Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety of Non-Native Pre-Service and In-Service EFL Teachers

Abstract

Despite a robust body of literature on anxiety in language learning, as of yet, teacher’s aspect regarding anxiety seems to have received scant research attention. Apparently, absence of a valid and reliable measuring instrument impeded the empirical research on foreign language teaching anxiety. However, preliminary work well-documents that even teachers get stressed and feel teaching anxiety in their English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the level of foreign language teaching anxiety that non-native pre/in-service EFL teachers experience. The data were collected from 30 in-service and 60 pre-service EFL teachers in two northern cities of Turkey; Trabzon and Yalova. The Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety Scale (FLTAS) was used as the main data collection instrument. No significant difference was found regarding the participants’ gender. When the participants’ scores were compared by the department they were enrolled, it was found that English language teaching department graduate teachers had significantly lower teaching anxiety levels. Significant negative associations between foreign language teaching anxiety and duration of experience as well as graduation department were found. It is believed that the results of the study will be of great contribution to further research into teaching anxiety and have important implications for policymakers of teacher training programs.

Full text

350
DOI: 10.7596/taksad.v9i3.2143
Citation: Kobul, M. K., Saraçoğlu, İ. N. (2020). Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety of Non-Native Pre-
Service and In-Service EFL Teachers. Journal of History Culture and Art Research, 9(3), 350-365.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.7596/taksad.v9i3.2143
Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety of Non-Native Pre-Service and In-Service EFL Teachers *
Mustafa Kerem Kobul
1
, İrem Naz Saraçoğlu
2
Abstract
Despite a robust body of literature on anxiety in language learning, as of yet, teacher’s aspect regarding
anxiety seems to have received scant research attention. Apparently, absence of a valid and reliable
measuring instrument impeded the empirical research on foreign language teaching anxiety.
However, preliminary work well-documents that even teachers get stressed and feel teaching anxiety
in their English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms. Thus, the purpose of this study was to
investigate the level of foreign language teaching anxiety that non-native pre/in-service EFL teachers
experience. The data were collected from 30 in-service and 60 pre-service EFL teachers in two northern
cities of Turkey; Trabzon and Yalova. The Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety Scale (FLTAS) was used
as the main data collection instrument. No significant difference was found regarding the participants’
gender. When the participants’ scores were compared by the department they were enrolled, it was
found that English language teaching department graduate teachers had significantly lower teaching
anxiety levels. Significant negative associations between foreign language teaching anxiety and
duration of experience as well as graduation department were found. It is believed that the results of
the study will be of great contribution to further research into teaching anxiety and have important
implications for policymakers of teacher training programs.
Keywords: Anxiety, foreign language anxiety, teaching anxiety, foreign language teaching anxiety,
teacher, pre-service teachers.
* An earlier version of this article was presented as an oral presentation at the II. International Teacher
Education and Accreditation Congress; Rize,Turkey; 27-29 October, 2018.
1
PhD., Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Art, Department of English Language and Literature. E-mail:
mkeremkobul@hotmail.com
2
Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Art, Department of English Language and Literature. E-mail:
naz.sarac@outlook.com
Journal of History Culture and Art Research (ISSN: 2147-0626)
Tarih Kültür ve Sanat Araştırmaları Dergisi
Vol. 9, No. 3, September 2020

