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Social motivation: Goals and social-cognitive processes. A comment
Abstract
How are children's social lives at school related to their motivation to achieve and how do motivational and social processes interact to explain children's adjustment at school? This volume, first published in 1990, features work by leading researchers in educational and developmental psychology and provides perspectives on how and why children tend to thrive or fail at school. The individual chapters examine the unique roles of peers and teachers in communicating and reinforcing school-related attitudes, expectations, and definitions of self. Relations of children's school adjustment to school motivation, interpersonal functioning, and social skillfulness are also explored. The developmental and social perspectives on motivation and achievement presented in this volume provide new insights into the complex processes contributing to school success.
... Las investigaciones realizadas por Dweck y sus colaboradores sobre atribuciones (Diener y Dweck, 1978;Goetz y Dweck, 1980), teorías implícitas y orientaciones motivacionales (Dweck y Leggett, 1988;Elliot y Dweck, 1988) han revelado que el patrón cognitivo-motivacional presente en el contexto escolar es análogo al que los niños y adolescentes presentan en el contexto social (Dweck, 1996). Autoatribuciones similares conducen a una respuesta no persistente de indefensión en ambos dominios. ...
... Asimismo, metas y teorías implícitas similares parecen configurar estas atribuciones y respuestas en ambos dominios. Esta es la formulación, por tanto, que los investigadores deberían adoptar entre ambos dominios (y entre literaturas) para establecer patrones generales de motivación y adaptación (Dweck, 1996;Weiner, 2000). ...
... Sin embargo, los adolescentes que también pretenden ser aceptados por sus compañeros deben saber que éstos no aprueban el esfuerzo académico en la misma medida que cuando se es más pequeño. Por tanto, si los adolescentes desean mantener la aceptación de sus compañeros deben aprender a ocultar su esfuerzo y a proteger el mismo no desafiando intelectualmente a sus iguales (Dweck, 1996). ...
Este estudio presenta los resultados sobre la relación que existe entre las autoatribuciones académicas en lenguaje y matemáticas en una muestra de 2.022 estudiantes de Educación Secundaria de 12 a 16 años. Los adolescentes fueron seleccionados aleatoriamente de 20 escuelas urbanas y rurales en las provincias de Alicante y Murcia, España. La conducta prosocial fue codificada con el Teenage Inventory of Social Skills y las autoatribuciones académicas fueron medidas mediante la Escala de Atribución Causal de Sydney (Sydney Attribution Scale, SAS; Marsh, 1984). El 17.35% de estudiantes de ESO fueron identificados como prosociales. Los chicos de 2º de ESO y las chicas de 4º de ESO presentaron la menor y mayor prevalencia puntual de conducta prosocial, respectivamente. Respecto a la asignatura de lenguaje, los estudiantes prosociales atribuyen significativamente el éxito a la capacidad, el esfuerzo y, en menor medida, a causas externas. En cuanto a la asignatura de matemáticas, los estudiantes prosociales atribuyeron el éxito significativamente más al esfuerzo y significativamente menos a causas externas, mientras que atribuyeron el fracaso significativamente más a la falta de esfuerzo. Además, los datos han permitido crear un modelo de regresión logística que permite hacer estimaciones correctas respecto a la probabilidad de éxito académico en matemáticas, en lenguaje y en todas las asignaturas aprobadas en estudiantes prosociales de E.S.O. a partir de las puntuaciones en atribuciones académicas.
... This outcome should positively affect students' achievement motivation and hence, learning (e.g. Anderman & Anderman, 1999;Dweck, 1996;Urdan, 1997;Wentzel, 1996Wentzel, , 1999. ...
... Research shows that social motivation and achievement motivation are interconnected (e.g. Anderman & Anderman, 1999;Dweck, 1996;Urdan, 1997;Wentzel, 1996Wentzel, , 1999. For example, meeting students' affiliative needs affects their achievement motivation (Weiner, 1996). ...
... Students simultaneously pursue multiple goals (McCaslin & Good, 1998;Wentzel, 2000) and the goals are "fluid and dynamic" (Dweck, 1996, p. 190). Namely goals are not set, but rather students are constantly establishing new goals, modifying or abandoning them (Dodge, Asher, & Parkhurst, 1989;Dweck, 1996). ...
Empowering students to take control to lead functional and fulfilling lives should help them meet their needs for power and belonging, and enable them to realise their social goals. Such an outcome should positively affect students' achievement motivation. However, there is little research on the construct of student empowerment. A descriptive study using ethnographic techniques was conducted to examine the nature of student empowerment in a primary school classroom. Findings suggest that there are two dimensions of student empowerment: intrapersonal and interpersonal empowerment, supporting existing literature. Moreover, they build on the literature by indicating that intrapersonal empowerment is the ability and capability of students to pursue appropriate and complementary social and achievement goals through the establishment of agendas. Interpersonal empowerment is the pursuit of goals by students that are not in conflict with peers or the teacher. This research indicates that student empowerment is a fluid and fragile phenomenon, but also one that the teacher can contribute to.
