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critiques & cités
WATER & CITY
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS AND URBAN STRUCTURES
*
editors
Ayda Alehashemi, Jean-François Coulais & Gilles Hubert
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Across waterways
Ayda Alehashemi, Jean-François Coulais, Gilles Hubert, editors
CHAPTER 1 IRANIAN WATER CIVILISATION
Imposed Modern Misdevelopment vs. Composed Traditional Âbâdi
Mohammad Reza Owlia, Farzane Owlia
An Introduction to Qanats of Yazd Province
Ali Asghar Semsar Yazdi, Saleh Semsar Yazdi
The Influence of the Underground Water System on the Urban
Morphology of a Traditional City, Yazd-Iran
Mohammad Reza Noghsan Mohammadi
The Relationship Between Qanat Watermills and Settlements in the
Central Plateau of Iran
Mohsen Abbasi Harofteh, Nariman Farahza
Water and Cultural Landscape: Qanat of Qasem Abad, Yazd, Iran
Majid Labbaf Khaneiki
CHAPTER 2 LEARNING FROM HISTORY
In Praise of Water Architecture
André Guillerme
Urban Resilience and Hydraulic Continuity Against a Backdrop of Wars
and Conquests, the Susiana Plain of Iran in the First Millennium CE
Mehrnoush Soroush
Water in the Casbah of Algiers
Dalila Khamache
Water in the Persian Garden Paradise: The Case of Isfahan
Sina Abedi
Relevance of Historical Water Systems in Today’s Cities, Indian Examples
Savitri Jalais
Typical Human Settlements, Cities and Related Ancestral Hydraulic Systems: A
Comparative Approach Through Examples from the Mena Region and Europe
Fairouz Megdiche-Kharrat, Mohamed Moussa, Rachid Ragala
CHAPTER 3 WATER ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING
“Deh-Sabz”, Afghanistan: an Urban Project to Optimize the Presence of
Water in the City
Christian Piel
Toward Blue-Green Plan in Taleghan City
Ali Chavoshian, Naser Dehghanian, Reza Dowlati Fard, Pierre Renault
11
14
17
23
31
39
47
60
63
69
83
97
111
117
128
131
141
Social Sustainability Through Water Related Architecture
Ghazal Banan
CHAPTER 4 WATER ARCHITECTURE AND LANDSCAPE
EXPERIENCES: EUROPEAN APPROACHES
The Qanats in The Palermo Plain (Sicily, Italy)
Pietro Todaro
The Signs of Water
Manfredi Leone with Paolo Inglese, Tiziana Turco, Martina Botta, Claudia Urso
The Place of Water in urban Projets: Two European Examples
Gilles Hubert
Building Landscape and Organising Territory: (Re) Thinking Pontine Marshes`
Architecture
Cristina Pallini, Helder Casal Ribeiro
Recomposing Urban and Regional Territories through Water Management
Andreea Grigorovschi, Frédéric Rossano
Dams and Landscapes: A Case Study on The Changing Perception of the Sélune Valley
Hélène Balaresque, Marie-Anne Germaine, Ludovic Drapier, Laurent Lespez
CHAPTER 5 HERITAGE AND INNOVATION
A Paradigm Shift in Urban River Management in Iran: Tehran River
Restoration
Ali Chavoshian, Saied Ahmari, Fatemeh Fallah Zavareh, Naser Dehghanian
Kan River Restoration Plan, Tehran
Pierre Renault
Wa te r I n fr a st r uc t ur es a n d Ur b an St r uc t ur es i n I ra n: Re t hi n ki n g Mu l ti d im e n-
sional Integration
Ayda Alehashemi
Restoring Blue and Green Corridors in European and Asian Metropolises: The
“Confluence-City” Concept As Theoretical and Practical Tool
Cristiana Mazzoni
Research on WaterArchitecture: from Legacies to Innovation
Jean-Francois Coulais
AUTHORS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
147
154
157
173
185
199
211
225
236
239
247
259
271
285
299
305
11
INTRODUCTION
ACROSS WATERWAYS
Ayda Alehashemi, Jean-François Coulais & Gilles Hubert,
editors
This volume brings together the proceedings of the Water & City, Hydraulic
Systems and Urban Structures International Conference held in Yazd between
September 3rd and 7th, 2018. The 25 articles by 35 authors from 7 different
countries are organised in 5 chapters following the conference sessions. Led by
the School of Art and Architecture at Yazd University, the initiative originated
in the encounter of a multi-disciplinary group of international researchers in
architecture, history and engineering with the UNESCO International Center
on Qanats and Historic Hydraulic Structures (ICQH) in Yazd.