351
İngilizce Öğretmenleri ve Öğretmen Adaylarının Yabancı Dil Öğretme Kaygı Düzeyleri
Öz
Yabancı dil öğrenmede yaşanan kaygı üzerine çok sayıda araştırma alanyazında mevcuttur. Ancak yabancı dil
öğretimine yönelik kaygı ile ilgili çalışmaların sayısı son derece sınırlı olduğu görülmektedir. Özellikle, geçerli ve
güvenilir bir ölçüm aracının olmaması, yabancı dil öğretimi kaygısı üzerine ampirik çalışmaların sayısının az
olmasına neden olmuştur. Bununla birlikte, yapılan sınırlı sayıdaki çalışmalar yabancı dil öğretmenlerinin kaygı
düzeylerinin yüksek olduğuna dair kanıtlar ortaya koymaktadır. Bu çalışma anadili İngilizce olmayan ve İngilizce’yi
yabancı dil olarak öğreten öğretmenlerin ve öğretmen adaylarının yabancı dil öğretme kaygı düzeylerini
incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Araştırmanın örneklemini 30 öğretmen ve 60 öğretmen adayı oluşturmaktadır.
Veriler Trabzon ve Yalova illerinden elde dilmiştir. Çalışmada Yabancı Dil Öğretme Kaygısı ölçeği veri toplama
aracı olarak kullanılmıştır. Bulgulara göre kadın ve erkek katılımcıların kaygı seviyelerinde anlamlı bir fark
gözlenmemiştir. Katılımcıların kaygı seviyelerinde lisans programlarına göre farklılık olup olmadığı incelenmiş,
İngilizce öğretmenliği lisans programı mezunu öğretmenlerin diğer gruplardan anlamlı derecede daha düşük
yabancı dil öğretme kaygısı seviyesine sahip oldukları bulunmuştur. Deneyim süresi ile yabancı dil öğretme kaygısı
arasında negatif yönde orta düzeyde anlamlı ilişki saptanmıştır. Bu araştırmanın sonucunda İngilizce öğretmenliği
lisans programından mezun olmanın ve meslekte daha fazla deneyim sahibi olmanın kaygı ile negatif ilişkisi
görülmüştür. Yabancı dil öğretme kaygısının azaltılmasına dönük çalışmalarda (veya öğretmen yetiştirme
programlarında) bu bulguların anlamlı katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir
Anahtar Kelimeler: Kaygı, öğretme kaygısı, öğretmen, öğretmen adayları, yabancı dil kaygısı, yabancı dil
öğretme kaygısı,
1. Introduction
Anxiety, as a psychological or emotional construct, has driven an ever-increasing research interest in a
wide range of disciplines, and extends from clinical psychology, through classroom to language
classroom and, relatively new, to foreign language classroom. Among other individual difference
variables such as motivation (Yan & Horwitz, 2008), apptitude (Dörnyei, 2005) and attitude (Gardner,
1985), which are thought to have a crucial impact on achievement, anxiety has been widely accepted
in second and/or foreign language learning within the past few decades. However, extant work on
foreign language anxiety seems to have focused on learners rather than the teachers. Put differently,
research on Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety (henceforth FLTA) is sorely missing. Several reasons
can be cited for this paucity of literature. One reason may be the roles attributed to teachers within
newly emerging so-called humanitarian approaches to language teaching (Larsen-Freeman, 2001)
which encouraged focusing mainly on learners, yet another reason might be that lack of a valid and
reliable measuring instrument seems to have impeded experimental studies on FLTA.
1.1. Background to the Study
The relationship between anxiety and learning has become an increasingly important field of study
within the past few decades. Although some suggest contrary, it has been well documented that there
is a negative correlation between anxiety and learning, at least to a certain degree (Piniel, 2006; Ohata,
2005). However, anxiety research has focused mainly on alleviating learners’ anxiety and increasing
their performance, while very little attention has been paid on teacher aspect. Particularly anxiety
experienced by foreign language teachers seems to have received scant attention. Apart from a limited
number of studies conducted mostly, if not all, with pre-service teachers in various disciplines (Bowers,
Eicher, & Sacks, 1983; Ngidi & Sibaya, 2003; Wadlington, Slaton, & Partridge, 1998) apart from English
language teaching such as mathematics teachers (Akinsola, 2014), agriculture faculty (Bernstein,
1983), even psychology teachers (Gardner & Leak, 1994), there is a palpable dearth of literature on
anxiety in English as a foreign language teaching.
The negative correlation between teaching anxiety and teaching performance have been amply
demonstrated in a considerable body of work. It is almost axiomatic that as the teaching anxiety
increases, the teaching performance of teachers decreases (Ameen, Guffy, & Jackson, 2002; Fish &
Fraser, 2003; Gardner & Leak, 1994; Williams, 1991). In the same vein, Horwitz (1996) posits that

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“Language teachers with higher levels of language anxiety may also communicate negative messages
about language learning to their students.” (p. 366). From a wider perspective, it is also claimed that
foreign language teachers themselves are considered as constant and/or lifelong learners of the target
language and the anxiety they experience “has the potential to affect the way teachers teach, the
amount of language students receive, and the role models to whom role-model learners are exposed”
(Horwitz, 1996, p. 371). Moroever, recent studies have also documented significant differences
between pre-service and in-service teachers regarding their teaching practices as well as performance
(Akinsola, 2014; Horwitz, 1996; Wadlington, Slaton, & Partridge, 1998). What is more, the recent body
of literature provides substantial evidence that there is a general tendency that as the teachers get
experienced their anxiety levels decrease (Fish & Fraser, 2003; Gardner & Leak, 1994) while some
others consider it as an ongoing problem (Bernstein, 1983). However, the teacher’s anxiety per se as
such a vital variable in language teaching seems to have received little research attention, if not totally
neglected.
1.2. Anxiety
Within this vast area of disciplines numerous definitions as well as taxonomies of anxiety have been
presented by scholars. Scovel (1978) offers a neurological definition of anxiety as an emotional state
which “is generated through the arousal of the limbic system” (p. 135). In their treatise, Horwitz,
Horwitz & Cope’s (1986) define anxiety as “subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness,
and worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system” (p. 125). All in all, common
sense suggests that anxiety creates somehow uneasiness or insecurity on individuals. Two main
taxonomies depending on the nature of the anxiety have been commonly accepted. On one hand there
is the dichotomy of trait and state anxiety (Spielberger, 1983). Dörnyei (2005) defines the dichotomy
as “Trait anxiety refers to a stable predisposition to become anxious in a cross-section of situations;
state anxiety is the transient, moment-to-moment experience of anxiety as an emotional reaction to
the current situation.” (p. 198). Moreover, MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) highlight another type of
anxiety “situation-specific anxiety” which suggests mainly that individuals may get anxious in specific
stiuations. On the other hand, there is facilitating and debilitating anxiety (Alpert & Haber, 1960) which
suggests that anxiety can facilitate learning to a certain degree while after a threshold it is believed to
hinder learning.
Although introduced with pioneering seminal review of Scovel (1978) as a separate construct, it was
not until Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope’s (1986) most renowned treatise, had anxiety unique to foreign
language learning been established as a unitary construct. Furthermore, despite an ever-expanding
accumulation of research which had also offered insightful discussions on the relationship between
learning and anxiety, research on foreign language learning anxiety flourished only after Foreign
Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) (Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1986). Since then, a proliferation
of studies with mounds of data on the relationship between language learning anxiety and
achievement have been published (Dörnyei, 2005).
It took a decade for scholars to address, if not notice, the affect that foreign language teachers
themselves experienced in their classrooms. Horwitz (1996) was one of the first to provide a
description of anxiety experienced by foreign language teachers and remarked, “Even though language
teachers are supposed to be high-level speakers of their target language, language learning is never
complete, and most nonnative language teachers are likely to have uncomfortable moments speaking
their target language.” (p. 365). In line with this, in a fairly recent study Ameen, Guffey and Jackson
(2002) highlight that “Teaching anxiety appears to be a common occurrence among the vast majority
of accounting professors and often manifests itself in the form of physical and psychological symptoms
or reactions” (p. 17). Interestingly enough, along with psychological symptoms of distress,
apprehension and being upset some of the physical symptoms reported in the study are heart-rate
acceleration, gastrointestinal distress, or being flushed. Bernstein (1983) further remarks that in severe
conditions anxiety might even end up with physical illnesses such as “ulcers, colitis, cardiac
arrhythmias, headache, chronic pain, hypertension” as well as problems of “disrupted family…