... The vast majority of this research, however, has addressed how individuals' achievement goals are associated with beliefs or behaviors about themselves and academic tasks, but there has been little attention to attitudes and behaviors towards others. Despite acknowledgment of the social aspects of students' motivation in early formulations of achievement goal theory (e.g., Ames, 1984; Maehr, 1984), researchers have only recently attended more extensively to the role of achievement goals in students' social cognitions and relationships (Urdan & Maehr, 1995; Dweck, 1996 Dweck, , 1999 Anderman, 1999). The purpose of the present study is to conduct an An earlier version of this study was presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, in April 2000. ...
... Most research and theory in achievement goal theory has been concerned with students' individual learning, behavior, and affect. Very few studies have paid attention to the social aspects related to these motivational orientations (for critiques see Blumenfeld, 1992; Urdan & Maehr, 1995; Dweck, 1996 ). In recent years, however , educators have been emphasizing the central role that social interaction plays in student learning and understanding (e.g., Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989; Hertz-Lazarowitz & Miller, 1992; O'Donnell & King, 1999). ...
... goals were labeled variously by different authors. Mastery goals were sometimes called task goals or learning goals; performance goals were sometimes called ego goals or ability goals (Nicholls, 1984; Ames, 1992b; Anderman & Maehr, 1994; Dweck, 1996). 2 Elliot (1997) suggests that the approach–avoidance distinction is based in the personality attributes of need for achievement and fear of failure (cf. ...
This qualitative study used a semi-structured interview with 50 fifth grade Israeli students to investigate the relations
among achievement goals and social identity processes that concern orientation towards social structure and status in the
classroom, and preference and willingness to cooperate with peers from different social groups. Mastery-oriented students
were found to evaluate cooperation with respect to its contribution to learning, friendship, and class cohesion, and to be
willing to cooperate with peers regardless of their social group membership. Performance-approach and performance-avoidance
oriented students were found to evaluate cooperation with regard to its implications for social status, and to prefer to cooperate
with peers of the in-group and with high status peers. Performance-avoidance oriented students with low social status were
found to also adopt a defensive avoidant orientation in the social domain.
... From a social cognitive perspective the interest might be in whether an individual is exerting more or less effort while participating, or whether they are participating, for example, in order to master new skills or to demonstrate their competence to others (Dweck, 1996). From a sociocultural viewpoint, the interest could be, for example, in whether an individual is involved in legitimate peripheral participation or marginal non-participation (Hickey, 2003). ...
... Although all initial motivational responses for all categories in Table 6.6 were negative, the longer term responses varied in the degree to which they were maladaptive or adaptive (Dweck, 1996), or dysfunctional or functional (Frydenberg, 1997b). Reading down Table 6.6, the longer-term responses become more adaptive or functional. ...
... In the Model of Motivated Action (Figure 2.1) various characteristics of individuals are regarded as important in shaping their motivation. One type of cognitive motivational construct is that of self-efficacy, and its role in motivation to learn is well-documented (see, for example, Dweck, 1996;Pintrich et al., 1993). Several of the adolescent participants referred to their confidence or self-belief and how onlookers could positively affect this. ...
This research explores how motivation is shaped at the interface of person and context, with a focus on motivation in sport and music. From a social cognitive perspective, motivation research traditionally focuses on factors within the individual, whereas a more situated conceptualisation requires that motivation be studied within a person in context perspective. This study combines elements of both perspectives. It is proposed that motivation is shaped at the interface of person and context, where individuals make appraisals of social (other people) and structural (physical or organisational) aspects of their environments. A holistic view of motivation is adopted that incorporates initial engagement, ongoing involvement and persistence.
One challenge in current motivation research is to develop appropriate methods to capture such a dynamic, complex construct. In this study, semi-structured interviews and innovative tasks are used to gather biographical and longitudinal data about high-achieving athletes and musicians from diverse settings.
The findings reveal that complex personal and contextual factors operate reciprocally and dynamically as individuals make ongoing appraisals of their current situations. For example, personal factors such as aptitude, and contextual factors such as the existence of community programs, operate in a reciprocal way to shape participants' initial engagement in sport or music. Complexity is highlighted when examining the role of a unique group of others in sport and music - onlookers (spectators or audience). A powerful effect on continuing involvement occurs when communities overlap and family members take on roles associated with onlookers. Participants face a range of potential problems in their lives and there are variations in the way these are perceived, in strategies and resources used, and in their impact on persistence. An important finding is the dynamic nature of motivation as the nature and extent of participants' involvement in sport or music changes over time.
In addition to deepening our understanding of how motivation is shaped at the interface of person and context, the study offers a unique methodological contribution and the findings have implications for enhancing motivation in applied settings.