Focusing on the historical aspects of water with regards to contemporary
engineering, architectural and urban design, the 2018 Yazd Conference had
three goals:
– Sharing knowledge and experiences in the integration between water
systems and urban structures.
– Identifying evolution paths and sustainable approaches towards improving
relations between water and cities.
– Laying the ground for a future international research program, by a common
language and a mutual understanding of the role of water in designing and
managing cities and their regions.
The first chapter is an introduction to the history and heritage of the
Iranian water civilisation. This opening choice is not only an expression
of gratitude to our hosts. Iran is one of the most highly sophisticated and
advanced water civilisations in the world, whose innovative hydraulic tech-
niques and cultures have disseminated to many parts of the world, from China
to India and from North Africa to Europe. How can such a rich heritage in
water systems open new pathways towards the ecological transition we need
to go through in contemporary environmental crises? The footprints of his-
torical water structures and cultures in six different countries are described in
12
the second chapter. Its authors unveil thoughtful and precious viewpoints on
how this heritage could be inspiring for the future. A more resilient approach
combined with a renewed role for water infrastructures in today’s design
projects are necessary to meet future challenges. In chapter 3, such paths are
examined and discussed, based on recent architectural and urban planning
projects analysed by their authors.
Recent European experiences in water-city relations show that multidis-
ciplinary and design-oriented research are pre-requisites for successful water
architecture projects. These new approaches are presented in chapter 4, involv-
ing organisational and cultural frameworks agreed upon at the metropolitan
or regional scale level. Accumulated heritage over the centuries around the
world and the difficulty of moving towards a restauration of water’s agenda in
the present period question the nature and the role of hydraulic innovation
in the 21st century. In this perspective, the final chapter underlines the need
for taking a step back and rethinking the relationships between human settle-
ments and water resources. Renewing our understanding of the concepts of
modernity and water legacies will facilitate our progress towards better inte-
grating water systems and urban structures in the future.
Let us emphasize the collective nature of this work. Each of the four days
of the Yazd Conference, the agenda was organised in three parts : workshops
in the morning, field visits in the Yazd region in the afternoon, and informal
discussions in the evening. By bringing together disciplines that do not usually
confront viewpoints with each other, future research paths could be drawn.
By drawing on international perspectives, a common language could emerge
and contribute to the quality of the collective experience. During the final
workshop discussion, all participants expressed their willingness to continue
the cooperation work started in Yazd. Two years later, by the time we print
these proceedings, this wishful project has come to reality with the creation of
the International Water Architecture Chair at ENSA Paris Malaquais.
We thank all the participants for the hard work achieved through their
contributions gathered in this book. As a final word, we would like to express
our special gratitude to Mr. Semsar Yazdi, ICQHS-UNESCO, and Mr.
Abbasi Harofteh, Yazd University and the Cultural Heritage Base for Historic
City of Yazd, for their heartedly welcome, their personal support and profes-
sional organisation of the conference.
154
CHAPTER 4
WATER ARCHITECTURE AND LANDSCAPE
EXPERIENCES: EUROPEAN APPROACHES
Historically, urban water
resources have defined important
ecosystem corridors, not only for the
supply of water to fauna, flora and
human living spaces in anthropic
territories, but also and above all for
the general balance of the primary
elements from which the life of
species can develop in these territo-
ries. However, since the first half of
the 20th century, this balance has
been jeopardized by many human
actions that do not consider its
crucial meaning. This chapter takes
into account these recent disruptions
and highlight in parallel new land-
scapes and urban planning practices
in different European countries.
In Strasbourg water was consid-
ered as an asset and a source of wealth
for the city life. Today, water man-
agement is becoming a central issue
for Strasbourg in order to reach sus-
tainability and landscape resilience
in urban and regional development.
Andreea Grigorovschi and Frédéric
Rossano underline how local strate-
gic planning documents are in line
with a global change of paradigm in
urban planning, where environmen-
tal concerns dominate and structure
the project of contemporary socie-
ties, cities and territories.
Hélène Balaresque et al. demon-
strate that the perception of the rela-
tionship between landscape and rivers
is a relevant research topic for social
sciences. In their study of Sélune
Valley, in France, they describe how
this perception was radically trans-
155
formed by the erection of two hydro-
electric dams built on the river.
Gilles Hubert points out the evo-
lutions of relations between cities and
rivers across their regions. He analyzes
the two cases of Lyon and Rotterdam,
each chosen to illustrate a specific
transformation factor on water issues.
In Lyon, new linear public spaces
were created along the riverbanks to
combine Green and Blue grid eco-
systems to the urban systems. In
Rotterdam the most important trans-
formation factor is related to urban
development in flood-prone areas.