353
colleagial relations, and sexual dysfunction” (p. 5). All in all, FLTA seems to have the potential to
constitute a significant problem for language teachers.
1.3. Native and non-native teachers
It is estimated that over two billion people speak English as a second or foreign language (Crystal,
2008). Research reveals that an overwhelming majority of second language teachers is non-native
speakers of English (Ranta, 2010, Tsui, 2003), as has been the lingua franca of the world (Seidlhofer,
2004). Correspondingly, many scholars have harbored deep-seated doubts regarding the ownership of
English (Widdowson, 1994). Along with the arguments on the ownership of English (Widdowson, 1994)
serious criticism was leveled against the standardized and idealized native-speaker norms (Alptekin,
2002; Leung, Harris, & Rampton, 1997; McKay, 2011) which have granted a highly privileged status to
the “White, monolingual English speaker” (Leung, Harris, Rampton, 1997) teachers. Canonical view
suggests that language teacher as the main, if not the sole, model of the language in EFL and ESL
contexts should be native-speaker who are assumed to be a good model of the target language. In line
with this, Kuo (2006) favors a native-speaker model for phonology as well as grammar to “ease or
smooth the flow of conversation, to reduce the listener’s burden of processing information, and to
satisfy learners’ needs that stretch beyond merely international intelligibility” (p. 220). Besides, non-
native speakers are considered to be using a somewhat deviant accent or a “deficit model” (Bernat,
2008) of the target language which might be allotting them a subordinate position. However,
contemporary sociolinguistic perspective (Jenkins, 2002; Smith, 1992; Seidlhofer, 2004) suggests
“intelligibility” as the major premise of language teaching methodology although some others consider
intelligibility as a vague term whose borders are not well-defined (Pickering, 2006). On the other hand,
non-native speaker teachers are believed to be holding some better qualities such as “a more thorough
knowledge of grammar, empathy for the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learner having been one
themselves, being a bilingual resource in the classroom, and understanding the local curricula and
contextual demands” (Bernat, 2008, p. 1) as well as better knowledge of the language and better
training and experience in teaching skills (Jenkins, 2006). From a different perspective, Norton (1997)
remarks the difficulty of designating a native or non-native speaker considering lingua franca footing
of English in various parts of the world such as India, Pakistan, Canada. Davies (2003) further brings
the native speaker per se as a term to the table for reconsideration. On the whole, there is no
consensus reached yet on the current controversy about the native or non-native speaker status of
English language teachers and seems to remain so at least in the near foreseeable future.
1.4. Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety
Common sense has it that all teachers including English as foreign language teachers experience a
certain degree of anxiety particularly at the early periods of their teaching experience. However, only
a handful of publications can be found regarding the native versus non-native speaker English language
teachers’ teaching anxiety. Greis (1985) depicts a general framework for anxiety experienced by
teachers highlighting the high level of anxiety of inexperienced teachers in the early stages and remarks
that “Anxiety may be felt by any beginning teacher, whether native or non-native. However, when put
next to native speaker, the non-NETs [non-native ESOL Trainees] often experience a strong sense of
fear that they will not attain the same level of proficiency and that the ESL students may reject them
preferring a native speaker as a teacher” (p. 318). By the same token, there seems to be a consensus
reached that non-native speaker English language teachers experience anxiety about their perceived
insufficient language proficiency whose most visible signal is their foreigner L1 accent (Braine, 2010;
Inbar-Lourie, 2005; Reves & Medgyes, 1994). In the same vein, discussing findings of her study,
Bernhat (2008) argues that “More than half the respondents felt that they do not belong in front of
the classroom, and this may be either a result of lack of teaching experience or feelings of inadequacy
due to being NNS (though subsequent interview data showed that the latter cause dominated)” (p. 4).
In a nutshell, this remarkably sparse literature on non-native speaker English language teachers clearly
demonstrates a prevailing general anxiety due to perceived insufficiency in language proficiency;
however, little is empirically known about their FLTA.

