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Een meta-review van drie Gezondheidsraad- adviezen als reactie op de publicatie van het advies blootstelling aan stoffen bij ijzer-en staalgieten

Authors:

Abstract

Deze methodologische review van drie recente adviezen van de Gezondheidsraad laat zien dat de Gezondheidsraad zich in deze adviezen niet houdt aan haar eigen leidraad voor de classificatie van carcinogene stoffen (2010), zich niet houdt aan algemene wetenschappelijke normen voor goed onderzoek en resultaten niet in op een transparante wijze en in de juiste context presenteert waarmee een afgewogen bestuurlijk besluit ernstig wordt bemoeilijkt.
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Discussie is de kern van
wetenschap
Een meta-review van drie Gezondheidsraad-
adviezen als reactie op de publicatie van het advies
blootstelling aan stoffen bij ijzer- en staalgieten
Ira Helsloot
Jaap Hanekamp
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Auteurs!
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Augustus!2020!
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Crisislab!is!de!onderzoeksgroep!die!het!onderzoek!van!de!leeropdracht!Besturen!van!Veiligheid!van!
de!Radboud!Universiteit!Nijmegen!ondersteunt.!De!doelstelling!van!Crisislab!is!de!ontwikkeling!en!
verspreiding!van!kennis!op!het!domein!van!crisisbeheersing!en!veiligheidszorg.!Voor!Crisislab!is!
een!kernactiviteit!het!verrichten!van!empirisch!gefundeerd!onderzoek!op!het!veiligheidsdomein,!
omdat!momenteel!feiten!vaak!ontbreken!bij!beleidsvorming!en!discussies!op!het!terrein!van!het!
besturen!van!veiligheid.!Op!basis!van!dit!onderzoek!adviseren!we!overheden!en!bedrijven!om!tot!
redelijk!en!proportioneel!veiligheidsbeleid!te!komen.!De!oefeningen!en!trainingen!die!wij!
verzorgen!zijn!gericht!op!het!realistisch!leren!omgaan!met!crisismechanismen!en!met!de!
veerkrachtige!samenleving.!
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Crisislab!
Dashorsterweg!1!
3927!CN!Renswoude!
www.crisislab.nl!!
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Abstract
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voorkomen#dat#belanghebbenden#–#op#niet#wetenschappelijke#gronden#–#invloed#kunnen#
uitoefenen#op#de#totstandkoming#van#het#advies.
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!Vijf!gesprekken!met!andere!wetenschappelijke!reviewers!van!Gezondheidsraadadviezen.!Het!is!mogelijk!
veelzeggend!dat!niemand!met!naam!genoemd!wil!worden.!
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!Reactie!Gezondheidsraad!op!o.a.!commentaar!Crisislab,!d.d.!20!februari!2020.
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2.!! De GR volgt de eigen leidraad niet
consequent
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Voldoende#bewijs#voor#carcinogeniteit.!Er!wordt!een!causale!relatie!verwacht!tussen!blootstelling!
aan!een!agens!en!het!ontstaan!van!kanker.!Ofwel,!er!is!een!positieve!associatie!vastgesteld!in!
meer!dan!é é n!humane!studie!tussen!blootstelling!en!kanker!waarbij!toeval,!bias!en!confounding!
redelijkerwijs!zijn!uitgesloten.!!
!
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8&8&4&/N!
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a. Is!er!een!duidelijke!specifieke!a!priori!hypothese!onderzocht?!!
b. Is!het!samenstellen!van!de!blootgestelde!groep!zodanig!gedaan!dat!het!cohort!aan!het!begin!
van!follow-up!qua!ziektekansen!vergelijkbaar!mag!worden!verondersteld!met!de!referentie!
groep?!Dus,!zouden!beide!groepen!eenzelfde!kankerincidentiepatroon!vertonen!als!de!te!
onderzoeken!stof!niet!kankerverwekkend!zou!zijn!(het!healthy-worker!effect!is!geen!reden!
tot!afwijzing)?!
c. Is!de!ziektestatus!op!een!vergelijkbare!wijze!vastgesteld!voor!wat!betreft!de!blootgestelde!
groep!en!de!referentiegroep?!!
d. Is!de!volledigheid!en!wijze!waarop!de!follow-up!is!uitgevoerd!betrouwbaar?!!
e. Is!de!statistische!analyse!adequaat,!waarbij!voor!leeftijdsverschillen,!duur!en!periode!van!
follow-up!is!gecorrigeerd?!!
f. Is!de!invloed!van!verstorende!variabelen,!die!in!staat!zouden!zijn!de!waargenomen!
verhoging!in!gezondheidseffecten!te!veroorzaken,!op!adequate!wijze!onder!controle!
gebracht?!!
!
Aan!criteria!a,!b,!c,!d!en!e!moet!altijd!zijn!voldaan.!Voor!criterium!f!geldt!dat!als!er!substantiële!
gedocumenteerde!co-expositie!is!aan!een!stof!die!eenzelfde!type!carcinogeen!effect!heeft,!
aannemelijk!dient!te!worden!gemaakt!dat!deze!co-expositie!niet!de!oorzaak!van!het!
waargenomen!effect!is.!!
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!Wij!hebben!serieuze!kritiek!op!de!leidraad!zelf!(zie!hoofdstuk!4)!maar!in!dit!hoofdstuk!kijken!we!‘slechts’!of!de!
GR!ten!minste!zelf!haar!eigen!leidraad!volgt.!
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Deze!vier!cohorten!hebben!betrekking!op!werknemers!in!de!chromaatproductie,!laten!een!
verhoogd!risico!op!longkanker!zien!(met!uitzondering!van!de!studie!van!Luippold!et!al.!(2005)),!
sluiten!roken!als!oorzaak!van!longkanker!uit!en!grijpen!terug!op!goed!gedocumenteerde!
blootstellingsgegevens.
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-/A-1&/*-&!4$/!')/8=$/=&#!1$/!.'))*(*&''-/8!$$/!AB#))7W!B&..&/!=&2G&(!)4&#!B&*!
#))=8&1#$8!4$/!1&!.&*#)==&/!H&#=/&7&#(!&&/!G&&#!8#)*&!-/4')&1!);!1&!2-*=)7(*&/!4$/!
1&!.&#&=&/-/8&/<!5)AB!-/!B&*!$14-&(!4$/!1&!I0D!/)AB!-/!E&-1'&#!&<$<D!/)AB!-/!1&!
)/1&#'-88&/1&!(*21-&(!*#&??&/!H&!1$$#!);!GV/!7-/(*!&&/!+8&4)&'-8B&-1(9$/$'>(&!4$/!$$/<!
!
! !
4
!Luippold,!R.!S.,!Mundt,!K.!A.,!Dell,!L.!D.,!&!Birk,!T.!(2005).!Low-level!hexavalent!chromium!exposure!and!rate!
of!mortality!among!US!chromate!production!employees.!!"#$%&'(")("**#+&,-"%&'(&%.(/%0-$"%1/%,&'(
1/.-*-%/,!23(4),!381-385.!
5
!A.!Seidler,!S.!Jähnichen,!J.!Hegewald,!A.!Fishta,!O.!Krug,!L.!Rüter,!C.!Strik,!E.!Hallier!&!S.!Straube!(2013).!
Systematic!review!and!quantification!of!respiratory!cancer!risk!for!occupational!exposure!to!hexavalent!
chromium.!4%,(5$*6(7**#+(8%0-$"%(9/&',6!86:943955.!
!
8
3.!! De GR wijkt af van goed wetenschappelijk
gebruik
!
!
R#!G-6/!&/=&'&!.#&&1!$$/4$$#1&!H&*&/(AB$;;&'-6=&!2-*8$/8(;2/*&/!4))#!)/1&#G)&=!1$*!
7)&*!'&-1&/!*)*!#-(-A)(AB$**-/8!4$/!(*)??&/!1-&!4&#1$AB*!H)#1&/!4$/!&&/!A$#A-/)8&&/!
&??&A*<!F&G&!G-6/!.-64))#.&&'1!($7&/8&4$*!-/!&&/!$#*-=&'!4$/!I)'1.)B7!&*!$'<!2-*!JKKW!
H$$#$$/!&&/!8&12#&/1&!6$#&/!4))#$$/(*$$/1!'-1!4$/!1&!I0!B&&?*!7&&8&(AB#&4&/N"
6
!
!
It!is!generally!recognized!that!human,!epidemiological!data,!if!available,!are!preferred!as!the!
starting!point!for!quantitative!risk!analysis!above!the!use!of!data!from!animal!studies.!Although!
methods!to!obtain!proper!risk!estimates!from!epidemiological!data!are!available,!several!
impediments!prevent!their!widespread!application.!These!impediments!include!unfamiliarity!
with!epidemiological!methods!and!the!lack!of!a!structured!and!transparent!approach.!We!
described!a!framework!to!conduct!quantitative!cancer!risk!assessment!based!on!
epidemiological!studies!in!a!structured,!transparent,!and!reproducible!manner.!Important!
features!of!the!process!include!a!weight-of-the-evidence!approach,!estimation!of!the!optimal!
exposure-risk!function!by!fitting!a!regression!model!to!the!epidemiological!data,!estimation!of!
uncertainty!introduced!by!potential!biases!and!missing!information!in!the!epidemiological!
studies,!and!calculation!of!excess!lifetime!risk!through!a!life!table!to!take!into!account!competing!
risks.!Sensitivity!analyses!are!a!useful!tool!to!obtain!insight!into!the!impact!of!assumptions!made!
and!the!variability!of!the!underlying!data.!The!framework!is!sufficiently!flexible!to!allow!many!
types!of!data,!ranging!from!published,!sometimes!incomplete!data!to!detailed!individual!data,!
while!maintaining!an!optimal!result,!i.e.,!a!state-of-the-art!risk!estimate!with!confidence!
intervals,!based!on!all!available!evidence!of!sufficient!quality.’!
!
,#2A-$$'!&'&7&/*!4))#!&'=!H&*&/(AB$;;&'-6=!#-(-A)$14-&(D!)?!B&*!/2!)4&#!1&!.'))*(*&''-/8!
$$/!(*)??&/!)?!B&*!-/(*)#*-/8(#-(-A)!1))#!8&\/12A&&#1&!$$#1.&4-/8&/!8$$*D!-(!
reproduceerbaarheid!1))#!B&*!B$/*&#&/!4$/!&&/!H&'!.&(AB#&4&/!$/$'>(&=$1&#!&/!&&/!
8&4)&'-8B&-1($/$'>(&<!"/!1-&!G-/!=$/!B&*!.)4&/(*$$/1&!A-*$$*!))=!/-&*!4&#.$G&/!7$$#!-(!B&*!
1&(!*&!7&&#!);4$''&/1!1$*!1&!I0!-/!1&!1#-&!.&(AB)2H1&!$14-&G&/!1&G&!$$/;$=!/-&*!
B$/*&&#*<!
!
Q&!7&#=&/!);!1$*!B&*!8&/)&71&!I)'1.)B7!&*!$'<!$#*-=&'!G&'?!$'!B&*!.&(AB#&4&/!?#$7&H)#=!
*)&;$(*!);!B&*!Blootstelling!aan!Chroom!CrVIT$14-&(!G)1$*!1&!I0!1$*!))=!B$1!=2//&/!1)&/!
)?!)4&#/&7&/<!%&*!$#*-=&'!.&/)&7*!&&/!$$/*$'!)/G&=&#B&1&/!+G)$'(!1&!)78$/8!7&*!1&!
A)/?)2/1-/8!?$A*)#!#)=&/!1$*!&&/!)#1&8#))**&!4&#(AB-'!-/!1&!2-*=)7(*&/!=$/!2-*7$=&/9!&/!
4#$$8*!)7!/$1&#!)/1&#G)&=!/$$#!1&!)/G&=&#B&1&/!-/!1&!1-4&#(&!(*$;;&/!-/!1&!7&*B)1&<!
6
!Goldbohm,!R.A.,!Tielemans!E.L.,!Heederik,!D.,!Rubingh,!C.!M.,!Dekkers,!S.,!Willems!M.I.,!&!Kroese!E.D.!(2006).!
Risk!estimation!for!carcinogens!based!on!epidemiological!data:!A!structured!approach,!illustrated!by!an!
example!on!chromium.!:/;#'&,"$<(=">-*"'";<(&%.(?6&$1&*"'";<@(44!(3):!294310.!
!
9
%&*!I0T#$;;)#*!4&#H-6(*!H&'!/$$#!B&*!I)'1.)B7!&*!$'<!$#*-=&'!-/!&&/!)4&#G-AB*(*$.&'
7
!7$$#!
G&8*!/-&*(!)4&#!1&!8&\1&/*-?-A&&#1&!)/G&=&#B&1&/<!
!!
F$*!1&!4#$$8!/$$#!8&4)&'-8B&-1($/$'>(&(!A#2A-$$'!-(!4))#!&&/!H&*&/(AB$;;&'-6=!4$'-1&!
