A Comprehensive Review on Composition of Donkey Milk in Comparison to Human, Cow, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat, Camel and Horse Milk

Abstract

The article discusses the biochemical composition of donkey milk in comparison to human, cow, goat, sheep, buffalo, camel and horse milk. Cow milk is the most universal milk for infants and adults, but it contains more than 20 proteins (allergens i.e., casein and whey protein) that cause allergic reactions. It has lower lactose content, with highest quantity of saturated, mono-unsaturated fatty acids and a higher level of cholesterol, compared to human, donkey and horse milk. In camel milk, Ca content is higher compared to cow, buffalo and sheep milk. Buffalo milk gives higher energy followed by sheep, cow, goat, camel, human, horse and donkey milk. The fat content of donkey milk is lower compared to human, cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel and horse milk. Milk composition is not uniform and within the same breed also it varies. It depends on the lactation stage, nutritional diet, environment and genetic factors.

Full text

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The Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences
A Comprehensive Review on Composition of Donkey Milk in Comparison to Human,
Cow, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat, Camel and Horse Milk
C. MADHUSUDAN NAYAK, C. T. RAMACHANDRA AND G. MAHESH KUMAR
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, UAS, GKVK, Bangaluru - 560 065
e-Mail: nayaka.nayakas.madhu@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The article discusses the bio-chemical composition of donkey milk in comparison to human, cow, goat, sheep,
buffalo, camel and horse milk. Cow milk is the most universal milk for infants and adults, but it contains more than
20 proteins (allergens i.e., casein and whey protein) that cause allergic reactions. It has lower lactose content, with
highest quantity of saturated, mono-unsaturated fatty acids and a higher level of cholesterol, compared to human,
donkey and horse milk. In camel milk, Ca content is higher compared to cow, buffalo and sheep milk. Buffalo milk
gives higher energy followed by sheep, cow, goat, camel, human, horse and donkey milk. The fat content of donkey
milk is lower compared to human, cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel and horse milk. Milk composition is not uniform
and within the same breed also it varies. It depends on the lactation stage, nutritional diet, environment and genetic
factors.
Keywords: Allergens, Breed, Composition, Donkey milk and Human milk
HUMAN milk is considered as nature’s best infant
food from nutritional, immunological and food
safety point of view. Due to the time constraints, health
conditions and urbanization, mother may cause the
early termination of breast feeding. Commonly, cow
milk represents the most common feeding during the
infant weaning and early termination, but also the first
allergen in life. In many countries, cow milk is the
most important food allergen in babies and children.
Cow milk is a member of the ‘Big-8’ food allergens
that include egg, soy, wheat, peanuts, tree nuts, fish
and shellfish in terms of prevalence (Crittenden and
Bennett, 2005). Studies conducted on the serum of
children with hypersensitivity to milk have shown that
the proteins mainly responsible for allergy are
- and -caseins (Businco et al. 2000). In many
countries, cow milk is the most important food allergen
in babies and children. Furthermore it has been
reported some cases of infant with intolerance to
hydrolysed cow milk proteins (Carroccio et al., 2000).
Cow milk protein allergy (CMPA) may develop also
when breastfed infants (BF) start to receive cow’s
milk formula (CMF) and usually occurs within the first
weeks after cow’s milk introduction. Manifestations
mainly occur at the level of the digestive tract
(50 to 60 %), the skin (50 to 60 %) and the respiratory
tract (20 to 30 %); they vary from mild-moderate to
severe (Sicherer et al., 2001). El-Agamy and others
(2009) reported that some infants and children allergic
to cow milk will have an allergic reaction after ingesting
buffalo, goat, sheep, donkey, and horse milk proteins
due to the presence of positive immunological cross-
reaction with their counterparts in cow milk, but Tesse
et al. (2009) reported that donkey, camel and goat
milk may be good substitutes of human milk.
Considering the possible use of alternative milk sources
for human in cases of cow milk allergy, the usage of
other mammals should be sought. Presently, the human
perception is that the milk should have almost all the
beneficial nutritional composition, good medicinal
properties and no any negative impacts after ingestion.
In this regard the objective of this review is to study
the compositional value of milk of different species
and to discuss their nutritional value. It is very much
essential that all should have the knowledge regarding
nutritional and medicinal values of milk from different
species which will be helpful for their choice or their
requirement.