... Vršnjaci su od centralnog značaja za decu tokom detinjstva i adolescencije. Socijalni kontekst u kome se dete nalazi može značajno uticati na razvoj njegovih kompetencija samokontrole i na njegova uverenja u pogledu samoefikasnosti, pri čemu vršnjaci u tome igraju veoma važnu ulogu, jer vršnjački kontekst omogućava socijalno poređenje i samopotvrđivanje (Dweck, 1996;Wentzel, 2009). Pokazalo se da su deca koja imaju pozitivne vršnjačke odnose najčešće više angažovana u školi i imaju bolje rezultate u pogledu akademskog postignuća u poređenju s decom koja se susreću s različitim problemima u vršnjačkim odnosima (Birch and Ladd, 1996;Wentzel, 2009). ...
... Kao što je i prethodno napomenuto, vršnjačke norme vezane za školsko postignuće mogu predstavljati važan faktor koji može delovati podsticajno ili otežavajuće na postizanje školskog uspeha pojedinca (Berns, 2010;Dweck, 1996;Rubin et al., 2011;Wentzel, 2009). Pored školskog postignuća, važan aspekt školskog funkcionisanja (možda čak i važniji od školskog postignuća) vezan je za ostvarivanje odgovarajućih vršnjačkih odnosa, kojima pojedinci pridaju izuzetan značaj. ...
U ovoj knjizi se razmatra problematika socijalnih odnosa koji se uspostavljaju među učenicima u školi, kao i povezanost socijalnih odnosa učenika sa njegovim školskim postignućem. Proučavanju socijalnih odnosa učenika prevashodno se pristupa sa aspekta vršnjačkog nasilja kao izrazito negativne dinamike koja se uspostavlja unutar vršnjačke grupe, pri čemu se objašnjava povezanost između različitih uloga koje učenici zauzimaju u vršnjačkom nasilju, sociometrijskog statusa i školskog postignuća učenika. Opredeljenje za pročavanje povezanosti vršnjačkog nasilja sa drugim značajnim varijablama individualnog nivoa nastalo je kao rezultat nastojanja za sagledavanje važnih aspekata školskog obrazovanja, u vreme kada je problem vršnjačkog nasilja postao predmet značajnog naučnog interesovanja, uz razmatranje mogućnosti njegove prevencije i kod nas. Uporedo sa nastojanjem da se temeljnije sagleda specifičnost datog fenomena i njegova povezanost sa drugim značajnim varijablama važnim za obrazovne ishode svih učenika, dato istraživanje inicirano je i praktičnim potrebama koje iziskuje realizacija nastave u okviru predmeta Školska pedagogija 2, Pedagoška prevencija poremećaja u ponašanju i Vršnjačko nasilje u vaspitno-obrazovnim ustanovama koje studenti izučavaju na Departmanu za pedagogiju Filozofskog fakulteta u Nišu. Zbog složenosti proučavanih fenomena, pri pisanju monografije zastupljen je interdisciplinarni pristup, s ciljem dubljeg razumevanja proučavanih vaspitnih fenomena.
... Many studies have indicated that students who adopt task-focused goals are learning for intrinsic reasons and are more likely to engage in deep cognitive processing, while students who adopt performance-focused goals tend to use surface level strategies (e.g. Anderman & Maehr, 1994;Dweck, 1996). Kindermann et al. (1996) described engaged students as those who are able to select tasks appropriate to their competencies, take initiative, exert effort and concentration, and persist when tasks demand more than routine effort. ...
... While there may be discussions around the source and type of (dis)engagemnt there is general agreement that intrinsically motivated behaviour plays a significant role in a student's engagement with regard to classroom learning (e.g. Brown, 1994;Anderman, 1994;Dweck, 1996). When students are intrinsically motivated they become more focused on their work because they are task oriented, and generally experience higher levels of successful outcomes. ...
Adolescents continue to be at risk of disengaging from formal education, particularly in the transition year from primary to secondary schooling. This is a critical time in their education journey and can affect their ongoing academic performances. This paper reflects on the initial findings of a project to gauge students’ levels of engagement in the first year of secondary school (12-13 years of age). The project was undertaken with students in 4 schools in two Australian states, located in low socio economic areas. Approximately 80 students from the 4 schools were selected to participate in an intervention project with specific targeted activities that aimed to increase levels of engagement in schooling to eventually aid them to aspire to desired career choices. A mixed methods research approach enabled us to capture, analyse and report on the participating students’ perceptions in terms of their attitudes towards schooling, their academic performance, and selected aspects of school life. We also interviewed their parents and teachers about these topics. The results indicated that there were some changes in attitudes towards schooling for some individuals, but generally the majority of student engagement levels remained static or tended to be negative. This remains a cause of concern for educators who are trying to find ways to encourage students to be more engaged with formal education that supports their career aspirations.
... Os objetivos constituem representações cognitivas do alvo que o estudante pretende atingir, proporcionando energia, regulação e direção ao comportamento (Ames, 1992;Ford, 1992;Pintrich, 2000;Wentzel, 2002). Na escola o estudante persegue quer objetivos académicos quer objetivos sociais (Dweck, 1996;Lemos, 2005;Urdan & Maehr, 1995;Wentzel, 2002Wentzel, , 2004Wentzel, , 2006Wentzel & Wigfield, 1998). ...