$14-&(!);!.$(-(!4$/!1&!.&#&=&/1&!#-(-A)V(!-(!4))#!-&1&#&&/!G-AB*.$$#!-/!.-64))#.&&'1!
)/1&#(*$$/1!1-$8#$7!+?-822#!L9!2-*!B&*!&&#1&#!$$/8&B$$'1&!$#*-=&'!4$/!E&-1'&#!&*!$'<N!
!
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!Figuur&1:&voorbeeld&gevoeligheidsanalyse&uit&Seidler&et&al.!
!
F&G&!?-822#!'$$*!-/!&&/!))8);('$8!G-&/!1$*!1&!)/G&=&#B&1&/!-/!1&!#-(-A).&#&=&/-/8!;&#!
8#)&;!4$/!$$/!&&/!.&;$$'1&!A)/A&/*#$*-&!.'))*8&(*&'1&!H&#=/&7&#(!+G&&#9!8#))*!-(<!F&!
aanname!1$*!.'))*(*&''-/8!4&#(2(!#-(-A)!1&!4)#7!4$/!&&/!#&AB*&!'-6/!G)2!B&..&/!'&-1*!*)*!
&&/!#-(-A)/)#7<!^&1&/=!1$*!1&!#&AB*&!'-6/D!B&*!*)&8&;$(*&!+8&?-**&9!7)1&'D!U/-&*!8&.&2#1V!-(a!
1&!1$*$!UG-6/!8&.&2#1V<!
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.&H-6(4)&#-/8!4))#!1&!A$2($'&!#&'$*-&!*2((&/!.'))*(*&''-/8!&/!G-&=*&!.-6!.'))*8&(*&'1&/<!
R;-1&7-)')8-(AB&!(*21-&(!H$$#);!1&!I0!B$$#!$14-&G&/!.$(&&#*!=2//&/!;&#!1&?-/-*-&!8&&/!
A$2($'&!4&#.$/1&/!'&88&/!*2((&/!.'))*(*&''-/8/-4&$2(!&/!7)#.-1-*&-*X7)#*$'-*&-*a!$''&&/!
A)##&'$*-&(!=2//&/!G-AB*.$$#!H)#1&/!8&7$$=*<!"/!1&!$14-&G&/!H)#1*!1&!4&#7&&/1&!
(*&#=*&!4$/!A)##&'$*-&(!7&*!&&/!.&;$$'1&!(-8/-?-A$/*-&!+;TH$$#1&9!8&#$;;)#*&&#1<!RAB*&#D!
8&4)/1&/!(-8/-?-A$/*-&(!+B&*!4-/1&/!4$/!.&;$$'1&!;TH$$#1&/!='&-/&#!1$/!&&/!4$/!*&4)#&/!
8&=)G&/!H$$#1&D!7&&(*$'!KDKb9!G&88&/!/-&*(!)4&#!B&*!H&'!)?!/-&*!H$$#!G-6/!4$/!H&'=&!
B>;)*B&(&!1$/!))=<!
7
!De!overzichtstabel!laat!zien!dat!de!uitkomst!van!de!meeste!risico-inschattingen!voor!chroom6!op!elkaar!lijken.!
Dit!kan!natuurlijk!niet!erg!verbazen! omdat!dezelfde!4!-!6! bronartikelen!gebruikt!worden! die!in!essentie!op!de!
twee!Amerikaanse!en!een!Duitse!dataset!gebaseerd!zijn.!!
Exclusion of biomonitoring data of urinary chromium
In our systematic review, it had been defined a priori that
only studies based on measurements of air Cr(VI) con-
centrations were to be included. Therefore, a study by Birk
et al. (2006) was not included in our derivation of an
exposure-risk relationship because of the lack of direct
measurements of the exposure to Cr(VI) in the air in that
study, instead, presumed exposure to Cr(VI) was calculated
from biomonitoring data of urinary chromium. Measure-
ments of urinary chromium, however, suffer from the
disadvantage that it is not possible to distinguish between
Cr(VI) and Cr(III) exposure. Cr(VI) undergoes reduction
after entering the human organism and urinary chromium
can be detected only as Cr(III), regardless of whether it
originally derived from Cr(VI) or Cr(III). This limitation is
acknowledged by Birk and colleagues. Other work
underlines the drawbacks of using urinary chromium as a
surrogate for occupational Cr(VI) exposure. Bukowski
et al. (1991) described that, for example, exercise, con-
sumption of beer, and diabetic status had significant effects
on urinary chromium levels. A relationship between Cr(VI)
exposure and cancer risk therefore cannot be confidently
derived from the data presented by Birk et al. (2006).
Possible reasons for different relative risks derived
from the Baltimore and Painesville cohorts
There were remarkable differences in relative risk esti-
mates between the three publications examined (see
Figs. 3,4,5) with the highest values for the Gibb study and
the lowest values for the study by Crump et al. (2003).
Comparing the relative risks derived from the studies of the
Baltimore cohort (Gibb et al. 2000; Park et al. 2004), the
different values of relative risks were likely due to the
different exposure categories assigned in the papers. In
Gibb et al. (2000) (Fig. 3), the observed deaths were rel-
atively evenly distributed among the exposure categories,
resulting in increased SMRs at low levels of Cr(VI)
exposure for the cohort. By contrast, Park et al. (2004)
assigned a majority of the observed deaths to the lowest
exposure category. Additionally, they subdivided the
exposures into five categories, with a small number of
person-years in the highest exposure category. The broad
lowest exposure category resulted in a slower rise of the
SMRs with increasing Cr(VI) exposure. An effect on the
exposure-risk relationship can be expected when the choice
of cut-points differs (Steenland and Deddens 2004).
Comparing the analyses on the Baltimore cohort with
those on the Painesville cohort, the following study char-
acteristics might explain the different exposure ranges:
Firstly, the Baltimore cohort included short-term employ-
ees (having worked fewer than 90 days at the plant),
thereby increasing the number of subjects with low
Table 4 Excess lung cancer risks at 1 lg/m
3
workplace Cr(VI) concentration for the male German population* applying the conditional or life-
table methods
Cr(VI)
(lg/m
3
)
Cumulative
lifetime exposure
(40 work years)
Method Up to age Cump et al. (2003)
and Park et al.
(2004)
Crump
et al.
(2003)
Park
et al.
(2004)
Gibb
et al.
(2000)
Cr(VI)-years b=1.75 b=0.68 b=2.82 b=4.52
1 40 lg/m
3
9years Conditional (background
mortality =41/1,000)
74 2.9 1.1 4.6 7.4
1 40 lg/m
3
9years Life-table 74 2.3 0.9 3.7 5.9
1 40 lg/m
3
9years Life-table 80 3.2 1.2 5.2 8.3
1 40 lg/m
3
9years Life-table 89 4.1 1.6 6.5 10.5
1 40 lg/m
3
9years Conditional (background
incidence =70/1,000)
No age
restriction
$
4.9 1.9 7.9 12.7
* Assuming a lung cancer mortality up to age 74 of 41/1,000
$
Assuming a lifetime risk of incident lung cancer of 7 %
Fig. 5 Cumulative Cr(VI) exposure and standardized mortality rate
(SMR) based on the data from Crump et al. (2003). Linear regression
was performed weighted by person-years. SMRs are illustrated with
confidence intervals (95 % CI). The size of the symbol is proportional
to the number of person-years within the respective categories
Int Arch Occup Environ Health (2013) 86:943–955 951
123
!
10
%&*!)/62-(*&!8&.#2-=!4$/!(-8/-?-A$/*-&!$'(!.&H-6(!4))#!A$2($'-*&-*!-(!(*$*-(*-A-!$'!6$#&/!&&/!
1))#/!-/!B&*!))8<!F&!(*$*-(*-(AB&!8&7&&/(AB$;!B$7&#*!&#!(-/1(!6$$#!&/!1$8!);!1$*!*)&*(&/!
);!(-8/-?-A$/*-&!)/.#2-=.$$#!-(!4))#!B&*!H&'!)?!/-&*!.&H&G&/!$AB*&/!4$/!&&/!.&;$$'1&!
B>;)*B&(&<!"/!JKLW!=H$7!1&G&!&#8&#/-(!*)*!2-*.$#(*-/8!-/!1&!ASA's!Statement!on!p-Values:!
Context,!Process,!and!Purpose!4$/!1&!C7&#-A$/!E*$*-(*-A$'!C(()A-$*-)/!2-*!JKLW!+7&*!$'!
.-6/$!Y<KKK!A-*$*-&(9<!F&G&!'$$*!8&&/!)/12-1&'-6=B&-1!.&(*$$/!)4&#!1&!.&;&#=*&!H$$#1&!4$/!
1&!;TH$$#1&!4))#!B&*!$$/*)/&/!4$/!A$2(-'-*&-*N!UC!;T4$'2&!1)&(!/)*!;#)4-1&!$!8))1!
7&$(2#&!)?!&4-1&/A&!#&8$#1-/8!$!7)1&'!)#!B>;)*B&(-(<V!R/!12(!UEA-&/*-?-A!A)/A'2(-)/(!$/1!
.2(-/&((!)#!;)'-A>!1&A-(-)/(!(B)2'1!/)*!.&!.$(&1!)/'>!)/!HB&*B&#!$!;T4$'2&!;$((&(!$!
(;&A-?-A!*B#&(B)'1<V
8
!
!
P)$'(!%2#'.&#*!&*!$'<!+JKLZ9!);7&#=&/N
9
!
!
There!is!now!wide!agreement!among!many!statisticians!who!have!studied!the!issue!that!for!
reporting!of!statistical!tests!yielding!p-values!it!is!illogical!and!inappropriate!to!dichotomize!the!
p-scale!and!describe!results!as!“significant”!and!“nonsignificant.”!Authors!are!strongly!
discouraged!from!continuing!this!never!justified!practice!that!originated!from!confusions!in!the!
early!history!of!modern!statistics.!
!
^)4&/(*$$/1&!B&&?*!&4-1&/*!4&#(*#&==&/1&!A)/(&[2&/*-&(!4))#!B&*!8&.#2-=!1))#!1&!I0!
4$/!&;-1&7-)')8-(AB&!(*21-&(!4))#!B&*!$?'&-1&/!4$/!8&G)/1B&-1((*$/1$$#1&/<!R#!-(!4&&'!
7&&#!$#827&/*$*-&!/)1-8!1$/!&&/!(-7;&'&!*)&*(!);!(-8/-?-A$/*-&!)7!*)*!&&/!$14-&(!*&!
=)7&/!+7&*!4&#8$$/1&!7$$*(AB$;;&'-6=&!8&4)'8&/9<!
!
E;&A-?-&=!4))#!B&*!Blootstelling!aan!Chroom!CrVIT$14-&(!H-6G&/!H&!);!&&/!$/1&#!.&=&/1!
(*$*-(*-(AB!;#).'&&7!1$*!E&-1'&#!&*!$'<!(-8/$'&#&/!$'(!U#&7$#=$.'&V!7$$#!G)/1&#!(*$*-(*-(AB&!
12-1-/8N!I-..!&*!$'<!&/!_$#=!&*!$'<!.&(*21&#&/!1&G&'?1&!^$'*-7)#&T1$*$(&*!7$$#!=)7&/!*)*!
4&#(AB-''&/1&!A)/A'2(-&(!)71$*!I-..!&*!$'<!1&!H&#=/&7&#(!-/!c!8#)&;&/!)/1&#4&#1&'&/!&/!
_$#=!&*!$'<!1&G&'?1&!H&#=/&7&#(!-/!b!8#)&;&/<
10
!
11
!F&!12-1-/8!B-&#!G)2!7)&*&/!G-6/D!$'(!
)/1&#1&&'!4$/!&&/!8&4)&'-8B&-1($/$'>(&D!1$*!$'(!1&!=&2G&!4$/!B&*!$$/*$'!(2.8#)&;&/!G)V/!
8#)*&!-/4')&1!B&&?*!);!1&!#&(2'*$*&/D!1$*!1$$#7&&!1&!2-*8&4)&#1&!(*$*-(*-(AB&!$/$'>(&!/-&*!
(*$.-&'!8&/)&8!-(!)7!1&?-/-*-&4&!A)/A'2(-&(!$$/!*&!4&#.-/1&/<!
!
%&*!4&#H&&#!4$/!1&!I0!-/!B$$#!#&$A*-&!);!&&/!=)#*&#&!4&#(-&!4$/!.)4&/(*$$/1!A)77&/*$$#!
4$/!,#-(-('$.!+H&!4&#H&G&/!/$$#!&&/!.)&=!4$/!^#-88(!B-&#)4&#
12
9!);!B&*!A)/A&;*$14-&(!
Emissies!van!ijzer-!en!staalgieten!-(!1$*!1&G&!B$/1&'-/8(H-6G&!A)/?)#7!$9!1&!^#$1?)#1T%-''!
;#-/A-;&(!G-6/!1-&!&&/!8$/8.$#&!&;-1&7-)')8-(AB&!;#$=*-6=!G)21&/!G-6/!&/!.9!4)'8&/(!1&!