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1.5. Measuring FLTA
Research on foreign language teaching anxiety is still in its infancy. Extant writings cite frequently two
studies, thus, scales that specifically measure foreign language teaching anxiety. One study that is
highly referred is Horwitz’s (1996), which is from Western world. The second study is from Turkey;
Ipek’s (2006) PhD dissertation. The need to spell out such a differentiation originates from the almost
axiomatic impact of culture in human cognition which is duly noted in a robust and extensive body of
published works by eminent scholars (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010; King & McInerney, 2014;
Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001). In line with this, the literature is also replete with
contentions of scholars highlighting the differences in unfitting concepts between the Western and
Eastern worlds, or in Hofstede’s (1984) terms, individualist and collectivist cultures. More specifically
put, ithat communicative language teaching, once highly-praised, was a Western artefact and would
hardly be a panacea for EFL classrooms of Eastern culture. In the same vein, what may be anxiety
arousing for teachers in western culture might not be so in a non-western context or vice versa.
However, there is another caveat germane to this discussion worth noting here. Strange to recount,
the studies that report to have used Horwitz’s scale cite her 1996 work. Nevertheless, Horwitz presents
no scale yet acknowledges the type of anxiety that is peculiar to foreign language teaching in the
aforementioned study. Moreover, to the best of present authors’ knowledge, no foreign language
teaching anxiety scale has been published as of yet by the renowned scholar Elaine K. Horwitz. All
things considered, İpek’s (2006) scale emerges as a more viable option with reliability and validity of
the scale were already provided including factor analysis for construct validity.
As a field of scholarly investigation, foreign language teaching anxiety had not kept pace with learning
anxiety. Before the new millenium, foreign language teaching anxiety experienced by teachers had
received only cursory research attention. One reason to be cited is that lack of an appropriate
measuring instrument seems to have hampered the research on foreing language teaching anxiety for
a considerable amount of time. Among the few work, Aslrasouli and Vahid (2014) conducted a study
with 114 EFL university teachers in Iran context and used a scale to measure teacher anxiety developed
by Ferguson, Frost and Hall (2012). The researchers found that 57.65% of the teachers were somehow
experiencing teaching anxiety caused by various affective variables including interpersonal relations,
employment structure as well as language proficieny and knowledge, as they report. The study also
probed into the association between year of experience and teacher anxiety and found negative
significant correlation (r = -0.21, p < 0.05), though the scale they used was not specific to FLTA.
Correlation in this study can be considered weak as in social sciences correlation value over .40 is
considered to have more practicality (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006). The researchers also delved into the
impact of gender variable on teaching anxiety by running a Point-biserial correlation and found no
significant correlation (r = -0.11, p > 0.05).
Fairly recently, Öztürk (2016) undertook a research with 103 state university language instructors in
Turkey. The study had a mixed-methods research design and for the quantitative data collection part
the researcher used İpek’s (2006) instrument FLTA scale. The findings of the study indicate, as Öztürk
coins, a “moderate” level (M= 1.85) of FLTA experienced by the in-service university language
instructors. The study also delved into the impact of variables such as gender and educational
background which did not yield significant results while year of experience was found to have a
significant impact on their anxiety level.
Concurrently, Aydın (2016) excavated the sources of foreign language teaching anxiety with 60 pre-
service teachers studying in DELT in a qualitative study. The researcher reached twelve topics that
arouse anxiety in teachers ranging from lack of teaching experience, fear of making mistakes, lack of
learners’ motivation, participation interest and involvement in activities to personality type and
difficulties in time management. Another finding emerged from the study was that pre-service
teachers felt anxiety almost all the time; before, during, after, they were involved in teaching activities.