Composition of Milk
The overall average composition of human, cow,
buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, horse and donkey milk is
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presented in Table 1. Nutritionally, the human milk is
comparable to horse and donkey milk, as it contains
similar basic chemical compositions compared to other
animal milk composition. The article gives information
about the chemical composition of different milk
sources. The higher fat content is observed in sheep
milk followed by buffalo, cow, camel, goat, human,
horse and donkey milk. Donkey milk contains lower
amount of fat content compared to other milk sources
and hence the donkey milk has reduced energetic level
as 39.68 kcal compared to other milk sources. Swar
(2011) reported that adding 1.6 g of sunflower oil to
100 mL of donkey milk (16 mL.L-1) compensates for
the low fat and caloric values found in donkey milk
and constitutes a formula that is very close to human
milk.
The lactose content in horse and donkey milk is quite
similar to human milk compared to camel, buffalo,
sheep, cow and goat milk. The high content of lactose
is responsible for the good palatability and facilitates
the intestinal absorption of calcium that is essential
for infant’s bone mineralization (Dugo et al., 2005).
The protein content in sheep milk is higher than the
buffalo, cow, goat, camel, horse, donkey and human
milk. The lower protein content in donkey and human
milk avoids an excessive renal load of solute. The ash
content in buffalo milk is highest followed by sheep,
camel, cow, goat, horse, donkey and human milk,
whereas in human milk it is lowest. Milk contains
87 per cent of water, so it is a good source of water in
the diet. In general, the water content in donkey milk
is higher followed by human, horse, camel, cow, goat,
buffalo and sheep milk. The water content of milk
varies from one type to another type of milk, animal
and their species. The milk composition differs
considerably due to genetic factors, physiological
factors, nutritional factors, frequency of milking, and
environmental conditions. The greatest changes in
composition occur during lactation as reported by
Kalyankar et al. (2016).
On an average, mineral elements account for 4 per
cent of total body mass and part of every tissue, liquid,
cell and organ in the human body. There is a sufficient
evidence that minerals, both independently or in proper
balance with other minerals, have structural,
biochemical and nutritional functions that are very
important for overall human health, both mental and
physical. Further more, they act as catalysts for many
biological reactions in the body, including muscle
contraction, transmission of nerve impulses and
utilization of nutrients from food (Vahcic et al., 2010).
The average concentration of major elements in buffalo,
camel, sheep, goat, cow milk is higher in relation to
human, horse and donkey milk (Table 2). The iron
content in human milk is almost similar to the other
milk sources, except donkey milk. The chemical form
of mineral elements in milk is important because it
determines their absorption in the intestine and their
biological utilization. The mineral composition of milk
is not constant because it depends on lactation phase,
nutritional status of the animal and environmental and
genetic factors as reported by Zamberlin et al. (2012).
TABLE 1
Basic chemical composition of human, cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, horse and donkey milk
Composition Human Cow Buffalo Goat Sheep Camel Horse Donkey
W.C. (%, w.b.) 86.80 - 90.50 87.80 82.40 87.80 81.60 88.44 89.86 90.63
Fat (%) 2.10 - 4.00 3.60 7.10 3.60 7.30 3.60 1.21 0.76
Protein (%) 0.90 - 1.90 3.20 5.00 3.20 5.70 2.95 2.14 1.91
Lactose (%) 6.30 - 7.00 4.70 4.60 4.70 4.60 4.30 6.37 6.30
Ash (%) 0.20 - 0.30 0.70 0.90 0.70 0.80 0.71 0.42 0.40
Energy (kcal) 47.70 - 71.60 64.00 102.30 64.00 89.80 61.40 48.00 39.68
W.C.: Water content; w.b: Wet basis; (Claeys et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2016; Ahmad et al., 2013; Sabahelkhier et al., 2012;
Swar, 2011; Nayak et al., 2020)
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TABLE 2
Concentration of major mineral elements in human, cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, horse and donkey milk
Ca 276.00 122 178.59 1340 197.5 1050 - 1570 929.00 466.68
Mg 38.00 12 18.29 160 195 80.00 - 160.00 81.00 248.88
K 713.00 152 920 - 1820 1810.00 1380.00 1240 - 1790 871.00 2009.67
Na 159.00 58 350 - 950 410.00 390.00 360 - 730 174.00 910.55
Fe 2.00 0.08 0.42 - 2.0 0.70 1.00 0.42 - 2.00 1.90 3.74
Zn 4.60 0.53 1.50 - 7.30 5.60 6.00 1.50 - 7.30 2.10 28.66
(Fiecko et al., 2020; Kapadiya et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2016; Balthazar et al., 2017; Nayak et al., 2020)
Minerals (mg.L-1) Human Cow Buffalo Goat Sheep Camel Horse Donkey
Calcium content is rich in camel milk compared to all
other milk sources and the Ca is important for the
development and maintenance of skeletal integrity and
prevention of osteoporosis (Kalyankar et al., 2016).