... Um crescente número de investigações (e.g., Anderman, 1999;Blumenfeld, 1992;Dowson, McInerney, & Nelson, 2006;Dweck, 1996;Kiefer & Ryan, 2008;Ryan & Shim, 2006, 2008Urdan & Maehr, 1995;Wentzel, 1993Wentzel, , 1996aWentzel, , 2002 tem vindo a considerar e a mostrar que a escola e a sala de aula constituem contextos primordiais para pesquisar a motivação social do estudante. No domínio da motivação em educação, os objetivos sociais são frequentemente considerados variáveis sociocognitivas subjacentes à competência social e à adaptação escolar, cuja análise é fundamental para a compreensão da competência social, aprendizagem, sucesso académico e adaptação escolar do estudante (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002;Ford & Smith, 2009;Juvonen & Wentzel, 1996;Kiefer & Ryan, 2008;Wentzel, 1991aWentzel, , 1993Wentzel, , 1996aWentzel, , 2003Wentzel, , 2004Wentzel, , 2005Wentzel & Looney, 2007). ...
This research aims to promote understanding and reflection about school adjustment. In order to achieve this purpose, and based on the literature and on a set of theoretical assumptions, from ecological and developmental perspectives, it was outlined and empirically tested a multidimensional model of school adjustment in early adolescence. This model especially examines social dimensions, but also the academic achievement and the family socioeconomic status, by proposing an integrated view of school adjustment. The empirical study developed in 706 students from 5th and 6th grades and assessed the student’s self-perceptions and the perceptions of teachers and peers about student’s social competence. The empirical test of the School Adjustment Model shows a reasonable global fit, supporting the defined associations among the components of the social competence, and between these social components and academic achievement and family socioeconomic and cultural status. These results highlight the need to consider multiple facets in the assessment and promotion of school adjustment, recognising mainly connections between the social competence and academic achievement of the student. These results are also a target of reflection and discussion, with implications for research, theory and intervention. © 2016 Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada. All rights reserved.
... In fact, research shows that students' peer relationships may be associated with adaptive school outcomes, especially during periods of distress, such as transitioning to a new school (Berndt, Hawkins, & Jiao, 1999;Connell & Wellborn, 1991;Juvonen, 2006;Juvonen & Wentzel, 1996;Ladd, 1990;Wentzel, Barry, & Caldwell, 2004). What this literature does not make clear, however, is when and why some peer relationships promote achievement, whereas others encourage disinterest and, in some cases, obstruct optimal achievement (Blumenfeld, 1992;Dweck, 1996;Graham, 1996;Graham, Taylor, & Hudley, 1998;Juvonen, 2006;Juvonen & Cadigan, 2002;Juvonen, Graham, & Schuster, 2003). In this article, we strive to clarify this issue by testing a social-contextual view of the mechanisms and processes by which early adolescents' achievement and peer relationships affect each other. ...
... However, as discussed by E. M. Anderman and Wolters (2006), it should also be noted that motives and needs remain important components of some theoretical perspectives (e.g., self-determination theory; see Deci & Ryan, 2000). It should also be noted that researchers have contrasted various dimensions of goals, including goal orientations (e.g., Ames & Ames, 1984;Dweck, 1996;Dweck & Leggett, 1988;Nicholls, 1984), expectations (e.g., Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978;Bandura, 1986), origins (Dweck, 1991;Eccles, 1993;Maehr, 1984;Nicholls, 1989), and content (Ford, 1992;Ford & Nichols, 1991;Wentzel, 1989). These and other dimensions "describe the multifaceted nature of goals in psychology" (E. ...
Emphasizing the developmental need for positive peer relationships, in this study the authors tested a social-contextual view of the mechanisms and processes by which early adolescents' achievement and peer relationships may be promoted simultaneously. Meta-analysis was used to review 148 independent studies comparing the relative effectiveness of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures in promoting early adolescents' achievement and positive peer relationships. These studies represented over 8 decades of research on over 17,000 early adolescents from 11 countries and 4 multinational samples. As predicted by social interdependence theory, results indicate that higher achievement and more positive peer relationships were associated with cooperative rather than competitive or individualistic goal structures. Also as predicted, results show that cooperative goal structures were associated with a positive relation between achievement and positive peer relationships. Implications for theory and application are discussed.
... On the other hand, how such negative support might affect students depends on individual variables such as implicit personality theories, relationship goals, interpersonal skills (cf. Dweck, 1996), need for support, and amount of support received from other sources. Lala seemed to find it humorous when her little brother criticized her intelligence, while a similar situation made Angel angry. ...