355
On the whole, looking across this sparse body of work, it is evident that scholarly world has turned a
blind eye to the anxiety experienced by foreing language teachers. Although studies have lately
recognised foreign language teaching anxiety, there is still an apparent dearth of systematic
investigations into this area.
1.6. Purpose of the study
The main purpose of the study was to explore Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety levels of pre-service
and in-service English language teachers in Trabzon and Yalova. Another purpose of the study was to
investigate whether EFL teachers’ FLTA level exhibit any difference with regard to some variables such
as their gender, employment status (pre-service/in-service), the department they graduated from. The
study also delved into whether there is a correlation between EFL teachers’ FLTA level and their age as
well as year of experience.
This study was designed to test out the research hypotheses presented below:
1. There is no significant difference in EFL teachers’ foreign language teaching anxiety level with regard
to their,
a) gender
b) pre-service and in-service status
c) graduation department
2. There is no correlation between EFL teachers’ foreign language teaching anxiety level and their
a) age
b) year of experience
2.Methodology
2.1. Participants
A convenience sampling method was exploited in the study as is well identified in the relevant
literature that it is difficult to reach a true random sampling in social sciences (Dörnyei & Taguchi, 2009;
Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006). The research population comprised of both in-service and pre-service EFL
(English as a Foreign Language) teachers. A total of 90 in-service and pre-service EFL teachers in Yalova
and Trabzon cities participated in the study. Forty-six of the participants were enrolled at or the
graduates of the department of English language and literature (henceforth DELL), while 44 were
enrolled at or the graduates of the department of English language teaching (henceforth DELT) in
education faculties of various universities in Turkey. Fraenkel and Wallen (2006) remark that “The
minimum acceptable sample size for a correlational study is considered by most researchers to be no
less than 30” (p. 335). In line with this, Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007) highlight that “causal-
comparative and experimental methodologies require a sample size of no fewer than fifteen cases” (p.
102). Moreover, it is worth to note that a uniform curriculum has been followed in English Language
Teaching departments of education faculties in all over Turkey since 1997 (YÖK, 1997), while English
Language and Literature departments do not have such tight and strict curricula. What is more, pre-
service teachers from both departments take two semesters of practicum in their senior year. Thirty
of the participants were in-service teachers working at various schools in Yalova and Trabzon while 60
of them were pre-service EFL teachers studying in faculty of education and faculty of letters at
Karadeniz Technical University. The age range of in-service teachers was 22-50 with a mean of 29.9 (SD
= 8.21) while the year of experience range was 1-25 with a mean of 6.5 years. The age range of pre-
service teachers was 21-30 with a mean of 23.41 (SD = 1.35) years.
2.2. Instrument
Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety Scale (FLTA) developed by Ipek (2006) was used to measure FLTA
of participants as the main data collection instrument in the study. There were 26 items in the scale.
Participants indicated the degree of anxiety they felt on a 5-point Likert type items questionnaire with

356
1= strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3= neither agree nor disagree, 4= agree, 5= strongly agree items to
choose from. Reliability and validity of the scale were statistically proved (İpek, 2006). Thus, the scale
has been used in various studies and found highly reliable; in İpek’s (2006) study high reliability was
reached (α=.93). Similarly, Merç (2010) reached a high internal consistency coefficient level (α=.92),
while Öztürk (2016) mentioned no reliability statistics. A Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability test yielded a
highly reliable level in this study (α=.92). Along with Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety Scale,
participants were asked to express their gender, year of experience and the program, ELT or DELL, they
graduated from in a demographic information form.
2.3. Procedure
The data were collected from two northern cities of Turkey; Trabzon and Yalova in the spring semester
of 2017-18 academic year. The participants were handed out questionnaires by the researcher in
person. No personal information was asked from the participants. Each participant was given a bar of
chocolate as an incentive. The data were analyzed in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM
SPSS®, version 22.0). Descriptive statistics were generated for all variables and internal consistency
reliability analysis was calculated using Cronbach’s Alpha. The significance level was stated as a p value
of <.05. Following the tests of normality, several parametric statistical tests: independent samples t-
test and Spearman correlations were computed for inferential statistics as well as non-parametric
Kruskal Wallis H test for smaller groups which had less than thirty participants (Larson-Hall, 2015).
3. Findings
Normality test of Shapiro-Wilk, which is considered as quite appropriate for small sample sizes (Larson-
Hall, 2015), was computed and results revealed that the difference between the obtained data and
normal distribution was not statistically significant (p =.055). To confirm normality, Skewness (= .21)
and Kurtosis (= -.01) levels were inspected and found that normality was not violated. A general rule
of thumb for Skewness and Kurtosis is that less than ±2 indicates normality is not violated (Brown,
1997; Weinberg & Abramowitz, 2002). Descriptive statistics were calculated and overall mean anxiety
scores of participants were found to be moderately low (M = 2.42, SD = .6283). Furthermore, a one-
sample t-test was run to determine if a statistically significant difference existed between foreign
language scores from the sample used in this study and the general population t(89), -8,74, p = ,000.
An independent samples t-test was computed to test the research hypothesis 1-a, if there was
statistically significant difference in the foreign language teaching anxiety levels of the participants
with regard to their gender. The null hypothesis was accepted at p = .172 which indicated that there
was no statistically significant difference regarding participants’ gender (Table 1).
Table 1.
Independent Samples t-Test Results Reporting Difference between Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety
Scale Means by Gender.
Foreign Language Teaching
Anxiety Scale Scores
n
M
SD
t
df
p
Female
Male
66
24
2.4757
2.2707
6082
1
6708
4
1.37
6
88
.172
To test the research hypothesis 1-b, if there was statistically significant difference between in-service
and pre-service EFL teachers’ FLTA level, an independent samples t-test was run. The results revealed
no significant difference (p = .872) with in-service teachers having slightly higher teaching anxiety level
(Table 2).