I').$''>!%$#7)/-G&1!E>(*&7!A#-*&#-$!+I%E9!G)2!G-6/N!
8
!Wasserstein!R.L.!(2016).!ASA!Statement!on!Statistical!Significance!and!P-Values.!=6/(51/$-*&%(A,&,-B,-*&%,!
70(2),!129-133.!
9
!Hurlbert,!S.!H.,!Levine,!R.!A.,!&!Utts,!J.!(2019).!Coup!de!grâce!for!a!tough!old!bull:!“Statistically!significant”!
expires.!=6/(51/$-*&%(A,&,-B,-*-&%,!73(sup1),!352-357.!
10
!Gibb,!H.!J.,!Lees,!P.!S.,!Pinsky,!P.!F.,!&!Rooney,!B.!C.!(2000).!Lung!cancer!among!workers!in!chromium!chemical!
production.!51/$-*&%(C"#$%&'(")(-%.#B,$-&'(1/.-*-%/@!38(2),!115-126.!
11
!Hier!moet!Park!et!al.!maar!die!kan!ik!niet!vinden!!
12
!Briggs,!W.!(2016).!D%*/$,&-%,<(E(=6/(B"#'(")(1"./''-%;@(+$"F&F-'-,<(&%.(B,&,-B,-*B.!Springer,!Switzerland.
!
11
Proof#of#causation.!Concerning!the!book!by!Briggs,!the!Subcommittee!refers!to!the!widely!
used!Bradford-Hill!criteria!for!causation!in!establishing!epidemiological!evidence!of!a!
potential!causal!relationship.!In!addition,!the!more!observational!studies!show!an!
association,!the!more!likely!that!there!is!a!causal!relationship.!Instead!of!using!the!term!
‘potential!causal!relationship’,!the!Subcommittee!prefers!the!use!of!the!term!‘association’.!
When!there!is!evidence!for!a!strong!
association,!according!to!the!Globally!Harmonized!System!criteria,!the!substance!or!in!this!
case!the!emission,!should!be!classified!as!‘known!to!be!carcinogenic!to!humans’.!
&
Bron: Reactie!GR!op!commentaar!Crisislab!op!conceptadvies!Emissies#van#ijzer-#en#
staalgieten.!!
!
%&*!4&#H&&#!4-/1&/!H-6!);!.&-1&!;2/*&/!#)/12-*!GH$=<!
!
Het!beroep!op!de!Bradford-Hill!criteria!d!"/!LZWb!B&&?*!1&!R/8&'(&!(*$*-(*-A2(!C2(*-/!
^#$1?)#1!%-''!/&8&/!A#-*&#-$!4))#8&(*&'1!)7!*&!.&;$'&/!)?!&;-1&7-)')8-(AB&!1$*$!);!&&/!
A$2($'&!#&'$*-&!*2((&/!))#G$$=!&/!8&4)'8!12-1&/<
13
!%-6!8&.#2-=*&!1&G&!A#-*&#-$!)7!B&*!&??&A*!
4$/!#)=&/!);!')/8=$/=&#!4$(*!*&!(*&''&/<!F&!'-6(*!4$/!/&8&/!A#-*&#-$!4$/!^#$1?)#1T%-''!2-*!
LZWbN!
!
Strength!(effect!size):!A!small!association!does!not!mean!that!there!is!not!a!causal!effect,!
though!the!larger!the!association,!the!more!likely!that!it!is!causal.!
Consistency!(reproducibility):!Consistent!findings!observed!by!different!persons!in!different!
places!with!different!samples!strengthens!the!likelihood!of!an!effect.!
Specificity:!Causation!is!likely!if!there!is!a!very!specific!population!at!a!specific!site!and!
disease!with!no!other!likely!explanation.!The!more!specific!an!association!between!a!factor!
and!an!effect!is,!the!bigger!the!probability!of!a!causal!relationship!
Temporality:!The!effect!has!to!occur!after!the!cause!(and!if!there!is!an!expected!delay!
between!the!cause!and!expected!effect,!then!the!effect!must!occur!after!that!delay).!
Biological!gradient!(dose-response!relationship):!Greater!exposure!should!generally!lead!to!
greater!incidence!of!the!effect.!!
Plausibility:!A!plausible!mechanism!between!cause!and!effect!is!helpful.!
Coherence:!Coherence!between!epidemiological!and!laboratory!findings!increases!the!
likelihood!of!an!effect.!
Experiment:!Ideally!there!should!be!experimental!evidence.!
Analogy:!The!use!of!analogies!or!similarities!between!the!observed!association!and!any!
other!associations.!
!
! !
13
!Hill,!A.B.!(1965).!The!Environment!and!Disease:!Association!or!Causation?!?$"*//.-%;B(")(,6/(:"<&'(A"*-/,<(")(
G/.-*-%/H(IJ(KILM(NOIEPQQ.!
!
12
%&*!1&.$*!)4&#!1&!$'!1$/!/-&*!A$2($'&!#&'$*-&!*2((&/!1$*$!&/!H&#=&'-6=B&-1!B&&?*!&AB*&#!/-&*!
(*-'8&(*$$/!(-/1(!LZWb<!C'!(-/1(!1&A&//-$!-(!.-//&/!1&!&;-1&7-)')8-&!)/1&#=&/1!1$*!1&!
^#$1?)#1T%-''!A#-*&#-$!/-&*!4)'1)&/!)7!A$2($'-*&-*!7&*!4)'1)&/1&!G&=&#B&-1!$$/!*&!*)/&/<
14
!!
S4&#-8&/(!?$$'*!B&*!.&#)&;!);!1&!^#$/1?)#1T%-''!A#-*&#-$!1))#!1&!I0!)71$*!G-6!/&#8&/(!-/!
B$$#!#$;;)#*!1&G&!A#-*&#-$!navolgbaar!*)&;$(*<!
!
Het!beroep!op!het!GHS!d!S;8&7&#=*!7)&*!H)#1&/!1$*!1&!.-6'$8&!I%E!H$$#-/!1&!H-6G&!4$/!
B$G$#1!$((&((7&/*!&M;'-A-&*!H)#1*!.&(AB#&4&/!$'(!/-&*!4&#;'-AB*&/1!G)1$*!1&!&-8&/!
4&#$/*H))#1&'-6=B&-1!4))#!1&!I0!)4&#&-/1!.'-6?*!(*$$/!&/!1$*!))=!1&!I%E!$''&&/!(;#&&=*!-/!
=H$'-*$*-&4&!*&#7&/!$'(!U4)'1)&/1&V<!
!
!
Bron: Non-mandatory!Appendix!F!Part!A!for!further!guidance!regarding!hazard!
classification!for!carcinogenicity.
"/*&#&(($/*!-/!1$*!4&#.$/1!-(!)4&#-8&/(!1$*!1&!I%E!G&'?!(;#&&=*!)4&#!&&/!$$/*))/.$$#!
causaal!4&#.$/1!H$//&&#!B&*!8$$*!)7!voldoende!.&H-6(!4))#!A$#A-/)8&/-*&-*N!
!
14
!Zie!bijvoorbeeld:!Schünemann,!H.,!Hill,!S.,!Guyatt,!G.!et!al.!(2011).!The!GRADE!approach!and!Bradford!Hill's!
criteria!for!causation.!!"#$%&'(")(8+-./1-"'";<(R(S"11#%-,<(9/&',6H(65!(5):!39295;!Höfler,!M.!(2005).!The!
Bradford!Hill!considerations!on!causality:!a!counterfactual!perspective?!81/$;-%;(=6/1/B(-%(8+-./1-"'";<H!2!
(1),!1!-!9;!Howick,!J.,!Glasziou,!P.,!&!Aronson,!J.!K.!(2009).!The!evolution!of!evidence!hierarchies:!what!can!
Bradford!Hill's!'guidelines!for!causation'!contributeT(!"#$%&'(")(,6/(:"<&'(A"*-/,<(")(G/.-*-%/H!102!(5);!Glass,!T.!
A.,!Goodman,!S.!N.,!Hernán,!M.!A.,!&!Samet,!J.M.!(2013).!Causal!inference!in!public!health.!5%%#&'(:/0-/U(")((
?#F'-*(9/&',6H!34:!Potischman,!N,.!&!Weed,!D.!L.!(1999).!Causal!criteria!in!nutritional!epidemiology.!51/$-*&%(
!"#$%&'(")(S'-%-*&'(V#,$-,-"%H(WO(KWL:!1309S14S;!Phillips,!C.!V.,!&!Goodman.!K.!J.!(2006).!Causal!criteria!and!
counterfactuals;!nothing!more!(or!less)!than!scientific!common!sense.!81/$;-%;(=6/1/B(-%(8+-./1-"'";<H!PH(KXLM!
1-7.!
!
13
!
Bron: Non-mandatory!Appendix!F!Part!A!for!further!guidance!regarding!hazard!
classification!for!carcinogenicity.
e)#*)7D!1&!I0!7)&*!/)8!(*&&1(!G&'?!4)'8&/(!1&!7&&(*!#&A&/*&!H&*&/(AB$;;&'-6=&!-/G-AB*&/!
=2//&/!2-*'&88&/!H$//&&#!G-6!&;-1&7-)')8-(AB&!(*21-&(!4$/!4)'1)&/1&!=H$'-*&-*!$AB*!)7!
$'(!.$(-(!4))#!B$$#!&-8&/!-/(AB$**-/8!*&!1-&/&/!1$*!&#!&&/!A$2($$'!4&#.$/1!G)2!=2//&/!
H)#1&/!4&#H$AB*<!
!
F-*!$''&(!(*$$*!/)8!')(!4$/!B&*!?&-*!1$*!B$G$#1!$((&((7&/*(!$'(!G)1$/-8!H&*&/(AB$;;&'-6=!
$AB*&#B$$'1!G-6/<!F&!I0!#&;*!1$$#)4&#!7&*!8&&/!H))#1<!R&/!;)*&/*-&&'!8&4$$#!8&&?*!8&&/!
&/=&'!2-*('2-*(&'!)4&#!B&*!1$$1H&#=&'-6=!#-(-A)!4$/!B&*!(;&A-?-&=&!$8&/(<!S/1&#!1&!B$G$#1!
(>(*&7$*-&=!4$''&/!.$/$/&/(AB-''&/!-/!1&G&'?1&!A$*&8)#-&!$'(!$2*)V(<!^&-1&/!=2//&/!'&-1&/!
*)*!)/8&'2==&/!&/!'&*(&'D!7$$#!B&*!#-(-A)!1$$#);!-(!?)#(!4&#(AB-''&/1<!^$/$/&/(AB-''&/!
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)/8&'2==&/!6$$#'-6=(!4&'&!1)1&/!G-6/!*&!.&*#&2#&/<!P)$'(!^)).-(!&*!$'<!+JKLW9!);7&#=&/N
15
!
!
The!EU!in!its!Classification!and!Labelling!Guidelines!(ECHA,!2012)!has!implemented!the!UN!GHS!
categorization!system!which!is!very!similar!using!strength!of!evidence!involving!only!the!
enumeration!of!tumors!in!human!and!animal!studies!and!determination!of!their!level!of!
statistical!significance.![…]!Thus!a!system!set!up!half!a!century!ago!based!on!an!overly!simplistic!
concept!as!an!initial!attempt!to!address!the!disease!burden!of!cancer!has!found!its!way!into!
classification!schemes!for!chemicals!and!also!into!some!downstream!risk!management!pro-!
cesses.![…]!The!pressure!to!replace!a!chemical!which!had!been!identified!as!a!potential!human!
carcinogen!was!immense,!even!on!the!basis!of!animal!studies,!and!the!very!act!of!categorizing!a!
chemical!in!this!way!leads!to!a!stigma!which!would!often!result!in!major!changes!in!its!use,!
including!withdrawal,!whereas!risk-based!assessments!show!that!there!is!reasonable!certainty!
no!harm!will!result!from!its!use.!
!
!
15
!Boobis,!A.!R.,!Cohen,!S.!M.,!Dellarco,!V.!L.,!Doe,!J.!E.,!Fenner-Crisp,!P.!A.,!Moretto,!A.,!...!&!Wolf,!D.!C.!(2016).!
Classification!schemes!for!carcinogenicity!based!on!hazard-identification!have!become!outmoded!and!serve!
neither!science!nor!society.!:/;#'&,"$<(=">-*"'";<(&%.(?6&$1&*"'";<,!JN,!158-166.!
!
14
4. Adviezen moeten proportionele bestuurlijke
besluitvorming faciliteren
!
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16
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!
4.1!Problemen!met!de!GR!Leidraad!classificatie!carcinogene!stoffen:!bewust!
conservatisme!in!beoordeling!of!iets!kankerverwekkend!is!
!
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!
! !
16
!Meest!recent!in!het!kabinetsstandpunt!‘Bestuurlijk!balanceren!met!risico’s!en!verantwoordelijkheden’!uit!