Majority of the neuro transmitters is composed of
amino acids and can influence biological functions
related to brain-body interactions. Physiological
concentrations of amino acids and their metabolites
are known to be protective against cardio vascular
diseases and degenerative diseases of the brain
(Takahashi et al., 2011). The average total essential
amino acids concentration in buffalo, sheep, horse, cow,
and donkey milk are almost similar except goat milk
(Table 3). High concentration of essential amino acid
leucine is observed in human milk and lower
concentration is notified in buffalo milk followed by
sheep, horse, donkey, cow, goat and camel milk.
Leucine plays a distinct role in protein metabolism and
the translation initiation pathway of muscle protein
synthesis. It is al so involved in reversible
phosphorylation of proteins that control m RNA binding
to the 40S ribosomal subunit (Anthony et al., 2001).
The proline content was higher in goat milk followed
by camel, cow, human, donkey, horse, sheep and
buffalo milk which aff ects the production of
haemoglobin (Molik et al., 2012).
Vitamins are physiological, biochemical, and metabolic
bioactive compounds occurring in milk. Vitamins are
contained in milk, have specific biological functions in
the body. The vitamin content of milk is highly variable
and depends on feeding regime. The level of water
soluble vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B12, C) is mostly
influenced by the feed than the level of fat-soluble
vitamins (A and E) as reported by Kalyankar et al.,
(2016). Vitamins in different milk sources are
presented in Table 4. Vitamin C (helps in formation of
protein as reported by Devaki and Raveendran, 2017)
is majorly observed in camel milk compared to human,
horse, buffalo, goat, sheep, cow and donkey milk.
Donkey milk has highest amount of niacin and vitamin
E content compared to sheep, goat, human, buffalo,
horse, cow and camel milk (Table 4). The lower
content of vitamin E and B12 is observed in goat milk
which leads to goat milk anemia as reported by Park
et al., 2007. Niacin is rich in donkey milk compared to
human, cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel and horse
milk. Williams and Ramsden, 2005; Fricker et al., 2018
outlined that niacin helps in growth and maintenance
of the central nervous system (CNS), whereas the
vitamin E is very effective in the prevention of various
diseases such as atherosclerosis, oxidative stress,
cancer and cataract reported by Rizvi et al., 2014.
Human milk fat differs from cow, buffalo, goat, sheep,
camel, horse and donkey milk fat significantly in fatty
acid profile (Table 5). The higher total saturated fatty
acids are found in goat milk followed by cow, donkey,
buffalo, sheep, camel, human and horse milk. Butyric
acid was lower in human milk and it was comparable
to donkey milk. Low concentrations of butyric acid
contribute to the inhibition in vitro of the human cancer
cell lines, although caproic, caprylic and capric acids
could reduce body weight and body fat as reported by
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TABLE 3
Amino acids in human, cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, horse and donkey milk
Amino acids (g.100g-1) Human Cow Buffalo Goat Sheep Camel Horse Donkey
Essential amino acids
Tyrosine 4.70 4.50 3.85 4.80 3.7 - 3.8 3.10 4.30 4.36
Lysine 6.20 8.10 7.49 8.20 7.7 - 7.8 4.00 8.00 6.10
Iso Leucine 10.10 8.70 5.71 7.10 4.60 4.90 9.70 3.19
Methionine 1.80 1.80 0.92 3.50 2.70 2.00 1.50 2.90
Phenyl Alamnine 1.80 1.50 4.71 6.00 4.2 - 4.3 4.00 1.20 6.39
Threonine 4.60 4.50 5.71 5.70 4.2 - 4.4 4.10 4.30 3.19
Valine 6.00 4.80 6.76 5.70 6.2 - 6.4 4.10 4.10 4.65
Leucine 10.10 8.70 9.79 8.20 9.7 - 9.9 6.10 9.70 9.30
Total 45.30 42.6 44.94 49.20 43.00 - 43.90 32.30 42.8 40.0
Non-essential amino acids
Alanine 4.00 3.00 n/a 3.60 n/a 2.10 3.20 4.94
Aspartic Acid 8.30 7.80 n/a 7.40 n/a 6.90 10.40 3.77
Histidine 2.30 3.00 n/a 5.00 n/a 2.10 2.40 6.68