This qualitative thesis study explores the influences of social networks and social support on the literacy engagement of seven high school students from a multicultural, multilingual, and economically disadvantaged urban neighbourhood in a large, diverse North American city. Guided by Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 2005), at three times during an 18-month period the seven participants completed social network maps and interviews, checklists about their reading and writing choices, and retrospective interviews about their reading and writing practices on self-selected texts. After the data from these instruments was analyzed based on Tardy’s (1985) typology of social support and the tripartite model of engagement proposed by Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris (2004), an individual case report was created for each participant; to conduct cross-case analysis (Stake, 2006), these reports were compared across similar, predetermined themes. Two primary conclusions are supported by the data and analysis: these adolescents received varying amounts and types of socioliterate support from certain members of their social networks, and this support at times positively influenced their literacy engagement. Useful outcomes of this study include a deeper understanding of the relationship between social support, motivation, and engagement on single literacy events, including a proposed model of how those three concepts work together, as well as a new perspective on the role of technology in adolescent social network formation and on the sources from whom adolescents seek literacy-based social support. Finally, this study describes pedagogical spaces that can provide and activate such literacy support.
... For example, one's ideal self could be to excel in one's studies, but one's ought self, especially for adolescents, may contain views from peers that being popular does not involve academic achievement. In a study conducted by Dweck (1996), it was found that fears of being excluded from their social group motivated youth to avoid focusing on their studies. Oyserman et al. (2006) discovered that among school children, negative group images of academic achievement are often highly accessible and conflict with academic self-guides. ...
This thesis consists of two mixed-methods studies: a validation study and an application study of Dörnyei's (2009a) L2 Motivational Self System with participants from China. The quantitative part of the validation study involved 1,154 Chinese middle school and university students from mainland China and the follow-up qualitative study consisted of ten Chinese university students at a British university from mainland China. Structural equation models and correlational analyses validated the L2 Motivational Self System in China. The issues of family, face, responsibility, and pressure clarified the motivational role of the Chinese family and explained the main relationships in the system. Differences in the motivational orientation of the two sub-groups demonstrated the ability of the system to represent different age groups.
The application study involved an intervention programme that I developed at a British university in order to motivate my participants to put more time and effort into learning English by enhancing their vision of their Ideal L2 self. The programme contained 31 participants who were international students from China. The programme made most of the participants more motivated to learn English and all of them more confident in their English. There was a significant increase in the strength of the participants' Ideal L2 self as a result of the programme. The vision of the participants' Ideal L2 self and their goals for learning English became more clear and specific due to the programme. Motivation and confidence were found to mutually affect each other. Most of the participants' imagination improved as a result of the programme. They became more proficient in English, more aware of the importance of English in their lives, and their attitudes toward learning English became more positive due to the programme.
... What this literature does not make clear, however, is when and why some peer relationships promote achievement, whereas others encourage disinterest and, in some cases, obstruct optimal achievement (Blumenfeld, 1992;Dweck, 1996;Graham, 1996;Graham, Taylor, & Hudley, 1998;Juvonen, 2006;Juvonen & Cadigan, 2002;Juvonen, Graham, & Schuster, 2003). Despite relationships with other areas of adolescent functioning, peer influence is more likely to affect academic functioning abilities in adolescence. ...
This article briefly discusses the effects of the role of peer and social interaction in adolescent academic achievement. The purpose of this study is an attempt to give a personal contribution in the examination of the role between two different types of relationships between peers; frequent interactions and mutual membership in the group; and the decrease or the increase of the learning outcomes in terms of academic performance. To accomplish this purpose, it is formulated the following research question: Is there any effect of peer influence on academic achievement in adolescents of ages 12-15 years old? The study is a review of existing literature on the positive and negative aspects of the influence of peers regarding academic performance. Based on the data, reports and observations, it is shown that there is a need to understand the trend of the impact, to face research on social motivation as well as to conceptualize the impact of peer relations in an appropriate way. Empirical results show that peers create networks which lead to overestimation of the group effects on the traditional model and this causes them to change the objectives in the academic achievements. Furthermore, it is observed that adolescents have an increased social motivation which is followed by a decrease of academic motivation; this consequence causes the demonstrations of the inability in academic areas in school. These results are understandable if the acceptance of the adolescent from the peer group is one of the measurement keys of positive and negative experiences at school. Future examinations could examine the motivational dynamics which will contribute to the academic development of sustainable assets and developing an academic identity by allowing in this way the adolescents to use the group in interest of academic success. This study serves not only to the family but to the school and society at the same time. If society and education understand the negative impact of peer group pressure, are more likely to prevent it and more prepared to help the adolescent to handle this fact.
DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n1s1p127
... In spite of this positive relationship between self-worth and academic success, youth often fear disapproval of their peers if they succeed academically (Juvonen, 1996), and this may be especially true for African American youth (McWhorter, 2000). Fears of social exclusion can motivate youth to avoid engaging in school (Dweck, 1996). A key question for applied researchers becomes how to facilitate emergence of academic focus in youth, especially youth who are at risk of dis-engaging from school and academic pursuits. ...
... Numerous authors (e.g. Dweck, 1996;Weiner, 1996;Wentzel, 1996a) stress that in the past, academic achievement and social motivation were studied separately and that the reciprocal interaction between the two constructs was not taken into consideration. This also holds true for the research in school context where the relation between academic and social factors in students has been investigated only recently. ...