2015.!
!
15
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(*$$*N!
!
!
Werkwijze commissie 37
Classificatie op basis van beoordeling van humane en dierexperimentele
gegevens
Op basis van de beoordeling van het epidemiologische en dierexperimentele
onderzoek komt de Gezondheidsraad tot slot met een voorstel voor een classifi-
catie in één van de vier categorieën (stap 4). Voor stoffen die geclassificeerd zijn
in categorie 1A en 1B beoordeelt de commissie daarnaast of een genotoxisch
mechanisme een rol speelt bij het ontstaan van kanker.
Epidemiologie
Dierexperimentena
aHet gaat om een totaalbeoordeling van de dierexperimentele gegevens waarbij rekening wordt
gehouden met de wel of niet relevantie van de waargenomen tumoren voor de mens.
++ + ? -
++ 1A 1A 1B 2
+1A 224
?1A 234
-1A 334
36 Leidraad classificatie carcinogene stoffen
dient voor de evaluatie. De commissie kan beargumenteerd afwijken van de
beslisschema.
Beoordeling resultaten in epidemiologisch onderzoek
++ Voldoende bewijs voor carcinogeniteit. Er wordt een causale relatie verwacht
tussen blootstelling aan een agens en het ontstaan van kanker. Ofwel, er is
een positieve associatie vastgesteld in meer dan één humane studie tussen
blootstelling en kanker waarbij toeval, bias en confounding redelijkerwijs
zijn uitgesloten.
+Beperkt bewijs voor carcinogeniteit. Er is een positieve associatie vastgesteld
in humane studies tussen blootstelling en kanker. Echter, het kan niet met
zekerheid worden uitgesloten dat toeval, bias en confounding een belangrijke
rol spelen.
?Er zijn geen (dan wel onvoldoende) gegevens om een uitspraak te kunnen
doen over een associatie tussen blootstelling aan een agens en kanker.
- Voldoende bewijs voor het afwezig zijn van carcinogeniteit in meer dan één
humane studie.
Beoordeling resultaten in dierexperimenteel onderzoek
++ Voldoende bewijs voor carcinogeniteit. Er is een causale relatie vastgesteld
tussen blootstelling aan een agens en kwaadaardige tumoren in:
a twee of meerdere diersoorten, of
b in twee of meerdere onafhankelijke studies in één diersoort.
+Beperkt bewijs voor carcinogeniteit. De dierexperimentele gegevens sugge-
reren de aanwezigheid van een carcinogeen effect, maar een definitieve con-
clusie kan (nog) niet worden getrokken omdat:
a er slechts gegevens beschikbaar zijn uit één dierexperiment;
b er meerdere positieve dierstudies beschikbaar zijn, maar er twijfels
bestaan over de kwaliteit van de studies qua opzet en interpretatie;
c de beschikbare studies van goede kwaliteit zijn maar de resultaten geen
eenduidig beeld geven, ofwel de gegevens niet eenduidig zijn te interpre-
teren (bijvoorbeeld een verhoging van het aantal goedaardige tumoren of
van tumoren met een hoge achtergrond incidentie).
?Er zijn geen (dan wel onvoldoende) gegevens om een uitspraak te kunnen
doen over een associatie tussen blootstelling aan een agens en kanker.
- Voldoende bewijs voor het afwezig zijn van carcinogeniteit in dierexperimen-
tele studies.
!
16
!
!
P-AB*.$$#!-(!1$$#7&&!1$*!('&AB*(!$'(!&#!B$#1!.&H-6(!-(!1$*!&&/!(*)?!/-&*!A$#A-/)8&&/!-(D!1&!
(*)?!))=!$'(!c!UB&*!-(!/-&*!H$$#(AB-6/'-6=!1$*!1&!(*)?!=$/=&#4&#H&==&/1!-(V!H)#1*!
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(*)?!/)8!(*&&1(!$'(!LC!TU1&!(*)?!-(!=$/=&#4&#H&==&/1!4))#!1&!7&/(VT!.&(AB)2H1<!
!
4.2!Problemen!met!de!GR!Leidraad!classificatie!carcinogene!stoffen:!geen!
afwegingskader!voor!omgang!met!tegengestelde!resultaten!!
!
"/!G&=&#&!G-/!-/!B&*!4&#'&/81&!4$/!)/(!4)#-8&!;#).'&&7!-(!1&!$?H&G-8B&-1!4$/!&&/!
$?H&8-/8(=$1&#!4))#!1&!)78$/8!7&*!1&!*&'=&/(!*&#28=)7&/1&!(-*2$*-&!H$$#-/!()77-8&!
$#*-=&'&/!1-&!(AB-6/.$$#!$$/!$''&!=H$'-*&-*(&-(&/!4$/!1&!I0!4)'1)&/!8&&/!A)##&'$*-&!4-/1&/!
*2((&/!.'))*(*&''-/8!&/!=$/=&#!&/!()77-8&!$/1&#&!H&'<!!
!
Q-6!(AB#&4&/!1$$#)4&#!-/!)/(!#&4-&H!4$/!B&*!A)/A&;*$14-&(!)4&#!1&!.'))*(*&''-/8!$$/!
(*)??&/!.-6!-6G&#T!&/!(*$$'8-&*&/N!
!
Overviewing!the!Committee’s!work!on!these!studies,!it!is!surprising!that!no!formal!risk!
assessment!framework!is!offered.!No!methodology!is!utilised!other!than!a!summarising!of!
studies!which,!as!we!have!shown,!in!some!cases!lack!precision,!followed!by!an!expert!judgement!
that!overall!these!studies!show!a!genotoxic!effect.!This!judgement!therefore!cannot!be!
considered!to!be!scientifically!valid.!
!
F-*!;#).'&&7!-(!-/!7&&#1&#&!A)77&/*$#&/!4$/!4&#(AB-''&/1&!1&(=2/1-8&/!);!
A)/A&;*$14-&G&/!8&8&4&/!7$$#!/))-*!&M;'-A-&*!8&$1#&((&&#1!1))#!1&!I0<!!
!
36 Leidraad classificatie carcinogene stoffen
dient voor de evaluatie. De commissie kan beargumenteerd afwijken van de
beslisschema.
Beoordeling resultaten in epidemiologisch onderzoek
++ Voldoende bewijs voor carcinogeniteit. Er wordt een causale relatie verwacht
tussen blootstelling aan een agens en het ontstaan van kanker. Ofwel, er is
een positieve associatie vastgesteld in meer dan één humane studie tussen
blootstelling en kanker waarbij toeval, bias en confounding redelijkerwijs
zijn uitgesloten.
+Beperkt bewijs voor carcinogeniteit. Er is een positieve associatie vastgesteld
in humane studies tussen blootstelling en kanker. Echter, het kan niet met
zekerheid worden uitgesloten dat toeval, bias en confounding een belangrijke
rol spelen.
?Er zijn geen (dan wel onvoldoende) gegevens om een uitspraak te kunnen
doen over een associatie tussen blootstelling aan een agens en kanker.
- Voldoende bewijs voor het afwezig zijn van carcinogeniteit in meer dan één
humane studie.
Beoordeling resultaten in dierexperimenteel onderzoek
++ Voldoende bewijs voor carcinogeniteit. Er is een causale relatie vastgesteld
tussen blootstelling aan een agens en kwaadaardige tumoren in:
a twee of meerdere diersoorten, of
b in twee of meerdere onafhankelijke studies in één diersoort.
+Beperkt bewijs voor carcinogeniteit. De dierexperimentele gegevens sugge-
reren de aanwezigheid van een carcinogeen effect, maar een definitieve con-
clusie kan (nog) niet worden getrokken omdat:
a er slechts gegevens beschikbaar zijn uit één dierexperiment;
b er meerdere positieve dierstudies beschikbaar zijn, maar er twijfels
bestaan over de kwaliteit van de studies qua opzet en interpretatie;
c de beschikbare studies van goede kwaliteit zijn maar de resultaten geen
eenduidig beeld geven, ofwel de gegevens niet eenduidig zijn te interpre-
teren (bijvoorbeeld een verhoging van het aantal goedaardige tumoren of
van tumoren met een hoge achtergrond incidentie).
?Er zijn geen (dan wel onvoldoende) gegevens om een uitspraak te kunnen
doen over een associatie tussen blootstelling aan een agens en kanker.
- Voldoende bewijs voor het afwezig zijn van carcinogeniteit in dierexperimen-
tele studies.
!
17
Alternatieve!studies!waarin!een!voorstel!voor!een!grenswaarde!is!gedaan,!zijn!niet!
meegenomen!in!het!advies,!noch!meegewogen.!Binnen!alle!mogelijke!benaderingen!heeft!de!
Gezondheidsraad!gekozen!voor!die!benadering!die!tot!de!hoogste!risicoschatting!leidt.
17
!
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18
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(*21-&!4$/!g2-;;)'1!&*!$'<!H)#1*!4&#4)'8&/(!G)/1&#!/$1&#&!2-*'&8!)4&#$'!+))=!.-6!1&!I09!
.2-*&/!.&(AB)2H-/8!8&'$*&/<!
!
4.3!Problemen!met!de!GR!Leidraad!classificatie!carcinogene!stoffen:!uit!zekerheid!voor!
stochastisch!kiezen!!
!
R&/!='$((-&=!;#).'&&7!-(!1&!.&;$'-/8!)?!1&!.'))*(*&''-/8!$$/!1&!(*)?!(*)AB$(*-(AB!)?!/-&*T
(*)AB$(*-(AB!+4&#1&&'19!-(<!!
E*)AB$(*-(AB!H-'!B-&#!G&88&/!1$*!1&!=$/(!);!=$/=&#!'-/&$-#!($7&/B$/8*!7&*!1&!
.'))(*&''-/8!$$/!&&/!(*)?<!F2(!&&/!*H&&7$$'!B)8&#&!.'))*(*&''-/8!.&*&=&/1!&&/!
*H&&7$$'!B)8&#&!=$/(!);!=$/=&#<!!
^-6!&&/!/-&*T(*)AB$(*-(AB&!4&#1&'-/8!=$/!.-64))#.&&'1!#&=&/-/8!H)#1&/!8&B)21&/!7&*!
&&/!1#&7;&'H$$#1&!H$$#)/1&#!&&/!(*)?!B&'&7$$'!8&&/!/$1&'-8&!&??&A*&/!7&&#!B&&?*<!
]$/!4&&'!(*)??&/!-(!&&/!1&#8&'-6=&!1#&7;&'H$$#1&!.&=&/1!G)$'(!4))#!4-*$7-/&(!1-&!
(AB$1&'-6=!G-6/!-/!B)8&#&!1)(-(!7$$#!)/(AB$1&'-6=!&/!G&'?(!/))1G$=&'-6=!-/!='&-/&!
B)&4&&'B&1&/<!]))#!-/!B)8&!1)(-(!A$#A-/)8&/&!(*)??&/!$'(!G22#(*)?!8&'1*!1$*!B&*!
'-AB$$7!&&/!B&#(*&'7&AB$/-(7&!B&&?*!)7!1&!(AB$1&!4&#))#G$$=*!1))#!'$8&!1)(-(!*&!
#&;$#&#&/<!
!
Reactieve!vormen!van!zuurstof!(ROS)!worden!in!normale!omstandigheden!in!grote!
hoeveelheden!gevormd!door!stofwisselingsprocessen!en!ontstekingsreacties!in!het!lichaam.!
Deze!kunnen!aanleiding!geven!tot!oxidatieve!DNA-schade!(oxidatieve!stress).!Ames!en!Gold!
(1991)!hebben!geschat!dat!in!elke!cel!van!de!rat!–!onder!steady!state!omstandigheden!–!
ongeveer!1x106+(één!miljoen)!oxidatieve!DNA-adducten!aanwezig!zijn!en!dat!er!dagelijks!
ongeveer!1x105+nieuwe!oxidatieve!DNA-adducten!worden!gevormd.
19
+Op!cellulair!niveau!
bestaat!er!echter!een!krachtig!antioxidant!afweersysteem!dat!ROS!onschadelijk!maakt,!alsmede!
een!DNA-herstelsysteem,!dat!er!voor!zorgt!dat!ROS-geïnduceerde!schade!aan!het!DNA!snel!
wordt!hersteld.!Dankzij!deze!uiterst!efficiënte!afweer-!en!herstelsystemen!kan!de!mens!toch!
leven!in!een!zuurstofrijke!omgeving.!
!
17
!Jongeneel,!F.J.!(2018).!S"11/%,&&$(*"%*/+,$&++"$,(YG8H!IndusTox.!
18
!Luippold,!R.!S.,!Mundt,!K.!A.,!Austin,!R.!P.,!Liebig,!E.,!Panko,!J.,!Crump,!C.,!&!Proctor,!D.!(2003).!Lung!cancer!
mortality!among!chromate!production!workers.!7**#+&,-"%&'(&%.(/%0-$"%1/%,&'(1/.-*-%/,!WQ(6),!451-457.!