357
Table 2.
Independent Samples t-Test Results Reporting Difference between Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety
Scale Means in terms of Employment Status.
Foreign Language Teaching
Anxiety Scale Scores
n
M
SD
t
df
p
In-Service
Pre-Service
30
60
2.43
62
2.41
35
.65927
.61782
.161
88
.872
In pursuit of testing the research hypothesis 1-c regarding the department participants were enrolled
or graduated from, an independent samples t-test was performed. Significant difference was not found
(p =.589) between the graduates of DELL and DELT in general (Table 3). However, the table clearly
demonstrates that teachers who were enrolled at or graduated from DELT had higher level of foreign
language teaching anxiety.
Table 3.
Independent Samples t-Test Results Reporting Difference between Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety
Scale Means in terms of Department.
Foreign Language Teaching
Anxiety Scale Scores
n
M
SD
t
df
p
DELT
DELL
4
6
4
4
2.4564
2.3842
.65666
.60258
.54
3
8
8
.589
A Kruskal-Wallis H test was further computed to investigate whether the groups would differ
significantly when their graduation department and current employment status were taken into
account together (Table 4). Kruskal Wallis H test was preferred as some of the groups had less than
30 subjects (Larson-Hall, 2015) although the groups did not violate normality assumptions according
to neither Shapiro-Wilk test nor Skewness and Kurtosis values. The test yielded a statistically significant
difference (χ2 = 19.34, df = 3, p = .000). Pairwise comparisons using Mann-Whitney U test, which is
recommended as post hoc procedure for Kruskal Wallis H test (Field, 2009; Larson-Hall, 2015),
indicated that the level of FLTA of DELT graduate in-service teachers was significantly lower than DELT
enrolled pre-service teachers (U = 133.00, z = -2.47, p < .05) and ELT enrolled pre-service teachers (U
= 70.50, z = -3.91, p < .05). However, the anxiety level of DELT graduate in-service teachers was not
significantly different from DELL graduate in-service teachers.
Table 4.
Kruskal Wallis Test of FLTA Scores by Graduation Department & Employment Status
Graduation Department &
Employment Status
n
Mean Rank
χ2
df
p

358
1 In-service ELT Graduate
Teachers
2 Pre-service DELL Student
Teachers
3 Pre-service ELT Student
Teachers
4 In-service DELL Graduate
Teachers
16
30
30
14
25.75
46.32
59.40
36.54
19.34
3
.000
The research hypothesis 2-a that there is no correlation between EFL teachers’ FLTA level and their
age was tested by utilizing Spearman correlation. The result of the Spearman correlation indicated a
negative statistically significant association between FLTA and participants’ age (r = -.23, N = 90, p =
.03), demonstrating that the older the participants the lower anxiety they experience. As a rule of
thumb, correlations to be considered meaningful are expected to be no less than .30 in social science
research (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007; Dörnyei & Taguchi, 2009) and Fraenkel and Wallen (2006)
consider correlation between .41 and .60 as “large enough to be of practical as well as theoretical use”
(p. 249).
Spearman’s rank-order correlation was computed in order to assess the research hypothesis 2-b that
there is no correlation between EFL teachers’ FLTA level and their year of experience. The null
hypothesis was rejected as the result identified a statistically significant negative correlation between
the teachers’ FLTA level and their year of experience (r = -.35, N = 90, p =.001). Put differently, the
more experienced the teachers get the less teaching anxiety they experience.
4. Discussion
Preliminary descriptive statistics, which, were calculated to examine central tendencies in the study,
revealed a relatively low foreign language teaching anxiety level for the participants (M = 2.42, SD =
.6283). However, when compared with the results of Öztürk’s (2016) study, who used the same scale
and found mean score of “1.85” with a standard deviation of .56, the participants in this study had, if
not suffer from, a considerably higher level of FLTA (Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety).
To explore any gender-related difference in participants’ foreign language teaching anxiety levels, an
independent samples t-test was implemented. The t-test results revealed no significant difference for
gender. However, as in line with the extant literature (Rubin, Slovin, & Krochak, 1988) female
participants found to have higher anxiety levels. There is a general tendency that females experience,
particularly in self-reported studies of various fields, more anxiety than males. As the research on the
impact of gender has yielded controversies, this result is in line with some literature where no
significant difference, regarding, gender was found (Akinsola, 2014; Aslrasouli & Vahid, 2014; Öztürk,
2016), while it is in contradiction with some other works where significant differences were found
(Ameen, Guffey, & Jackson, 2002; Fish & Fraser, 2001; Ngidi & Sibaya, 2003). However, it should be
noted that females’ high anxiety level in self-reported studies might result from females’ general
tendency to express and share their feelings while males generally have a tendency to hide their
feelings, particularly their weaknesses.
Another independent samples t-test was carried out explore whether there was significant difference
between pre-service and in-service EFL teachers’ FLTA scores. Although in-service teachers had slightly
higher levels of FLTA, the difference did not reach statistically significant level. This result is in partial
contrast with existing literature which demonstrates that as the teachers get experienced their anxiety
level decreases (Akinsola, 2014; Ameen, Guffy, & Jackson, 2002; Aslrasouli & Vahid, 2014; Fish &
Fraser, 2003; Gardner & Leak, 1994; Kesen & Aydın, 2014; Öztürk, 2016). However, the result may be
due to the fact that there are some novice in-service teachers within the research sample of this study.
Moreover, this finding can be interpreted as a cause of anxiety experienced due to supervision process