43 Social and academic variables in educational research In the past, academic and social variables were regarded as two completely separated aspects of motivation. Recent-ly, these beliefs have been changed radically; namely, aca-demic and social variables can be intertwined in a number of ways, as for example (Weiner, 1996): (1) Feelings of rejection, the lack of social support and dissatisfaction of social needs influence academic motivation and performance in school; students feel-ing lonely in the classroom are more likely to give up in learning situations and have a higher rate of school drop-out. (2) Students' academic achievement and their choice of peer groups are related; students having similar achievement strivings tend to form friendships and peer groups. (3) Peers also act as models of appropriate academic, as well as social behavior. Recently, the researchers in the field of academic moti-vation started to be increasingly oriented to the investiga-tion of the effect of social and emotional factors on aca-demic motivation and achievement. Numerous authors (e.g. Dweck, 1996; Weiner, 1996; Wentzel, 1996a) stress that in the past, academic achievement and social motivation were studied separately and that the reciprocal interaction be-tween the two constructs was not taken into consideration. This also holds true for the research in school context where the relation between academic and social factors in students has been investigated only recently. Two most frequent and important forms of social rela-tions that students form and maintain in school are relations to teachers and to peers. In the next part of the article, the importance of the two forms of social relations is discussed in detail. The role of teacher support and involvement
... From a motivational perspective, one of the most important adaptations to come to light in the past 2 decades has been the adaptive nature of individuals' adoption of task goals and the belief in the malleability of their abilities (see Eccles et al., 1998, for a review). Without a belief in the possibility of personal growth of one's capabilities , and the adoption of goals in which improvement and mastery are focal, learning comes to a standstill in the presence of setbacks, challenges, and negative performance-related feedback (Dweck, 1996). Thus, on the person side, from a motivational perspective, we believe the inculcation of task goals is one intervention indicated by the results of this study and other research. ...
This research examined between-group differences in test-related perceptions, engagement, and performance; and within-group predictors of science performance among groups of high school students characterized by different patterns of science motivation. Patterns of motivation were derived from Dweck's (1986) typology and were used to classify students as mastery oriented, ego oriented, helpless, or "unclassified by such a typology." Groups were then compared on their efficacy for performing successfully on science multiple-choice tests, constructed response tests, and performance assessments; their beliefs about the validity of each test format; and their actual performance on multiple-choice and constructed response items. Group differences in gender composition, test perceptions and engagement, and performance were found. Results are discussed in terms of Snow's (1994) theory of aptitude complexes and their relation to individual differences in performance.
... The notion that social concerns and influences are relevant for understanding motivation and academic performance is certainly not new (e.g., Crandall, 1963;McClelland, 1987;Veroff, 1969). However, the search for specific mechanisms and processes that can explain social influences on classroom motivation is still in its inception and remains a challenge for the field (Dweck, 1996;Graham, 1996). The purpose of the present article, therefore, was to begin to articulate some of these mechanisms and processes in the hope that clearer and more precise explanations of influence will emerge. ...
Social-motivational processes and socialization experiences can play a critical role in students' academic success. However, the search for specific mechanisms and processes that explain these social influences on motivation is still in its inception. The purpose of this article was to begin to articulate some of these processes in the hope that more precise explanations of influence will emerge. The 1st section of the article focuses on ways in which social-motivational processes are relevant for understanding motivation to achieve academically, using goal pursuit as a case in point. Models describing complementary, developmental, and hierarchical relations among social and task-related goals and their implications for understanding student achievement are presented. Then, ways in which students' social encounters and experiences with parents, teachers, and peers might influence their adoption and internalization of socially valued goals are examined. New directions for theoretical and empirical inquiry are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... The established structural equation model illuminated the potential causal relations among these variables for the young learners in this study. a variety of theories have been proposed to conceptualize and investigate the profound effect of motivation on learning achievement, and goal theory has been one of the most popular frameworks (nicholls, 1984;dweck, 1986, 1996Stipek, 2002;dörnyei, 2003). This theory operationally defines motivation as distinct goals that learners have strived to achieve when they are learning an academic subject or cultivating a skill at school (Senko, hulleman, & harackiewicz, 2011). ...
This study applied structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques to define the relations among trichotomous goals (mastery goals, performance-approach goals, and performance-avoidance goals), self-efficacy, use of metacognitive self-regulation strategies, positive belief in seeking help, and help-avoidance behavior. Elementary school students (N = 105), who were learning English as a foreign language, were surveyed using five self-report scales. The structural equation model showed that self-efficacy led to the adoption of mastery goals but discouraged the adoption of performance-approach goals and performance-avoidance goals. Furthermore, mastery goals increased the use of metacognitive self-regulation strategies, whereas performance-approach goals and performance-avoidance goals reduced their use. Mastery goals encouraged positive belief in help-seeking, but performance-avoidance goals decreased such belief. Finally, performance-avoidance goals directly led to help-avoidance behavior, whereas positive belief assumed a critical role in reducing help-avoidance. The established structural equation model illuminated the potential causal relations among these variables for the young learners in this study.