19
!Ames,! B.! N.,! &! Gold,! L.! S.! (1991).! Endogenous! mutagens! and! the! causes! of! aging! and! cancer.!G#,&,-"%(
:/B/&$*6Z[#%.&1/%,&'(&%.(G"'/*#'&$(G/*6&%-B1B(")(G#,&;/%/B-B,!NIQ(1-2),!3-16.
!
18
F&!I0!B&&?*!&#!.&H2(*!4))#!8&=)G&/!)7!-/!B$$#!$14-&G&/!2-*!G&=&#B&-1!4))#!&&/!
(*)AB$(*-(AB!7)1&'!*&!=-&G&/<!"/!1&!Leidraad!classificatie!carcinogene!stoffen!2-*!$'H&&#!
JKLK!G&8*!1&!I0!1$$#)4&#N!
!
Aan!de!lineariteit!bij!lage!blootstelling!liggen!enkele!veronderstellingen!ten!grondslag.!Een!
eerste!is!dat!het!optreden!van!DNA-schade!een!stochastisch!proces!is,!waarbij!wel!of!geen!“DNA-
schade”!de!toestandsvariabele!is,!en!de!kans!of!waarschijnlijkheid!van!het!optreden!daarvan!
door!blootstelling!aan!een!kankerverwekkende!stof,!door!toeval!wordt!bepaald!en!niet!door!de!
mate!van!“DNA-schade”.!Een!tweede!is!dat!er!geen!drempelwaarde!bestaat!waaronder!een!stof!
die!treffers!veroorzaakt!als!niet-werkzaam!beschouwd!kan!worden,!met!andere!woorden!er!
bestaat!geen!dosis!waarbij!de!kans!op!een!relevant!effect!gelijk!is!aan!nul.!De!one-hit!kinetiek!bij!
lage!blootstelling!betekent!dat!blootstelling,!hoe!laag!ook,!altijd!een!verhoogd!risico!op!kanker!
met!zich!meebrengt.!Uit!veiligheidsoverwegingen!kan!daarom!het!beste!een!referentiewaarde!
worden!afgeleid.!
!
Overigens!treden!continu!DNA-veranderingen!op!door!genotoxische!carcinogenen!die!van!
nature!aanwezig!zijn!in!de!omgeving!en!de!voeding,!of!die!ontstaan!door!normale!
stofwisselingsprocessen!en!ontstekingsreacties!in!het!lichaam,!zoals!verschillende!reactieve!
zuurstofradicalen!(achtergrondtreffers).!Veel!van!de!DNA-schade!wordt!door!efficiënt!werkende!
DNA-herstelenzymen!weer!gecorrigeerd.!Wat!de!risico-evaluatie!betreft!beoordeelde!de!
commissie!tot!nu!toe!alleen!het!vermogen!van!stoffen!om!DNA-schade!te!kunnen!veroorzaken,!
ongeacht!het!vermogen!van!het!lichaam!om!deze!schade!te!kunnen!herstellen.!
!
S/1&#!B&*!=);6&!)/*H-==&'-/8&/!);!B&*!8&.-&1!4$/!A$#A-/)8&/&!H&#=-/8(7&AB$/-(7&/!
(AB#-6?*!1&!I0N!
!
Sinds!het!vorige!rapport!uit!1996!van!de!Gezondheidsraad!over!de!beoordeling!van!de!
carcinogeniteit!(en!werkingsmechanismen)!van!chemische!stoffen!heeft!een!enorme!
ontwikkeling!plaats!gevonden!in!de!inzichten!over!de!relevante!mechanismen!op!celbiologisch!
en!moleculairbiologisch!gebied,!maar!dit!heeft!vooralsnog!niet!geleid!tot!een!principieel!andere!
werkwijze!voor!de!risicoschatting!betreffende!carcinogene!verbindingen.!
!
De!commissie!voorziet!wel!dat!in!de!toekomst!op!basis!van!die!verworven!inzichten!met!meer!
zekerheid!onderscheid!gemaakt!kan!worden!in!de!te!verwachten!blootstellingsresponsrelatie!
van!potentieel!carcinogene!stoffen!voor!de!mens,!en!dat!wellicht!zelfs!veilige!
blootstellingsniveaus!voor!stochastisch!genotoxische!carcinogenen!voor!de!mens!zijn!te!
definiëren.!
Zo!kunnen!verdedigingsmechanismen!en!achtergrondeffecten!verklaren!waarom!pas!bij!hogere!
blootstelling!de!door!stochastisch!genotoxische!verbindingen!ontstane!DNA-schade!en!mutaties!
zichtbaar!worden.![…]!Zo!kan:!
•!een!schadelijk!metaboliet!worden!weggevangen,!bijvoorbeeld!de!zuurstofradicalen!door!
antioxidanten!en!radicaalscavengers!
•!via!biotransformatie!een!carcinogene!stof!omgezet!worden!in!onschadelijke!metabolieten!
•!herstel!van!DNA!plaatsvinden!door!bepaalde!enzymen!
•!de!celdeling!bij!schade!vertraagd!worden,!zodat!er!meer!tijd!is!voor!DNA-herstel!
•!het!afweersysteem!de!tumorcellen!en!voorlopers!daarvan!herkennen!en!onschadelijk!maken.!
!
19
Uiteindelijk!bepaalt!de!balans!tussen!blootstelling!en!verdedigingsmechanismen!de!kans!op!
DNA-schade!en!het!ontstaan!van!een!tumorcel;!overbelasting!van!deze!
verdedigingsmechanismen!versterkt!de!effecten!van!een!(genotoxisch)!carcinogene!stof.!
!
S;4$''&/1!-(!1$*!1&!I0!G&'?(!1&!8&/)*)M-A-*&-*!4$/!(*)??&/!1-&!1&G&'?1&!*2((&/;#)12A*&/!
+0SE9!);'&4&#&/!1-&!.-6!'-AB$$7(&-8&/!;#)A&((&/!)/*(*$$/D!.&))#1&&'*!7&*!1&!'-/&$-#&!
7)1&'&#-/8!H$$#4$/!.&=&/1!-(!1$*!1-&!1$/!/-&*!A)##&A*!-(N!
!!
Ook!bepaalde!lichaamsvreemde!carcinogene!stoffen!kunnen!ROS!produceren!en!het!vermoeden!
bestaat!dat!dit!in!sommige!gevallen!het!mechanisme!is!waarmee!ze!–!zij!het!bij!hoge!
blootstelling!–!kanker!veroorzaken!zoals!aangetoond!is!in!proefdierexperimenten.!Dat!geen!
toename!van!tumoren!wordt!gezien!bij!lage!blootstelling!kan!worden!verklaard!doordat!de!
hoeveelheid!ROS!die!wordt!gevormd!door!de!carcinogene!stof,!verwaarloosbaar!was!ten!
opzichte!van!de!hoeveelheid!reeds!gevormde!zuurstofradicalen!door!normale!cellulaire!
processen.![…]!De!kans!op!DNA-schade!neemt!dus!niet!toe!bij!lage!blootstelling!en!dit!betekent!
dat!er!sprake!is!van!een!drempel!waar!beneden!geen!noemenswaardige!effecten!waarneembaar!
zijn.!Voorbeelden!van!carcinogene!stoffen!die!ROS!genereren!zijn!pyrocatechol!en!cadmium.!Het!
zal!in!de!praktijk!echter!niet!eenvoudig!zijn!om!zo’n!drempel!voor!een!dergelijke!stof!aan!te!
tonen,!omdat!daarvoor!gegevens!nodig!zijn!over!de!status!van!de!oxidatieve!stress!op!cellulair!
niveau!in!relatie!tot!de!tumorincidentie!als!functie!van!de!blootstelling!aan!de!stof!binnen!één!
dierexperimenteel!onderzoek.!Dit!is!nodig!om!vast!te!stellen!of!er!een!causaal!verband!is!tussen!
die!oxidatieve!schade!en!de!carcinogeniteit,!en!of!er!inderdaad!een!experimenteel!aantoonbare!
drempel!is.!Indien!dergelijke!gegevens!niet!beschikbaar!zijn,!zal!de!commissie!genotoxische!
carcinogenen!die!ROS!genereren!beoordelen!als!stochastisch!genotoxische!carcinogenen!
vanwege!de!genotoxiciteit!van!de!gevormde!ROS.!Dit!impliceert!dat!de!methodiek!voor!de!
risicoschatting!de!lineaire!extrapolatie!is.!
!
"/!B&*!Blootstelling!aan!Chroom!CrVIT$14-&(!(AB#-6?*!1&!I0!-/!1&G&'?1&!'-6/N!
!
De!commissie!merkt!op!dat!chroom!VI-verbindingen!op!meerdere!manieren!schade!kunnen!
toebrengen!aan!het!DNA!en!concludeert!dat!de!onderliggende!mechanismen!van!genotoxiciteit!
voornamelijk!non-stochastisch!zijn,!maar!echter!ook!stochastisch!kunnen!zijn.!In!het!geval!van!
stochastisch!genotoxische!mechanismen!wordt!aangenomen!dat!er!kanker!kan!optreden!bij!elk!
blootstellingsniveau,!terwijl!in!geval!van!non-stochastische!mechanismen!veilige!
blootstellingsdrempels!kunnen!bestaan.!Voorzichtigheidshalve,!zoals!aangegeven!in!haar!
leidraad,!kiest!de!commissie!bij!haar!risicoberekening!voor!het!‘worst!case’-scenario!en!neemt!
het!stochastisch!genotoxisch!mechanisme!als!uitgangspunt.!Dit!impliceert!dat!lineaire!
extrapolatie!wordt!toegepast!voor!de!berekening!van!risicogetallen:!de!concentraties!in!de!lucht!
die!samenhangen!met!een!extra!kans!op!kanker!van!4!per!1.000!en!4!per!100.000!door!
beroepsmatige!blootstelling!aan!stoffen.!Deze!risicogetallen!vormen!vervolgens!de!
wetenschappelijke![cursivering!door!reviewers]!basis!voor!de!door!de!minister!vast!te!stellen!
grenswaarde.!
!
!
20
S/(!A&/*#$'&!;#).'&&7!-(!1$$#7&&!1$*!1&!I0!&&/!U4))#G-AB*-8&V!T-/!?&-*&!.&'&-1(7$*-8&T!
=&2G&!7$$=*!&/!1&G&!;#&(&/*&&#*!$'(!H&*&/(AB$;;&'-6=<!F$*!1-*!)/*&#&AB*!-(!7$$=*!0-AA-!&/!
E$77-(!)/12..&'G-//-8!12-1&'-6=N
20
!
!
Attitude!towards!risk!should!not!be!included!in!cancer!risk!analysis,!but!neutrality!should.!If!it!
were,!risk!aversion!or!proneness!should!be!calculated!along!with!the!risk-neutral!information,!
on!a!case-by-case!basis.!But!then:!whose!individual!aversion!or!proneness!is!an!agency!using?!
!
F$*!1&!=&2G&!4))#!H)#(*TA$(&!#-(-A).&#&=&/-/8&/!*)*!4&#.$G-/8H&==&/1&!2-*=)7(*&/!=$/!
'&-1&/!'$$*!B&*!DieselmotoremissieT$14-&(!4$/!1&!I0!G-&/N!B&*!.&#&=&/1&!#-(-A)/-4&$2!
H$$#.-6!L!);!1&!LK<KKK!.'))*8&(*&'1&!7&1&H&#=&#(!/$!.'))*(*&''-/8!8&12#&/1&!h!22#!;&#!
1$8!')/8=$/=&#!);'));*!/$!cK!6$$#!H&#=!-(!L!i8X7Y<!F-*!-(!)/8&4&&#!B&*!
$AB*&#8#)/1/-4&$2!4))#!B&*!5&1&#'$/1!4)'8&/(!1&!I0!G&'?<!!
!
Een!simpele!berekening,!uitgaande!van!een!lineair!verband!zoals!de!GR!die!zelf!hanteert,!laat!
daarmee!zien!dat!onder!17!miljoen!Nederlanders!er!ongeveer!14.000!longkankerincidenties!per!
jaar!zouden!moeten!zijn!(nog!geen!rekening!houdend!met!kwetsbare!groepen).!Feitelijk!zijn!er!
maar’!13.000!gevallen!van!longkanker!in!Nederland,!waarvan!volgens!de!gebruikelijke!
modellen!90%!veroorzaakt!wordt!door!roken.!Het!berekende!risiconiveau!als!gevolg!van!
blootstelling!aan!dieselmotoremissie!lijkt!daarmee!tenminste!een!ordegrootte!te!hoog!te!zijn.!!
! !
20
!Ricci,!P.F.!&!Sammis,!I.R.!(2012).!The!Role!of!Linear!and!Nonlinear!Dose-Response!Models!in!Public!Decision-!
Making,!Y"B/\:/B+"%B/,!10:203208.!
!
21
5. Tot slot
!
!
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$$/'&-1-/8!4$/!B&*!A)77&/*$$#!);!.-64))#.&&'1!B&*!A)/A&;*$14-&(!)4&#!-6G&#T!&/!