359
(Kayaoğlu & Kobul, 2013) as being supervised per se is widely accepted as an anxiety-provoking
situation (Akinsola, 2014; Gebhard, 1990).
It was hypothesized that there might be a difference in participants’ FLTA levels with regard to the
department they were attending or graduated from. No statistically significant difference emerged
with respect to the department; either English language teaching or English language and literature.
However, further test of Kruskal Wallis H test and Post Hoc Mann-Whitney U tests revealed that
participants who were graduates or enrolled in the English language teaching department had higher
FLTA levels than of department of English language and literature. To the researchers’ best knowledge,
no published study systematically investigated and documented the difference in teaching anxiety
levels of pre-service and in-service teachers. This result might have been obtained due to the folk-
wisdom of “ignorance is bliss” which refers in this context the courses taken within the language
teaching department curriculum. From the first year on, the participants follow a curriculum which
offers teaching-focused courses. There is a uniform curriculum followed in English Language Teaching
departments of education faculties accross Turkey since 1997 (YÖK, 1997). These teaching courses,
either theoretical or practical, offered participants to take throughout their bachelor’s program might
be creating some kind of self-monitoring effect (Synder, 1974) or false consensus effect (Ross, Greene
& House, 1977) that would affect them negatively, i.e. lowering their perceived self-efficacy beliefs
(Bandura, 1993; Pajares, 1996) or causing some kind of anxiety. It is well-documented that when
people know less about something they have a tendency to a have an inflated self-assessment (Kruger
& Dunning, 1999) and thus, experience less cognitive inhibition (Wood, Matthews, & Dalgleish, 2001).
Thus, the higher anxiety that the DELT participants experience can be attributed to their cognitive load
which might be serving as a burden (Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, Sweller, 2003) because they are trying
to handle too much information at a time or some kind of psychological inhibition or sheer anxiety as
in tunnel vision (Savage, Potter, & Tatler, 2013; Smith, 2004) for the participants. In line with this,
Dadandı, Kalyoncu and Yazıcı (2016), in a study conducted with 677 pre-service teachers of various
majors, found that students from teaching departments had higher concern levels than the students
from departments whose students take these teaching classes only in their fourth and last year under
the name of “pedagogic formation” program in Turkey.
The results of this study have identified a negative and significant correlation between teachers’ age
and FLTA based upon a Spearman’s rank-order correlation. This result resonates with relevant
literature which well documents that there is an association between anxiety level and age (Ameen,
Guffy, & Jackson, 2002; Fish & Fraser, 2001; Gardner & Leak, 1994; Ngidi & Sibaya, 2003).
Another finding emerged from this study was a moderately strong negative association between
participants’ FLTA level and year of experience which suggests that the more experience the teachers
get the less teaching anxiety they experience. This result corroborates the findings of existing literature
(Aslrasouli & Vahid, 2014; Ameen, Guffy, & Jackson, 2002; Fish & Fraser, 2001; Gardner & Leak, 1994)
while it contradicts with Kesen and Aydın’s (2014) study where they found that less experienced
instructors were reported to have lower level of FLTA than experienced college instructors. The
difference might be lying on the difference in research sample; teachers working at primary or
secondary level education versus tertiary level college instructors. Teachers working at different
education level schools might have different aims, objectives, levels, needs, interests, concerns and
background etc.
5. Conclusion
The current study was undertaken mainly to investigate the FLTA level of pre-service and in-service
non-native English language teachers. Another purpose of the study was to probe into any difference
in FLTA level of participants regarding their gender, employment status and the department they were
enrolled at or graduated: department of English language teaching or department of English language
and literature.