... Goal orientations are salient regarding social achievement as well as academic achievement in the classroom (Dweck, 1996;Hicks, 1997;Urdan and Maehr, 1995;Wentzel, 1989). A social-goal orientation concerns the purpose and meaning that students ascribe to their social behavior in the classroom. ...
Why do some students avoid seeking help in the classroom when they need it? When students do not seek the help they need, they put themselves at a disadvantage for learning. We discuss how students' personal motivational characteristics relate to their avoidance of help seeking. In particular, we discuss our work regarding perceived academic and social competence and achievement- and social-goal orientations. We also discuss how various dimensions of the classroom context relate to help avoidance. Specifically, we discuss rules and norms of classrooms as well as our work examining the achievement goal structure and social climate of classrooms. We conclude by discussing how new developments in achievement goal theory distinguishing between approach- and avoidance-goal orientations might add to psychologists' understanding of help avoidance. We also consider how students' strivings for autonomy and different aspects of the social climate might be incorporated into theories of students' help avoidance behavior. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/44450/1/10648_2004_Article_292341.pdf
... In spite of this positive relationship between self-worth and academic success, youth often fear disapproval of their peers if they succeed academically (Juvonen, 1996), and this may be especially true for African American youth (McWhorter, 2000). Fears of social exclusion can motivate youth to avoid engaging in school (Dweck, 1996). A key question for applied researchers becomes how to facilitate emergence of academic focus in youth, especially youth who are at risk of dis-engaging from school and academic pursuits. ...
We developed a 9-week after-school, small group, activities-based intervention focused on enhancing youth's abilities to imagine themselves as successful adults and connecting these future imagines to current school involvement. We describe and evaluate this programme comparing three cohorts of urban African American middle school students (n=62 experimental, n=146 control), controlling for sex and previous school involvement. By the end of the school year, intervention youth reported more bonding to school, concern about doing well in school, "balanced" possible selves, plausible strategies to attain these possible selves, better school attendance, and for boys, less trouble at school.
... Several processes may account for this link. Self-perceptions may influence motivation in social contexts (Dweck, 1996). For example, adolescents who expect to fail in their peer interactions may adopt social goals aimed at minimizing their distress or embarrassment, leading to social avoidance. ...
This study examined reciprocal-influence models of the association between relational self-views and peer stress during early adolescence. The first model posited that adolescents with negative self-views disengage from peers, creating stress in their relationships. The second model posited that exposure to peer stress fosters social disengagement, which elicits negative self-views. Participants were 605 early adolescents (M age = 11.7). As part of a 3-wave longitudinal study adolescents reported on self-views and stress, and teachers reported on social disengagement. As hypothesized, negative self-views predicted social disengagement, which contributed to peer stress. Stress predicted subsequent disengagement and negative self-views. These findings suggest that adolescents and their environments participate in reciprocal-influence processes that account for cross-temporal continuity in personal attributes of youth and their social experiences.
... Prior research provides support for extension of achievement goals to the social domain (Dweck, 1996). For example, in an experimental design, Erdley, Cain, Loomis, Dumas-Hines, and Dweck (1997) manipulated children's goals on a social task-trying out for a pen pal. ...
The proposition that achievement goals are applicable to the social domain was examined in four studies. Study 1 established that different orientations toward developing or demonstrating social competence can be seen in individuals' responses to open-ended questions about their social goals and social competence. Studies 2 through 4 evaluated a new survey measure of social achievement goals. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the hypothesized model of social achievement goals. Convergent and discriminant validity for the new measure of social achievement goals was established. In line with hypotheses, a social development goal was associated with adjustment and a social demonstration-avoid goal was associated with maladjustment both concurrently and longitudinally. A social development goal also was positively related to instructor ratings of students' social adjustment in small classroom settings. A social demonstration-approach goal was most often unrelated to adjustment. The importance of social achievement goals for a comprehensive understanding of social motivation and adjustment is discussed.
The present study focused on an examination of both global and domain-specific self-esteems in secondary mathematics learning. The extent to which self-esteem, in general, would account and explain educational success through social relationships with teachers and peers, and personal interest in learning tasks is the main inquiry of this correlational investigation. Two hundred and eighty-three year 10 students (128 girls, 155 boys) were asked to respond to a number of Likert-scale inventories. Causal modeling procedures, aided by the statistical software MPlus 7.3, were used to analyze the data and to test the hypothesized model. A series of a posteriori analyses yielded a modified model for discussion, producing a number of key findings, namely: (a) the differential influences of both global (e.g., →relationship with teachers) and domain-specific (e.g., →relationship with peers) self-esteems, (b) the positive influences of social relation with teachers (e.g., →exam result) and interest in learning tasks (e.g., →end-of-school term grade), and (c) the mediating functioning of relationship with peers and interest in learning tasks. This evidence, overall, provides additional theoretical insights into the operational nature and trajectories of effective learning.