(*$$'8-&*&/!(*&'*!1$*N!
!
Commentaren#over#procedures,#haalbaarheid,#gevoerde#of#te#voeren#beleid,#en#uitvoering#
(beschermende#maatregelen)#worden#niet#beantwoord,#omdat#deze#onderwerpen#de#
Gezondheidsraad#niet#aangaan#en#buiten#de#reikwijdte#van#het#advies#vallen.’##
!
F$$#7&&!('2-*!1&!I0!G-AB!/-&*!$''&&/!$?!4$/!H$*!1&!.$(-(!4))#!H&*&/(AB$;!-(!-/!)/G&!)8&/D!
/$7&'-6=!&&/!);&/!1-(A2((-&!)4&#!?&-*&/D!$/$'>(&+7&*B)1&/9!&/!A)/A'2(-&(D!7$$#!8&&?*!G-6!
))=!$$/!1$*!$14-&G&/!4$/!1&!I&G)/1B&-1(#$$1!&-8&/'-6=!4$/!8&&/!H$$#1&!7)&*&/!H)#1&/!
8&$AB*!4))#!1&!($7&/'&4-/8<!!
!
!
! !
!
22
Bijlage 1: Comments on the choice of literature
used for ‘Diesel Engine Exhaust - Health-based
recommended occupational exposure limit’ by
the Health Council of the Netherlands
!
"/!1&G&!.-6'$8&!8&4&/!H&!&/=&'&!;2/*&/!4$/!A)77&/*$$#!);!1&!'-*&#$*22#!1-&!1&!I0!
8&.#2-=*!)7!B$$#!$14-&(!*&!)/1&#.)2H&/!)4&#!1&!/)#7&#-/8!4$/!1&!.'))*(*&''-/8!$$/!
1-&(&'7)*)#&/&7-((-&<!!
1.!!Introduction!
OB&!F2*AB!RM;&#*!,)77-**&&!)/!SAA2;$*-)/$'!E$?&*>!+FR,SE9D!-/!*B&-#!(*21>!)?!FRR!
+%&$'*B!,)2/A-'D!JKLZ9D!1&&7&1!)/'>!?)2#!(*21-&(![2$'-?-&1!*)!1&#-4&!%^,TS,0](D!$(!*B&(&!
(*21-&(!;2#;)#*&1'>!-/A'21&![2$/*-*$*-4&!&M;)(2#&T#&(;)/(&!1$*$<!"/!*B&-#!)H/!H)#1(!+;<!
JZ9N!
Numerous!cohort!and!case-control!studies!are!available!on!lung!(and!bladder)!cancer!among!
workers!exposed!to!DEE.!However,!only!four!studies!included!quantitative!exposure-response!
data,!which!could!be!used!to!derive!HBC-OCRVs!(Steenland!et!al.!(1998);!Garshick!et!al.!(2012);!
Silverman!et!al.!(2012)!and!Mhner!et!al.!(2013).!These!include!two!nested!case-control!studies!
and!two!retrospective!cohort!studies!on!lung!cancer!mortality,!in!which!DEE!exposures!(REC)!
are!estimated!retrospectively.!Two!studies!were!performed!in!the!trucking!industry!and!two!in!
the!mining!industry.!All!four!studies!concerned!exposure!to!DEE!from!engines!powered!with!
petroleum-diesel!fuels,!without!the!newest!technologies!to!reduce!emission!of!particulates.’!
C/1!+;<!YL9N!
Three!of!the!four!studies!showed!statistically!significant!positive!associations!and!trends!
between!cumulative!REC!exposure!and!lung!cancer!mortality!in!the!trucking!and!mining!
industry,!in!which!workers!were!mainly!exposed!to!DEE!(Steenland!et!al.!(1998);!Garshick!et!al.!
(2012);!Silverman!et!al.!(2012)).!No!association!was!found!by!Mhner!et!al.!(2013).’!
OB&!?)A2(!-(!)/!#&(;-#$.'&!&'&7&/*$'!A$#.)/!;$#*-A'&(!+0R,_9!-/!FRR!;&#!A2.-A!7&*#&!+739!
)?!$-#<!R'&7&/*$'!A$#.)/!;$#*-A'&(!-(!#&8$#1&1!$(!$!(2##)8$*&!+7$#=&#9!?)#!1-&(&'!&MB$2(*<!
2.!!Steenland!et!al.!(1998);!Garshick!et!al.!(2012);!Silverman!et!al.!(2012)!and!
hner!et!al.!(2013)!
!
C(!*B&(&!?)2#!(*21-&(!?)#7!*B&!.$(-(!)?!*B&!%^,TS,0](D!H&!/&&1!*)!*$=&!$!'))=!$*!*B&!
-/1-4-12$'!(*21-&(!$(!*)!A)7;#&B&/1!*B&!(*#&/8*B!)?!*B&!B&$'*BT.$(&1!)AA2;$*-)/$'!
&M;)(2#&!'-7-*(!$(!;#);)(&1!.>!*B&!%&$'*B!,)2/A-'<!Q&!H-''!$'()!7&/*-)/!*B)(&!$(;&A*(!*B$*!
*B&!%&$'*B!,)2/A-'!AB))(&(!*)!-8/)#&<!
!
!
23
g&*V(!(*$#*!H-*B!@jB/&#!&*!$'.!+JKLY9D!$(!*B-(!(*21>!$7)/8!*B&!?)2#!2(&1!.>!*B&!%&$'*B!
,)2A-'!8$4&!no!evidence!?)#!$/!$(()A-$*-)/!.&*H&&/!#&(;-#$.'&!&'&7&/*$'!A$#.)/!+0R,9!
&M;)(2#&!$/1!'2/8!A$/A&#!#-(=!-/!;)*$(B!7-/&#(<!OB&!$2*B)#(!1-1!A)##&A*!?)#!(7)=-/8D!
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-/*&#4$'(9!.&?)#&!*B&!1&$*BX#&?&#&/A&!1$*&!$/1!A)7;$#&1!AB$/8&(!-/!7)1&'!1&4-$/A&!*)!$!
7)1&'!*B$*!)7-**&1!0R,!&M;)(2#&<!OB&!);*-7$'!'$8!-/*&#4$'!+-&D!*B&!'$#8&(*!-7;#)4&7&/*!-/!
7)1&'!?-*9!)AA2##&1!?)#!$!'$8!.&*H&&/!LYdLl!>&$#(!?)#!$4&#$8&!0R,!-/*&/(-*>!$/1!Lb!>&$#(!
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$(!*B&!$2*B)#(!2(&!(7$''!;T4$'2&(!$(!*)!1&?-/&!(-8/-?-A$/A&D!(&$#AB-/8!?)#!*B&!(7$''&(*!;T
4$'2&!-(!.)2/1!*)!&M$88&#$*&!*B&!&4-1&/A&<!k-/$''>D!/)/&!)?!*B&-#!7)1&'(!-/!k-82#&!L!?-*!4&#>!
H&''<!
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24
Garshick!et!al.!(2012)!A)/*$-/(!*B&!($7&!7$6)#!;#).'&7!$(!E-'4&#7$/!&*!$'<!JKLJN!/)!$A*2$'!
&M;)(2#&!)?!H)#=&#(!H$(!1&*&#7-/&1<!QB$*!*B&!$2*B)#(!1-1!H$(!7)1&'!B-(*)#-A$'!*#&/1(!-/!
$7.-&/*!*&#7-/$'!R,!.$(&1!)/!B-(*)#-A$'!*#&/1(!-/!*B&!A)&??-A-&/*!)?!B$G&!$4$-'$.'&!?)#!LZlL!
*B#)28B!JKKKD!$!7&$(2#&7&/*!)?!;$#*-A2'$*&!7$**&#!.$(&1!)/!);*-A$'!1&/(-*>!+;<!LYKJ9<!
OB-(!)?!A)2#(&!-(!$!4&#>!A#21&!;#)M>!)?!&M;)(2#&<!@)#&)4&#D!*B&!2/A&#*$-/*>!-/!*B&!;#)M>!
-*(&'?!-(!/)*!A$##-&1!*B#)28B<!
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"/!*)*$'!YLDLYb!7$'&!H)#=&#(!&7;')>&1!-/!*B&!2/-)/-G&1!3<E<!*#2A=-/8!-/12(*#>!-/!LZhb!
H&#&!(A#2*-/-(&1<!OB#)28B!JKKKD!*B&#&!H&#&!llZ!'2/8!A$/A&#!A$(&(!+lYc!2/1&#'>-/8!
A$2(&9<!C(!H-*B!E-'4&#7$/!&*!$'<!*B&!#$*&!-(![2-*&!(7$''N!K<KJc<!C8$-/D!/)*!&4&#>!A$(&!H-''!.&!
A$2(&1!.>!1-&(&'!&MB$2(*D!()!*B&!$A*2$'!#$*&!72(*!.&!&4&/!')H&#!*B$/!*B-(<!
C'()D!.>!*B&-#!)H/!$17-((-)/D!*B&!$2*B)#(!included!1&$*B(!H-*B!;#-7$#>!'2/8!A$/A&#!$(!
A$(&(D!&4&/!-?!'2/8!A$/A&#!H$(!/)*!*B&!2/1&#'>-/8!A$2(&!)?!1&$*B<!E)D!*B$*!7&$/(!*B$*!
B$G$#1!H$(!?2#*B&#!&M$88&#$*&1<!
!
Steenland!et!al.!(1998)!$8$-/!1)&(!/)*!;#)4-1&!$A*2$'!H)#=&#(T&M;)(2#&!*)!FRR<!C(!
E*&&/'$/1!&*!$'<!#&7$#=N!UF-&(&'!&MB$2(*!&M;)(2#&!H$(!&(*-7$*&1!.$(&1!)/!$!LZZK!
-/12(*#-$'!B>8-&/&!(2#4&><!_$(*!&M;)(2#&(!H&#&!&(*-7$*&1!$((27-/8!*B$*!*B&>!H&#&!$!
?2/A*-)/!)?!L9!*B&!/27.&#!)?!B&$4>!12*>!*#2A=(!)/!*B&!#)$1D!J9!*B&!;$#*-A2'$*&!&7-((-)/(!
+8#$7(X7-'&9!)?!1-&(&'!&/8-/&(!)4&#!*-7&D!$/1!Y9!'&$=(!?#)7!*#2A=(V!&MB$2(*!(>(*&7(!?)#!
')/8TB$2'!1#-4&#(<V!%)H&4&#D!*B&!$2*B)#(!1)!/)*!$AA)2/*!?)#!*B&!2/A&#*$-/*>!-/!*B&!
&(*-7$*&(<!
!
"/*&#&(*-/8'>D!k-82#&!J!$/1!YD!-/!*B&!$2*B)#(V!;$;&#D!(B)H!$!A'&$#!1&A'-/&!-/!&7-((-)/(!)4&#!
*B&!>&$#(!1&;-A*&1<!3;1$*&1!*)!JKLZD!1-&(&'!&MB$2(*!H)2'1!&4&/!.&!#&12A&1!?2#*B&#<!E)!
&4&/!-?!B-8B!'&4&'(!)?!FRR!H)2'1!B$4&!A$2(&1!A$/A&#D!*B$*!H)2'1!/)*!.&!*B&!A$(&!#-8B*!/)H!
$(!H&!1)/V*!B$4&!B-8B!&MB$2(*!'&4&'(!$/>!7)#&<!C'()D!)11(!#$*-)(!*B$*!*B&!$2*B)#(!#&;)#*&1!
B$4&!$!#&'$*-4&'>!'$#8&!A)/?-1&/A&!-/*&#4$'<!
!
References!
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^)).-(D!C<!0DD!,)B&/D!E<!@<D!F&''$#A)D!]<g<D!F)&D!:<!R<D!k&//&#T,#-(;D!_<!C<D!@)#&**)<D!C<!_$(*))#D!
O<_<D!EAB)&/>D!0<!E<D!E&&1D!:<!I<!n!Q)'?D!F<!,<!+JKLW9<!,'$((-?-A$*-)/!(AB&7&(!?)#!
A$#A-/)8&/-A-*>!.$(&1!)/!B$G$#1T!-1&/*-?-A$*-)/!B$4&!.&A)7&!)2*7)1&1!$/1!(&#4&!/&-*B&#!
(A-&/A&!/)#!()A-&*><!Regulatory!Toxicology!and!Pharmacology!hJN!LbhdLWW<!
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^#-88(D!Q<!+JKLW9<!Uncertainty!–!The!soul!of!modelling,!probability!and!statistics.!E;#-/8&#D!
EH-*G&#'$/1<!
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LZKKTLZZZN!O).$AA)!3(&!TT!3/-*&1!E*$*&(D!LZKKTLZZZ<!Morbidity!and!Mortality!Weekly!
Report!ch+cY9N!ZhWdZZY<!E&&!