Proline 8.60 9.60 n/a 14.60 n/a 12.00 8.40 8.43
Trypotophan 1.80 1.50 n/a n/a n/a n/a 1.20 1.16
Arginine 4.00 3.30 n/a 2.90 n/a 2.00 5.20 11.62
Glutamic Acid 17.80 23.20 n/a 19.30 n/a 18.10 20.10 11.04
Serine 5.10 4.80 n/a 5.20 n/a 4.30 6.20 5.81
Glycine 2.60 1.80 n/a 2.10 n/a 2.10 1.90 5.23
Cystine 1.70 0.60 0.58 0.6 0.8 - 0.9 1.90 0.60 1.16
Total 56.20 58.60 0.58 60.70 0.8 - 0.9 51.50 59.6 59.84
n/ a: not analyzed; (Guo et al., 2 00 7; Bar³owska e t a l., 2011; Dimitrov et al., 20 07; Kama l e t a l., 2007;
Gerchev et al., 2005; Nayak et al., 2020)
TABLE 4
Vitamin concentration in human, cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, horse and donkey milk
Vitamins (µg.100 mL-1) Human Cow Buffalo Goat Sheep Camel Horse Donkey
B3-Niacin 147 - 178 50- 120 80- 171 187- 370 300- 500 0.77 70 - 140 1.3 (mg.100g-1)
A 30 - 200 17- 50 69 50- 68 41- 50 5- 97 9.3 - 34 BLOQ:100
(µg.100 g-1)
B1-Thiamine 14 - 17 28 - 90 40- 50 40- 68 28- 80 10- 60 20 - 40 BLOQ:0.1
(mg.100g-1)
B12-Cyanoco 0.03 - 0.05 0.27- 0.7 0.3- 0.4 0.06- 0.07 0.30- 0.71 0.2 0.3 BLOQ:0.5
balamine (µg.100 g-1)
B2- Riboflavine 20 - 60 116- 202 100- 120 110- 210 160- 429 42- 168 10 - 37 BLOQ:0.1
(mg.100g-1)
C- Ascorbic 3500 -0000 300- 2300 1000-2540 900-1500 425-6000 2400-18400 1287 - 8100 <0.50
(mg.100g-1)
E- α-tocopherol 300 - 800 20- 184 190- 200 0.04 120 21- 150 26 - 113 1.46 (mg. L-1)
(mg. 100 g-1)
BLOQ: Below limit of quantification; (Medhammar et al., 2012; Claeys et al., 2014; Nayak et al., 2020).
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TABLE 5
Fatty acids in human, cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, horse and donkey milk
Butyric acid (C4:0) 0.02 3.14 3.90 1.27 4.06 ND 0.18 0.60
Caproic acid (C6:0) 0.09 2.17 2.33 3.28 2.78 0.10 0.28 1.22
Caprylic acid (C8:0) 0.19 1.41 2.41 3.68 3.13 0.10 2.45 12.80
Capric acid (C10:0) 1.46 3.25 2.40 11.07 4.97 0.10 6.67 18.65
Lauric acid (C12:0) 5.53 3.63 30.9 4.45 3.35 0.89 5.83 10.67
Myristic acid (C14:0) 6.40 11.62 28.02 9.92 10.16 7.32 6.37 5.77
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 25.40 24.9 12.58 25.64 23.1 18.80 22.74 11.47
Total saturated fatty 46.60 67.73 65.86 70.42 65.17 51.9 47.40 67.60
acid (C4-18)
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) 2.24 1.03 1.93 0.99 0.68 3.51 4.45 2.37
Oleic acid (C18:1) 40.25 24.81 24.10 24.17 26.01 28.10 25.15 9.65
Total mono-unsaturated 43.55 27.3 26.43 25.67 24.29 39.60 31.14 15.80
fatty acid (C16:1-22:1)
Linoleic acid (C18:2) 8.84 2.81 2.04 2.72 1.61 1.85 14.94 8.15
Linolenic acid (C18:3) 0.05 0.86 0.68 0.53 0.92 1.81 7.05 6.47
Total poly-unsaturated 9.85 5.25 2.67 4.08 2.45 8.46 22.01 16.60
fatty acids (C18:2-18:3)
ND: not detected; (Fiecko et al., 2020; Talpur et al., 2008; Konuspayeva et al., 2008; Nayak et al., 2020)
Composition (%) Human Cow Buffalo Goat Sheep Camel Horse Donkey
Rasmussen et al., 2010 and Foglietta et al., 2014. The
total mono unsaturated fatty acids are higher in human,
camel, horse, cow, buffalo, goat, sheep and donkey
milk. The total poly unsaturated fatty acids were higher
in horse and donkey milk compared to human, camel,
cow, sheep, goat and buffalo milk. The total poly
unsaturated fatty acids are majorly comprised of
linoleic and linolenic acids (Recio et al., 2009). The
levels of long-chain n-6 to n-3 (mainly LA compared
with ALA) fatty acids are important, particularly n-3
fatty acids, in maintaining cardio vascular health
(Griffin 2008) and they influence the ratios of ensuing
eicosanoids and metabolic functions. The unsaturated
or short chained fatty acids in horse and donkey milk
are higher compared to other milk sources, which is
interesting from a nutritional point of view. The linoleic
acid is more in horse, human and donkey milk
compared to other milk sources and the higher amount
of these compound helps in lowering the risk of cardio
vascular diseases, carcinogenesis, diabetes and
osteoporosis and modulation of the immune system as
revealed by Barlowska et al., 2011.
