Asian Journal of Applied Sciences, 05(05), 2321-0893.
33. Maluleke, W. 2017b.Justice for Rural Livestock Farmers in Giyani Policing Area. Asian Journal of
Applied Sciences, 05(05), 2321-0893.
34. Maluleke, W. 2016. The use of Deoxyribonucleic Acid in combating stock theft in South Africa. Ph.D.
thesis submitted to the Department of Safety and Security Management. Tshwane University of
Technology: Soshanguve South Campus, Soshanguve.
35. Maluleke, W and Mofokeng, JT. 2017.The use of Deoxyribonucleic Acid in combating stock theft:
experiences and recommendations of South African Police Service KwaZulu-Natal selected stock theft
units.International Journal of Business and Management Studies. 8(1), 1309-8047.
36. Makhaye, C and Mikhize, N. (2018). Stock theft costs SA billions every year. November 20, [Online].
Available at: www.businesslive.co.za (accessed: 2019/07/17).
37. Miles, G. (2014). Effective surveillance with drones. Farmer’s weekly, March, 10 [Online]. Available at:
www.farmersweekly.co.za(accessed: 2015/12/03).
38. McGrath, J. (2018). How new technologies can help beat hunger? November 5, 147 Infinity [Online].
Available at: www.147infinity.co.za (accessed: 2019/07/03).
39. National Stock Theft Prevention Forum. (2019). Press release (for immediate release) livestock theft
crime statistics. National Stock Theft Prevention Forum: Persequor Park, Pretoria.
40. Pakistan, A. (2014). General Bheki Cele tackles stock theft challenges in Queenstown. South African
Official News, South Africa, September 4, [Online]. Available at: www.gov.za (accessed: 2015/02/20).
41. Phillips, L. (2018). New strategy needed to tackle stock theft scourge. 12 September, Famers Weekly
[Online]. Available at: www.farmersweekly.co.za (accessed: 2018/12/12).
42. Rodrik, D. (2018). Will new technology in developing countries be a help or a hindrance? October 09,
Harvard University, World Economic Forum [Online]. Available at: www.weforum.org (accessed:
2019/07/03).
43. Ruthun, P. (2016). The latest drone tech could cut your livestock security costs. June 30, Bizconnect
[Online]. Available at: www.bizconnect.standardbank.co.za (accessed: 2019/07/03).
44. South African Police Service. (2015). Speaker notes by National Police Commissioner: Vision
2030.Available at: www.saps.gov.za(accessed: 2016/06/01).
45. South African Police Service Annual Report [Online]. (2008/2009). Available at: www.gov.za
(accessed: 2018/12/12).
46. Staff Writer [Online]. (2018). South Africa crime stats 2018: everything you need to know. 11
September. Available at: www.businesstech.co.za (accessed: 2018/12/12).
47. Tobor, N. (2018). Nigeria's Osun State to use drones to monitor cattle movement. Available at:
www.iafrikan.com (accessed: 2019/07/12).
48. Van Wyngaardt, M. (2015). Aviation authority issues first commercial drone licence. Available from:
Available at: www.engineeringnews.co.za (accessed: 2015/12/03).
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
650
49. World Economic Forum. (2019). Mapping Global Transformations. Available at:
www.toplink.weforum.org (accessed: 2019/03/11).
50. World Economic Forum. (2018). Insight report: Advanced drone operations toolkit: accelerating the
drone revolution. World Economic Forum: Cologny/Geneva/Switzerland.
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
651
Journal of the Social Sciences is an internationally peer-reviewed journal.
Journal of the Social Sciences aims to publish original research articles and
review articles in diverse fields of Social Sciences and related. This is non-profit,
non-stock refereed scientific journal in the world. Journal of the Social Sciences
was launched in 1973 and has established over the past a decades as one of the
most influential Social Science journals in the world. It is highly appreciated by
scientists throughout the world. Since 2011, Journal of the Social Sciences has
turned into a full online version.
Journal of the social sciences
Publisher: Academic Publication Council (APC)
E-ISSN: 0975-8935 P-ISSN: 0253-1097
Executive Editor:
Dr. Mohammad Mainul
Assistant Professor
University of Kuwait, Kuwait
Discipline: Social Science
Publication: Quarterly
Impact Factor: 6.120 (2019)
Submit Paper at the Email: editor@apcjss.com
Open access journal published since 1973 Scopus coverage from 1999 to
present
Author Guidelines
1. The title of the article should be bold, centered and type in Sentence Case in 14
point Times New Roman Font.
2. The author details should be 12 point Times New Roman Font in Sentence Case
accordingly- Full name » Designation » Email » Mobile numbers.
3. All manuscripts must be accompanied by a brief abstract. Abstract including key
words must not exceed 500 words. It should be in fully justified and normal text. It
should highlight research background, methodology, major finding and conclusion
in brief.
4. Author must mention 4 to 6 keywords. Key words should be listed alphabetically,
separated by commas and full stop at the end.
5. Language: We only accept the manuscript written in English. Author can use both
American and British version of English, but not mixture.
6. Length of paper: The manuscript should not exceed 5000 words (Five thousand) and
length of the paper should not exceed 20 pages.
7. Manuscript: Manuscript typed in 10 point-Times New Roman with single space and
single column on standard A4 size paper.
8. Heading: All heading must be bold-faced, Sentence Case, aligned left with 12 point-
Times New Roman and sub-heading in 10 point.
Journal of the Social Sciences October 2020 48(4)
652
9. Article title: It should be informative reflecting true sense of the manuscript and
within three lines.
10. Figures: The title must be above the table and source of data should be mentioned
below the figures and tables. Figures and tables should be centered and separately
numbered. The authors should make sure that table and figures are referred to from
the main text.
11. Photographs: Image files should be optimized to the minimum possible size (JPGE
Format) without compromising the quality.
12. Equations: All the equations used in research paper or article should be consecutively
numbered in parentheses, horizontally centered with equation number placed at the
right.
13. Table: Number tables consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text.
Avoid vertical lines. They should be numbered consequently in Arabic numerals in
the order of occurrence in the text.
14. Acknowledgement: Acknowledgement of any funding sources, if any should be included
at the end of the paper.
15. References: Please make sure that every reference cited in the text must also be
presented in the reference list and vice versa. The author is responsible for the
accuracy of bibliographic citations. Reference should be in this order-
o For Book- Surname of the Author » Name of the Author » Year within bracket
» Name of the Book » Name of the chapter » Edition no. » Publishers »
Publication place » Page no.
o For Journal- Surname of the Author » Name of the Author » Year within
bracket » Name of the journal » Name of the Topic » Page no.
o For Conference paper- Surname of the Author » Name of the Author » Year
within bracket » Name of the conference » Name of the Paper » Page no.
For Internet sources no link address only website and sources. Please do not include
DOI number in the references.
Kuwit
Journal of the Social Sciences
Prinses Beatrixlaan
Kempston
Kuwait
Contact Email: editor@apcjss.com