B**;(NXXHHH<A1A<8)4X77H#X;#&4-&HX77H#B*7'X77chcY$J<B*7!+'$(*!$AA&((&1!)/!*B&!
Lhth!)?!k&.#2$#>!JKLZ9<!
!
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25
I$#(B-A=D!R<D!g$1&/D!k<D!%$#*D!:<!R<D!F$4-(D!@<R<D!R-(&/D!R<C<D!n!E7-*BD!O<:<!+JKLJ9<!g2/8!A$/A&#!
$/1!&'&7&/*$'!A$#.)/!&M;)(2#&!-/!*#2A=-/8!-/12(*#>!H)#=&#(<!Environmental!Health!
Perspectives!120+Z9D!LYKLTLYKW<!
!
I-..D!%<!:<D!g&&(D!_<E<D!_-/(=>D!_<k<D!n!0))/&>D!^<,<!+JKKK9<!g2/8!A$/A&#!$7)/8!H)#=&#(!-/!
AB#)7-27!AB&7-A$'!;#)12A*-)/<!American!Journal!of!Industrial!Medicine!38(2),LLbTLJW<!
!
@)B/&#D!@<D!e&#(*&/!5<D!n!I&''-((&/D!:<!+JKLY9<!F-&(&'!7)*)#!&MB$2(*!$/1!'2/8!A$/A&#!
7)#*$'-*>N!#&$/$'>(-(!)?!$!A)B)#*!(*21>!-/!;)*$(B!7-/&#(<!European!Journal!of!Epidemiology!
Jh+J9D!LbZTWh<!
!
OB&!%&$'*B!,)2/A-'!)?!*B&!5&*B&#'$/1(D!E2.A)77-**&&!)/!*B&!,'$((-?-A$*-)/!)?!A$#A-/)8&/-A!
(2.(*$/A&(!)?!*B&!F2*AB!RM;&#*!,)77-**&&!)/!SAA2;$*-)/$'!E$?&*><!JKLK<!Guideline!to!the!
classification!of!carcinogenic!compounds.!Guide!for!classifying!compounds!in!terms!of!their!
carcinogenic!properties,!and!for!assessing!their!genotoxicity.!0&;)#*!5)<!CLKXKlRD!OB&!
%$82&<!
!
OB&!%&$'*B!,)2/A-'!)?!*B&!5&*B&#'$/1(!+JKLZ9<!Diesel!Engine!Exhaust.!Health-based!
recommended!occupational!exposure!limit.!0&;)#*!5)<!JKLZXKJD!OB&!%$82&D!*B&!
5&*B&#'$/1(<!
!
0&82'$*-)/!+R,9!5)!LJlJXJKKh!)?!*B&!R2#);&$/!_$#'-$7&/*!$/1!)?!*B&!,)2/A-'!)?!LW!
F&A&7.&#!JKKh!)/!A'$((-?-A$*-)/D!'$.&''-/8!$/1!;$A=$8-/8!)?!(2.(*$/A&(!$/1!7-M*2#&(D!
$7&/1-/8!$/1!#&;&$'-/8!F-#&A*-4&(!WlXbchXRR,!$/1!LZZZXcbXR,D!$/1!$7&/1-/8!
0&82'$*-)/!+R,9!5)!LZKlXJKKW<!JKKh<!Official!Journal!of!the!European!Union!g!YbYN!Ld
LYbb<!
!
0-AA-D!_<k<D!n!E$77-(D!"<0<!+JKLJ9<!0&82'$*)#>TEA-&/A&N!^-;B$(-A!,$/A&#!@)1&'(!)#!*B&!g5OT
5)*!:2(*!$!@$**&#!)?!^-)')8>o!Dose-ResponseD!10(2)NLJKTLbc<!
!
E-'4&#7$/D!F<O<D!E$7$/-AD!,<@<D!g2.-/!:<%<D!^'$-#D!C<R<D!E*&H$#*D!_<C<D!]&#7&2'&/D!0<D!+JKLJ9<!
OB&!F-&(&'!RMB$2(*!-/!@-/&#(!(*21>N!$!/&(*&1!A$(&TA)/*#)'!(*21>!)?!'2/8!A$/A&#!$/1!1-&(&'!
&MB$2(*<!Journal!of!the!National!Cancer!Institute!104(11):!hbbThWh<!
!
E*&&/'$/1D!e<D!F&11&/(D!:<D!n!E*$>/&#D!g<!+LZZh9<!F-&(&'!&MB$2(*!$/1!'2/8!A$/A&#!-/!*B&!
*#2A=-/8!-/12(*#>N!&M;)(2#&T#&(;)/(&!$/$'>(&(!$/1!#-(=!$((&((7&/*<!American!Journal!of!
Industrial!Medicine!34(3):!JJKTJJh<!
! !
!
26
Bijlage 2: Comments on the choice of literature
used for ‘Blootstelling aan chroom CrV’ by the
Health Council of the Netherlands
!
"/!1&G&!.-6'$8&!8&4&/!H&!&/=&'&!;2/*&/!4$/!A)77&/*$$#!);!1&!'-*&#$*22#!1-&!1&!I0!
8&.#2-=*!)7!B$$#!$14-&(!*&!)/1&#.)2H&/!)4&#!1&!/)#7&#-/8!4$/!1&!.'))*(*&''-/8!$$/!
AB#))7TW!4&#.-/1-/8&/<!!
1.!!Introduction!
OB&!,)77-**&&!)/!,#]"!A)7;)2/1(!(&'&A*&1!)/'>!?&H!(*21-&(!+&7;')>&&!A)B)#*!(*21-&(9!*)!
$((&((!&M;)(2#&!$/1!1-(&$(&!#-(=(<!OB&!?)'')H-/8!$#&!(&'&A*&1N!%$>&(!&*!$'<!+LZlZ9D!^#$4&#!
&*!$'<!+LZhb9D!I-..!&*!$'<!+JKKK9D!@$/A2()!+LZlb9D!@$/A2()!+LZZl9D!g2-;;)'1!&*!$'<!+JKKY9D!
g2-;;)'1!&*!$'<!+JKKb9D!^-#=!&*!$'<!+JKKW9!$/1!@2/1*!&*!$'<!+JKKJ9<!
OB&!%&$'*B!,)2/A-'!,)77-**&&!#&7$#=(!*B$*!$''!(*21-&(D!&MA&;*!g2-;;)'1!&*!$'<!+JKKb9!(B)H!
$/1!-/A#&$(&1!#-(=!)?!'2/8!A$/A&#!+*B&!&/1;)-/*!)?!AB)-A&9D!&MA'21&!(7)=-/8D!$/1!&M;)(2#&!
1$*$!$#&!H&''T1)A27&/*&1<!g&*V(!B$4&!$!'))=<!
2.!!Hayes!et!al.!(1979),!Braver!et!al.!(1985),!Mancuso!et!al.!(1997)!Gibb!et!al.!
(2000),!Luippold!et!al.!(2003),!Luippold!et!al.!(2005),!Birk!et!al.!(2006)!
Hayes!et!al.!(1979)!H$(!1&(-8/&1!*)!1&*&#7-/&!HB&*B&#!&7;')>7&/*!-/!$!7)1&#/-G&1!
?$A*)#>!B$1!#&(2'*&1!-/!$!#&12A*-)/!-/!*B&!#-(=!)?!'2/8!A$/A&#!$(!A)7;$#&1!*)!*B&!#-(=!?)#!
H)#=&#(!&7;')>&1D!$*!$;;#)M-7$*&'>!*B&!($7&!;&#-)1!-/!*-7&D!-/!$/!)'1!;#)12A*-)/!?$A-'-*><!
,-8$#&**&!(7)=-/8!B-(*)#>!1$*$!H&#&!$.(*#$A*&1!?#)7!*B&!;'$/*!7&1-A$'!#&A)#1(D!-*!H$(!
?)2/1!*)!.&!)?!-/(2??-A-&/*![2$'-*>!*)!$'')H!$/$'>(-(<!,)7;$#-()/!H-*B!*B&!^$'*-7)#&!
;);2'$*-)/!7$=&(!?)#!$!#$*B&#!;))#!A)/*#)'!(-*2$*-)/D!$(!?$A*)#>!$/1!A-*>!;);2'$*-)/(!4$(*'>!
1-??&#<!
!
Braver!et!al.!(1985)!#&7$#=!*B$*!A)7;$#-()/!*)!*B&!UA)/A2##&/*!&M;)(2#&!1$*$!?)#!*B&!(*21>!
;'$/*!H&#&!$.(*#$A*&1!?#)7!*B&!#&A)#1(!)?!$!')A$'!B&$'*B!1&;$#*7&/*<!OB&!2(2$'!$-#!
A)/A&/*#$*-)/!)?!B&M$4$'&/*!AB#)7-27!H$(!&(*-7$*&1!$(!cLY!7-A#)8#$7(!;&#!A2.-A!7&*&#!
+i8X739!12#-/8!LZcbTLZcZ<V!OB-(!-(!*B2(!$!;#)M>!?)#!$A*2$'!&M;)(2#&D!HB-AB!H$(!/&4&#!
7&$(2#&1<!C'()D!#&'-$.'&!A-8$#&**&!(7)=-/8!1$*$!H&#&!/)*!$4$-'$.'&!?)#!*B&!(*21>!A)B)#*!
7&7.&#(<!OB&!).(&#4&1!-/A#&$(&!-/!E@0(!H-*B!-/A#&$(-/8!12#$*-)/!)?!&M;)(2#&!(288&(*(D!
$AA)#1-/8!*)!*B&!$2*B)#(!$!1)(&T#&(;)/(&!#&'$*-)/(B-;!?)#!AB#)7-27T-/12A&1!A$/A&#D!)#!
-/A#&$(&1!$8&!)#!7)#&!-/B$'&1!*).$AA)!(7)=&<!
!
Mancuso!et!al.!(1997)!(*21-&1!7&/!B-#&1!.&*H&&/!LZYLTLZYl!H)#=-/8!$*!$!AB#)7$*&!;'$/*<!
5)*B-/8!-(!7&/*-)/&1!)/!(7)=-/8!$/1!/)!UA)##&A*-)/V!-(!;#);)(&1!)#!A$##-&1!)2*<!C'()D!$''!
&7;')>&&(!H&#&!$''!;#&TH$#!B-#&1<!g-4-/8!A)/1-*-)/(!H&#&!4$(*'>!1-??&#&/*!*B$/!*B&>!$#&!
!
27
/)H<!C'()D!*B&>!'-4&1!*B#)28B!*B&!H$#D!$/1!H&!B$4&!/)!-1&$!2/1&#!HB$*!A)/1-*-)/(!*B&>!
H)#=&1<!OB-(!(*21>!A$//)*!8-4&!2(!$/>!-/(-8B*!-/*)!*B&!#-(=(!)?!,#!]"<!
!
Gibb!et!al.!(2000)!.$(&1!*B&-#!(*21>!)/!%$>&(!&*!$'<!+LZlZ9<!RM;)(2#&!)?!,#!]"!H$(!/)*!
1&*&#7-/&1!.2*!$!;#)M>!H$(!8-4&/!-/!$/!&(*-7$*-)/!?)#!*B&!12#$*-)/!)?!*B&-#!&7;')>7&/*!
$*!*B&!AB#)7$*&!;#)12A*-)/!?$A-'-*>D!6).!*-*'&(!$/1!$;;#)M-7$*&'>!lKDKKK!A)/*&7;)#$#>!
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*$.'&!]"9<!OB&!;#);)(&1!1)(&T#&(;)/(&!A)2'1!$'()!.&!&M;'$-/&1!$(!'2/8!A$/A&#!d!$8&<!OB-(!
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A$(&(!)AA2##&1!$7)/8!A-8$#&**&!(7)=&#(!+LLW9!vs.!/)/T(7)=&#(!+c9<!
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-/A#&$(&1!)/'>!$*!&M;)(2#&!'&4&'(!)4&#!L<Kb!78X73T>&$#(q<!E7)=-/8!-/?)#7$*-)/!H$(!
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(;&A-$*&1!,#+]"9D!&/A)7;$((-/8!*B&!>&$#(!LZcY!*)!LZlL<!E)D!/)!$A*2$'!&M;)(2#&!
7&$(2#&7&/*(!$#&!)/!B$/1<!@)(*!'2/8!A$/A&#(!$#&!?)2/1!-/!*B&!)'1&(*!;#&TH$#!.-#*B!
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take!significance!(p-values)!and!CIs!seriously,!that!would!be!the!conclusion.!OB$*!(B)H(!*B&!
H&$=/&((!)?!$''!)*B&#!;$;&#(D!HB-AB!do!*$=&!(-8/-?-A$/A&!$/1!,"(!(&#-)2('>!$(!-/1-A$*-4&!)?!
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B&$'*B-&#!*B$/!&4&#>.)1>!&'(&<!OB-(!B)'1(!&4&/!?)#!-(AB&7-A!B&$#*!1-(&$(&!$/1!$AA-1&/*(<!