Milk proteins appear to be an exciting link between
nutrition, dietetics and therapy. In fact, milk contains
a variety of bioactive compounds with special
properties associated with the development, growth
and survival of infants beyond those provided by
nutrition alone (Polidori and Vincenzetti, 2012).
Highest amount of casein is observed in goat milk
followed by cow, sheep, buffalo, camel, horse and
donkey milk, whereas lowest whey protein content is
observed in cow milk, followed by goat, sheep, camel,
buffalo, horse, donkey and human milk. The cow milk
casein and whey protein content is quite similar to
camel, buffalo, goat and sheep milk (Table 6). An
average high level of protein, fat and calcium by casein
unit in milk makes it an excellent matrix for cheese
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TABLE 6
Proteins in human, cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, horse and donkey milk
Composition (%) Human Cow Buffalo Goat Sheep Camel Horse Donkey
Casein 26.06 77.23 68.93 - 73.00 77.50 70.60 52-87 50.00 47.28
Whey protein 53.52 17.54 24.90 - 28.14 20.00 21.70 20-25 38.79 36.96
(Guo et al., 2007; Pasquini et al., 2003; Potocnik et al., 2011; Park et al., 2007; Abdullahi, 2019
production (Barlowska et al., 2011). Cow, goat,
buffalo, sheep and camel milk have higher content of
casein/whey protein compared to other milk sources.
The casein and whey protein combination of human
milk is slightly similar to donkey and horse milk
compared to cow, buffalo, goat, sheep and camel milk.
An average, donkey milk contains a low level of total
protein and a low casein/whey protein ratio (average
of 1.3) reported by Tidona et al., 2011. This ratio is
believed to play a crucial role in the sensitization to
cow milk protein fraction, reducing the allergenic
capacity, lower the value and lower the allergenic
capacity (Lara-Villoslada et al., 2005). Restani et al.,
2002;
Monti et al., 2007; Swar 2011, conducted in vivo study
on donkey milk tolerability test and it revealed that it
was well tolerated by children with cow milk protein
allergy (CMPA) in terms of clinical tolerability.
Cow milk is most universal in human nutrition and the
present review revealed the nutritional composition of
some different milk sources such as human, cow,
buffalo, sheep, goat, camel, horse and donkey milk.
Majorly cow milk is largely consumed in practice due
to required nutritional composition present in it and
has good yield with huge population. The other milk
sources are little nicked in their usage due to the less
awareness and availability. The present study gives
an idea regarding the nutritional compositions of
different milk sources. It is clear from the review that
the donkey and horse milk nutritional composition is
almost similar to the human milk nutritional composition
and the infants who are orphan or deprived from
mother’s milk, even malnutrition could take use of it
for their overall health and body development. Allergic
reactions of donkey milk and horse milk is lower due
to lower protein composition compared to cow, camel,
buffalo, sheep, goat and almost similar protein
composition compared with human milk. Compared
to all milk sources, the fat content of donkey milk is
lower. Donkey milk digestibility is higher compared to
cow milk and it is similar to human milk due to the
good amount of whey proteins in it. It is evident from
the review that the donkey milk can be considered the
closest natural milk to human milk.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Department
of Science and Technology (DST), Science and
Engineering Research Board (SERB), Grant No. EEQ/
2017/000677 for providing the financial support.
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(Received : July, 2020 Accepted : August, 2020)
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