360
The results of the study clearly indicate that, regardless of pre/in-service status, English language
teachers self-report to experience FLTA, at least to a certain degree. This result is in accordance with
the extant literature (Ameen, Guffy, & Jackson, 2002; Bernstein, 1983; Borg, Riding, & Falzon, 1991;
Bowers, Eicher, & Sacks, 1983; Fish & Fraser, 2001; Gardner & Leak, 1994; Ngidi & Sibaya, 2003;
Wadlington, Slaton, & Partridge, 1998). However, the study revealed no significant difference in
participants’ FLTA level with regard to gender. Although this finding differs from some published work
where significant differences were reported (Ameen, Guffey, & Jackson, 2002; Fish & Fraser, 2001;
Ngidi & Sibaya, 2003), it substantiates some other research where no significant difference was found
(Akinsola, 2014; Aslrasouli & Vahid, 2014). This demonstrates that the impact of gender on teaching
anxiety will continue to stay at the forefront of controversy in the foreseeable future. Conjointly,
further research with different and wider samples would contribute substantially to enhance our
understanding of the role of gender in FLTA.
One of the most noteworthy findings of this study is that no statistically significant difference was
found between pre-service and in-service teachers’ FLTA levels though in-service teachers were found
to have less FLTA level compared to pre-service teachers. However, a Kruskal-Wallis H test yielded
statistically significant difference between the groups when they were grouped according to their
employment (pre/in-service) status and enrolled/graduation department (χ2 = 19.34, df = 3, p = .000)
separately. Post hoc pairwise comparisons revealed that in-service DELT graduate teachers were found
to be experiencing less FLTA than DELL graduate teachers. Moreover, pre-service teachers enrolled at
both DELT and DELL departments were found to have more FLTA level compared to in-service DELL
and DELT graduate teachers.
Another remarkable finding of the study was that the result of Spearman rank-order correlation
indicated a significant moderate negative correlation between teachers’ FLTA level and their age (r = -
.23, N = 90, p = .03). Put it differently, the older the teachers get the less anxiety they experience. This
finding supports further evidence to the earlier research findings (Ameen, Guffy, & Jackson, 2002; Fish
& Fraser, 2001; Gardner & Leak, 1994; Ngidi & Sibaya, 2003).
The current study also identified, grounded on Spearman’s rank-order correlation, a significant
moderate negative relationship between teachers’ FLTA level and year of experience (r = -.35, N = 90,
p =.001). This finding corroborates the findings of a previous studies which have long established the
negative correlation between teaching anxiety and year of experience (Akinsola, 2014; Aslrasouli, &
Vahid, 2014; Fish & Fraser, 2001; Klassen & Chiu, 2010). The common sense has it that as the teachers
get experience they get more familiar with anxiety-inducing situations such as disruptive student
behavior, classroom management, heavy work load, following the curriculum, planning lessons, being
supervised and can cope with them more effectively (Akinsola, 2014; Fish & Fraser, 2001; Gebhard,
1990; Kesen & Aydın, 2014). Thus, the results provide further support to the Latin proverb “Usus
magister est optimus” which means practice makes perfect.
6. Implications
The results obtained from this study have the following pedagogical as well as practical implications:
Foreign Language Teaching Anxiety per se should be acknowledged as an anxiety arousing experience
for EFL teachers. Awareness should be created in teachers and teacher trainers and some further
precautions can even be taken. In the broadest perspective, the curricula of pre- and in-service training
programs might be suggested to include topics that would raise awareness of FLTA nation-wide. Put
differently, EFL teachers as well as teacher trainers might be suggested to be trained in the sources,
causes, effects and results of FLTA. Accordingly, methods, techniques or procedures such as coping
strategies for alleviating anxiety should be recommended and included in curricula for better and more
effective teaching process. For instance, reflective teaching (Richards & Lockhart, 1994) and clinical
supervision (Gebhard, 1990; Kayaoğlu & Kobul, 2013) can be recommended as feasible alternatives for
coping strategies as they are already acclaimed to improve teachers’ affective states as well as teaching
process. Notwithstanding, empirically grounded research can be further conducted to investigate the

361
outcomes of reflective teaching and clinical supervision in alleviating EFL teachers’ teaching anxiety
level.
Some other potentially anxiety-provoking factors or situations might have gone unnoticed within the
FLTAS. It can, thus, be suggested that more insights can be gained through in-depth individual and/or
focus group interviews with the teachers pertaining to their additional anxiety sources/reasons. More
broadly, future research conducted in mixed method design (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006) studies would
be of great contribution to excavate more complex and intricate data as well as more comprehensive
identification of FLTA.
Self-efficacy belief can also be a factor that might have influence on teaching anxiety. Thence, a study
probing into the correlation between self-efficacy and foreign language anxiety might help to gain a
more accurate picture of the mechanisms underlying teacher psychology.
There is abundant room for more investigations that will delve into the impact of native versus non-
native teachers dichotomy on FLTA. Put more explicitly, whether FLTA levels of native and non-native
teachers reveal significant differences remain unanswered at present. It can be further suggested that
the difference might be further investigated including pre-service in-service dichotomy.
Another suggestion for further research pertains to the DELT and DELL pre-service teachers’ anxiety
level. A longitudinal follow-up study which will investigate whether there will be any change in FLTA
levels of the same participants in their career, is thought to be of great contribution to the field.
Last but not least, the present study features some limitations that merit mention. First, limitation of
this study is that the data were collected from two cities of Turkey. In line with this, another limitation
that needs to be acknowledged is the data were collected from only pre-service teachers studying in
Trabzon while in-service teachers were from both Yalova and Trabzon. However, it would be rather
untenable to conclude that the data were thus invalid. Our results are encouraging however, it would
be better to be validated by research with larger samples from various regions of Turkey and with
mixed method research design, which is believed to provide more vivid picture of the situation.
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