OB-(!A)2'1!.&!$#*&?$A*(!)?!*B&!;$#$7&*&#!)#!-*!#&$''>!A)2'1!.&!*B$*!AB#)7-27!&M;)(2#&!)?!
()7&!2/1&?-/&1!'&4&'!-(!B&$'*B><!OB&!8))1!;$#*!)?!*B-(!;$;&#!*B&>!7$1&!$!8))1!;#)M>!)?!
&M;)(2#&D!HB-AB!-(!7&$(2#-/8!2#-/&T($7;'&(!?)#!AB#)7-27!'&4&'(!$(!$!.-)7$#=&#!?)#!,#!]"!
&M;)(2#&<!
References!!
!
^#$4&#D!R<!0<D!"/?$/*&D!_<D!n!,B2D!e<!+LZhb9<!C/!$/$'>(-(!)?!'2/8!A$/A&#!#-(=!?#)7!&M;)(2#&!*)!
B&M$4$'&/*!AB#)7-27<!Teratogenesis,!carcinogenesis,!and!mutagenesisD!b+b9D!YWbTYlh<!
!
I-..D!%<!:<D!g&&(D!_<!E<D!_-/(=>D!_<!k<D!n!0))/&>D!^<!,<!+JKKK9< g2/8!A$/A&#!$7)/8!H)#=&#(!-/!
AB#)7-27!AB&7-A$'!;#)12A*-)/< American!journal!of!industrial!medicine, 38(2),!LLbTLJW<!
!
g2-;;)'1D!0<!E<D!@2/1*D!e<!C<D!C2(*-/D!0<!_<D!g-&.-8D!R<D!_$/=)D!:<D!,#27;D!,<D!<<<!n!_#)A*)#D!F<!
+JKKY9<!g2/8!A$/A&#!7)#*$'-*>!$7)/8!AB#)7$*&!;#)12A*-)/!H)#=&#(<!Occupational!and!
environmental!medicineD!60+W9D!cbLTcbl<!
!
28
g2-;;)'1D!0<!E<D!@2/1*D!e<!C<D!F&''D!g<!F<D!n!^-#=D!O<!+JKKb9<!g)HT'&4&'!B&M$4$'&/*!AB#)7-27!
&M;)(2#&!$/1!#$*&!)?!7)#*$'-*>!$7)/8!3E!AB#)7$*&!;#)12A*-)/!&7;')>&&(<!Journal!of!
occupational!and!environmental!medicineD!47(4)D!YhLTYhb<!
!
29
Bijlage 3: Reviewing ‘Occupational exposure
during iron and steel founding’ by the Health
Council of the Netherlands
!
"/!1&G&!.-6'$8&!8&4&/!H&!&&/!#&4-&H!4$/!B&*!$14-&(!4$/!1&!I0!)4&#!1&!.'))*(*&''-/8!$$/!1&!
1$7;&/!1-&!4#-6=)7&/!.-6!(*$$'T!&/!-6G&#8-&*&/<!F-*!-(!&&/!B&#G-&/&!4&#(-&!4$/!)/G&!#&4-&H
21
!
4$/!B&*!&&#1&#&!A)/A&;*!H$$#!1))#!1&!I0!/-&*(!(-8/-?-A$/*(!-(!4&#$/1&#1!7$$#!H$$#!G-6!H&'!
);!8&#&$8&&#1!B&&?*!-/!&&/!.#-&?!.-6!B$$#!1&?-/-*-&4&!$14-&(<
22
!
!
1.!Introduction!
!
OB&!E2.A)77-**&&!)/!*B&!,'$((-?-A$*-)/!)?!A$#A-/)8&/-A!(2.(*$/A&(!)?!*B&!F2*AB!RM;&#*!
,)77-**&&!)/!SAA2;$*-)/$'!E$?&*>!)?!The!Health!Council!of!the!NetherlandsD!B&/A&?)#*B!
#&?&##&1!*)!$(!*B&!E2.A)77-**&&D!$((&((&1!HB&*B&#!)AA2;$*-)/$'!&M;)(2#&!12#-/8!-#)/!$/1!
(*&&'!?)2/1-/8!7$>!-/12A&!8&/)*)M-A!&??&A*(!$/1!7$>!A$2(&!A$/A&#<!!
!
OB&!?)'')H-/8!'-*&#$*2#&!H$(!*$=&/!-/*)!$AA)2/*!.>!*B&!E2.A)77-**&&N!'-*&#$*2#&!)/!
8&/)*)M-A-*>!$(!-/!72*$8&/-A-*>!-/!4-*#)!+h!$#*-A'&(9a!8&/)*)M-A-*>!-/!B27$/(!$(!8&/&!
72*$*-)/!&(($>(!+L!(*21>9D!)*B&#!8&/)*)M-A!*&(*(!+Y!(*21-&(9D!F5C!$112A*!?)#7$*-)/!+c!
(*21-&(9<!OB&!E2.A)77-**&&!A)/(-1&#&1!Yl!&;-1&7-)')8-A$'!(*21-&(!)?!4$#-&(!=-/1(<!
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S/!*B&!$4$-'$.'&!1$*$D!*B&!E2.A)77-**&&!#&A)77&/1(!UA'$((-?>-/8!)AA2;$*-)/$'!&M;)(2#&!
12#-/8!-#)/!$/1!(*&&'!?)2/1-/8!$(!$!8&#7!A&''!72*$8&/!-/!A$*&8)#>!J!+pE2.(*$/A&(!HB-AB!
A$2(&!A)/A&#/!?)#!B27$/(!)H-/8!*)!*B&!;)((-.-'-*>!*B$*!*B&>!7$>!-/12A&!B&#-*$.'&!
72*$*-)/(!-/!*B&!8&#7!A&''(!)?!B27$/(q9<!OB&!72*$8&/-A-*>!-(!A$2(&1!.>!$!(*)AB$(*-A!
8&/)*)M-A!7&AB$/-(7<!OB&!A)77-**&&!A)/A'21&(!*B$*!&M;)(2#&!12#-/8!-#)/!$/1!(*&&'!
?)2/1-/8!-(!A$#A-/)8&/-A!*)!B27$/(D!$/1!#&A)77&/1(!A'$((-?>-/8!*B&!&M;)(2#&!-/!A$*&8)#>!
LC!+p=/)H/!*)!B$4&!A$#A-/)8&/-A!;)*&/*-$'!?)#!B27$/(q9<V!
2.!!Categorising!chemicals!
!
The!Health!Council!of!the!Netherlands!(*$*&(!-/!*B&-#!#&;)#*!UI2-1&'-/&!*)!*B&!A'$((-?-A$*-)/!
)?!A$#A-/)8&/-A!A)7;)2/1(V!+JKLK9!*B$*!A$*&8)#>!LC!A)/*$-/!A)7;)2/1(!*B$*!$#&!=/)H/!
*)!.&!A$#A-/)8&/-A!*)!7$/<!OB-(!-(!1&?-/&1!$(!$!UA)7;)2/1!-(!A'$((-?-&1!$(!pA$#A-/)8&/-A!*)!
7$/q!-?!*B&#&!-(!(2??-A-&/*!&4-1&/A&!?#)7!&;-1&7-)')8-A$'!(*21-&(!*)!(2;;)#*!*B&!&M-(*&/A&!
)?!$!A$2($'!#&'$*-)/(B-;!.&*H&&/!B27$/!&M;)(2#&!$/1!*B&!1&4&');7&/*!)?!A$/A&#!-/!*B)(&!
HB)!H&#&!&M;)(&1!*)!*B&!A)7;)2/1!-/![2&(*-)/<!"/!$11-*-)/D!*B&#&!-(!'-=&'>!*)!.&!$!A$2($'!
#&'$*-)/(B-;!.&*H&&/!&M;)(2#&!$/1!&??&A*<!"/!()7&!A$(&(D!$!A)7;)2/1!?)#!HB-AB!*B&#&!-(!
21
!Helsloot,!I.,!&!Hanekamp,!J.C.!(2019).!:/0-/U-%;(]7**#+&,-"%&'(/>+"B#$/(.#$-%;(-$"%(&%.(B,//'()"#%.-%;^(F<(,6/(
9/&',6(S"#%*-'(")(,6/(V/,6/$'&%.B.!
22
!Gezondheidsraad!(2020).!:/&*,-/("+(*"11/%,&&$(*"%*/+,&.0-/B(81-BB-/B(,-C./%B(-C_/$\(/%(B,&&';-/,/%.
!
30
)/'>!'-7-*&1!&4-1&/A&!?#)7!&;-1&7-)')8-A$'!(*21-&(!*)!(2;;)#*!$!#&'$*-)/(B-;!.&*H&&/!
&M;)(2#&!$/1!*B&!1&4&');7&/*!)?!A$/A&#!A$/!(*-''!.&!;'$A&1!-/!*B-(!A$*&8)#>!-?!*B&!(*21-&(!-/!
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3.!!Analysis!-!epidemiology!
!
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23
!Moulin,!J.!J.!!Clavel,!T.!Roy,!D.!Dananché,!B.!Marquis,!N.!Févotte!J.!!&!Fontana!J.!M.!(2020).!Risk!of!lung!cancer!in!
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5.!!Conclusions!
!
OB&!$.)4&!'&$4&(!/)!)*B&#!A)/A'2(-)/!*B&/!*B$*!*B&!1#$?*T(*21>!)?!*B&!E2.A)77-**&&!)/!*B&!
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E$?&*>!)?!The!Health!Council!of!the!Netherlands!*B$*!)AA2;$*-)/$'!&M;)(2#&!12#-/8!-#)/!$/1!
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!
34
=/)H/!?)#!-*(!A$#A-/)8&/-A!$/1!8&/)*)M-A!&??&A*(!#&'$*&1!*)!7$/>!1-??&#&/*!AB&7-A$'(!?)2/1!
-/!*).$AA)!(7)=&<!"/!*B&!($7&!4&-/D!/)!$/$'>*-A$'!?#$7&!H)#=!-(!;#&(&/*&1!*B$*!&M;'$-/(!
HB>!*B&!E2.A)77-**&&!1)&(!/)*!A)7&!*B&!A)/A'2(-)/!?#)7!*B&!A&''!$/1!$/-7$'!(*21-&(!*B$*!
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measured!exposure!levels!of!foundry!workers!$/1!8&/)*)M-A!$/1!72*$8&/-A!&??&A*(D!2/1&#!
*B&!A)/1-*-)/!*B$*!/&HD!A$#&?2''>!?)#72'$*&1D!in!vitro!(*21-&(!.&$#!)2*!-/12A-.'&!B&#-*$.'&!
72*$*-)/(<!
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O<!_<D!EAB)&/>D!0<!E<D!E&&1D!:<!I<!nQ)'?D!F<!,<!+JKLW9<!,'$((-?-A$*-)/!(AB&7&(!?)#!
A$#A-/)8&/-A-*>!.$(&1!)/!B$G$#1T!-1&/*-?-A$*-)/!B$4&!.&A)7&!)2*7)1&1!$/1!(&#4&!/&-*B&#!
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)?!*B&!kK!;)#*-)/!)?!*B&!7$8/&(-27!-)/T(*-72'$*&1!$1&/)(-/&!*#-;B)(;B$*$(&!)?!
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k-#*BD!%<!@<D!R'H))1D!:<!@<D!,)MD!^<D!n!%&#.-()/D!I<!_<!+LZZZ9<!%-(*)#-A$'!A)B)#*!(*21>!)?!$!5&H!
P&$'$/1!?)2/1#>!$/1!B&$4>!&/8-/&&#-/8!;'$/*<!Occupational!and!environmental!
medicineD!56+J9D!LYcTLYh<!
%)(B2>$7$D!O<D!_$/D!I<D!O$/$=$D!,<D!k&/8D!v<D!g-2D!O<D!g-2D!g<D!<<<!n!O$=$B$(B-D!e<!+JKKW9<!
@)#*$'-*>!)?!-#)/T(*&&'!H)#=&#(!-/!C/(B$/'!,B-/$N!C!#&*#)(;&A*-4&!A)B)#*!
(*21><!International!journal!of!occupational!and!environmental!healthD!12(3),!LZYTJKJ<!
%27?#&>D!,<!F<!5<D!g&4>D!g<!E<D!n!k$2MD!E<!_<!+LZZW9<!_)*&/*-$'!A$#A-/)8&/-A-*>!)?!?)2/1#>!
?27&(N!$!A)7;$#$*-4&!-/!4-4)T-/!4-*#)!(*21><!Food!and!Chemical!ToxicologyD!34+LLTLJ9D!
LLKYTLLLL<!
e).&*(D!O<D!n!Q-''-$7(D!I<!@<!+JKLZ9<!0&4-&H!)?!*B&!&4-1&/A&!?)#!*B#&(B)'1(!?)#!F5CT
0&$A*-4&!$/1!&;-8&/&*-A!&M;&#-7&/*$'!AB&7-A$'!A$#A-/)8&/(<!Chemico-biological!
interactionsD!301D!hhTLLL<!
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