: In this paper, I talk about several issues in regard to self and consciousness. I do so from a developmental perspective, since such a perspective may provide a framework to help understand consciousness as seen in the adult human. Briefly, the two processes I will call the machinery of the self and the mental state of the idea of me develop over the first two years of the child's life. Moreover, and perhaps of equal importance is the fact that the development of consciousness (the idea of me) provides the scaffolding for the development of the child's social and emotional development and is the first step in the child's development of other mental states, which provide the underpinning of a theory of mind. I will first explore what a self is and what it is not; then I will present a developmental model that provides a way of measuring early the idea of me or consciousness. Having shown how to measure this mental state, I will show how it has an impact on the development of a theory of mind, as well as on the child's emotional and social life. Finally, I will turn to the emergence of explicit and implicit consciousness.
Enabling peer culture, as opposed to adult culture, to emerge and flourish in classrooms is important because it has been shown to enhance student motivation and learning. This descriptive study examined how a primary teacher enabled students to develop and maintain a peer culture so that it coexists with the school culture. Ethnographic techniques were used to collect data in one primary school classroom. The findings showed that the teacher's beliefs and the establishment of structures, processes and an environment conducive to empowering students are central to peer culture. The study highlighted the importance of peer culture in enabling students to pursue and coordinate multiple goals.
Available at http://www.aare.edu.au/data/publications/2002/sul02200.pdf
Enabling students to pursue multiple and complementary achievement and social goals should positively affect student achievement. Empowering students could facilitate such pursuits. A descriptive
study using ethnographic techniques was conducted to examine the nature of student empowerment in a primary school classroom. Findings suggest that there are two dimensions of student empowerment: intrapersonal and interpersonal empowerment, supporting existing literature. Intrapersonal empowerment is the ability and capability of students to pursue appropriate and complementary social and achievement goals through the establishment of agendas.
Interpersonal empowerment is the pursuit of goals by students that are not in conflict with peers or the teacher. This research indicates that student empowerment is a fluid and fragile phenomenon to which
the teacher can contribute.
Available at http://www.aare.edu.au/data/publications/2002/sul02098.pdf
Developing a more comprehensive understanding of social competence and the reasons for social relationship difficulties requires attention to the kinds of goals children are pursuing in specific social situations. In this article, the authors describe several theoretical models of social information processing, each of which includes goals as a crucial component in motivating children's behavior. The authors also review evidence from studies of children who are aggressive, withdrawn/submissive, or prosocial that points to an association between children's goals, their strategies for coping with problematic social tasks, and their ultimate success or failure in social relationships. Attention is also given to various social-cognitive processes that may be linked to children's tendencies to formulate adaptive versus maladaptive goals. Finally, the implications of a social goals perspective for interventions with children with emotional and behavioral problems is discussed.
Conflict resolution education is an important and productive component of public education efforts. However, implementing and institutionalizing these programs is often difficult. By drawing on a better understanding of theory and research, this article suggests the best practices for conflict resolution education efforts.
The purpose of the present study was to begin to examine, from the expectancy-value framework, several cognitive and motivational variables believed to affect the development of the student/teacher relationship and, in turn, classroom success. Guided by the expectancy-value framework, three student variables are viewed as essential in guiding the success of the student/teacher relationship: (1) their social self-concept beliefs, (2) the value they place on developing a positive relationship with their primary teacher, and (3) their nonverbal communication skills. Eighty-two fourth- and fifth-grade students participated in the study. Variation in the students' perceptions of the quality of their relationship with their primary teacher and their classroom achievement were examined. In general, results suggest students develop schemas, their social self-concept beliefs, about their relationships with teachers that are consistent with their nonverbal communication skills. Furthermore, results suggest that for both positive perceptions of the relationship and academic achievement, valuing the relationship with the primary teacher may compensate for nonverbal difficulties. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.
This research examined the impact of goals on memory and memory beliefs. Older and younger adults completed memory beliefs questionnaires and list recall at baseline. After additional recall trials, the questionnaires were repeated. In Experiment 1, participants were assigned to low challenge or high challenge goals. In Experiment 2, moderate challenge goals were compared to control. In both studies, participants were given a specific goal based on their own performance and received positive feedback for memory gains. Both older and younger adults responded to the goals, showing improved performance across trials, with little change in the control condition. Memory beliefs changed in the moderate and low challenge goal conditions, showing more striking changes for the older groups. These results confirmed that self-regulatory processes related to goal setting can have considerable impact on memory across the adult life span.
In this paper, I talk about several issues in regard to self and consciousness. I do so from a developmental perspective, since such a perspective may provide a framework to help understand consciousness as seen in the adult human. Briefly, the two processes I will call the machinery of the self and the mental state of the idea of me develop over the first two years of the child's life. Moreover, and perhaps of equal importance is the fact that the development of consciousness (the idea of me) provides the scaffolding for the development of the child's social and emotional development and is the first step in the child's development of other mental states, which provide the underpinning of a theory of mind. I will first explore what a self is and what it is not; then I will present a developmental model that provides a way of measuring early the idea of me or consciousness. Having shown how to measure this mental state, I will show how it has an impact on the development of a theory of mind, as well as on the child's emotional and social life. Finally, I will turn to the emergence of explicit and implicit consciousness.
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