Two other important examples
deal with Italy. Manfredi Leone and
his colleagues explain the richness of
the landscape project of Fossa della
Garofala, a valley located at the hearth
of a vast agricultural land in Palermo.
Despite the surrounding buildings,
the landscape project reconstructs
the story of the local environmental
components linked to the formation
of Palermo and the irrigation tech-
niques introduced in Sicily during the
Islamic domination. Cristina Pallini
and Helder Casal Ribeiro focus on
the analysis of the former territory
of Pontine Marshes, extending to the
southeast of Rome. This flood-ter-
ritory became a fertile plain thanks
to the “integral reclamation” plan,
implemented during the Italian fascist
period (1928-1935). The authors
stress the importance of a deep under-
standing of the original landscape and
territorial topics in order to shape per-
spectives for today´s demands.
157
THE QANATS IN THE PALERMO PLAIN (SICILY, ITALY)
Pietro Todaro
Introduction
This research intends to analyse the architecture and the shape of the
Sicilian qanats in their historical evolution in the Palermo’s plain, and in this
context the conceptual schemes that characterize the various underground
traditional water and distribution systems from the late Ancient age to early
part of the 20th century are illustrated. Not codified by a written hydraulic
technique, these systems were handed down through the picuniaturi (well
miners, like the persan moqanni and kolangdar) and by the funtaneri or mastru
d’acqua (ancient practitioners on water management or masters of water)1 able
to revisit the technical knowledges that in Sicily came indirectly from ancient
Persia through the historical developments and lineages Romans and Arabs.
Only recently with the comparative analysis of hydrogeological and hydraulics
data and the improvement of the speleo-topographical survey by a wide series
of systems investigated we were able to deepen their functioning mechanism,
defining in detail different types (Table 1). As regards specifically the technical
definition of a qanat, Italian terminology is “pozzi a ripiano” from the French
“puits en étage” (water well in storeys), word commonly used in Algeria during
the colonial period. The Sicilian name ingruttato, present in the oral tradition
thanks to the picuniaturi, to generically designate the underground draining
galleries, is mentioned for the first time in the documents, as a synonym for
qanat, only at the beginning of the 19th century.
A Geographical And Geological Setting Of Palermo Plain
According to the classification of Koppen the climate of the Palermo Plain
can be defined as “temperate, dry and hot summer, cool and rainy winter”.
1. M. Pasqualino, abate, Vocabolario siciliano italiano e latino, Palermo, Reale stamperia, 1796.
158
Regarding the rainfalls, although the annual average in Palermo is 800 mm,
its distribution in the year is not regular, it is high compared to the arid areas
of Middle East where the qanat systems are historically widespread, but the
average rainfall values for the months of June, July and August, important
for irrigation, are only 8 mm. The altitude gradually varies from a few meters
above sea level along the coast to just over 100 m in the foothills. The geo-
logical outcrops of the mountains surrounding the plain of Palermo are rep-
resented by Mesozoic carbonate rocks covering in over thrust the Tertiary
formations consisting of clays and quartz sandstones (Numidic Flysch) out-
cropping in the foothills. On these soils that make up the local substratum,
the calcarenite and sands formations of the lower Pleistocene are found, with
thicknesses varying from a few meters to about 80 m, to form the skeleton of
the Palermo plain, in a stairway of marine terracing.
Hydrogeological Outlines and Features
The richness in water resources of Palermo plain is represented by
groundwater in the calcarenitic layers of its subsoil that contains a series
of aquifers supplied directly by the rains that fall on the plain and from
indirect contribution of underground water flows that overflow from the
hydro-structures limestone of the mountains that surround it (Fig. 1). These
constitute a huge reservoir, mainly of the karstic type, whose potentiality has
been estimated to exceed one million cubic meters per year. The structure
favourable of the mountainous geological formations, consisting of fissured
dolomitic calcareous, is capable of draining and collecting the rainwaters
of various intercommunicating basins, storing them in a deep aquifer
thanks to a vast and impermeable bedrock (Numidic Flysch), then slowly
pouring them into the substrate of the same plain. The Palermo plain is
characterized by two groundwaters: 1) A secondary and superficial aquifer
that saturates the sandy calcarenitic formation, referable to the Quaternary
terrace, characterized by a sub-horizontal strata arrangement and a hydraulic
permeability for porosity, variable 10-5-10- 3 m/s; 2) A main aquifer formed
by carbonate substratum rocks (limestone and dolomites) that constitute
important hydro-structures in connection with the surrounding mountain
ranges (Mounts of Palermo). They are permeable rocks for cracking and
karst, with variable permeability values of 10-1-10-3m/s. On the Fig. 1 are
indicated with the letters A, B, C, the main calcareous hydro-structures,
primary hydric contribution of the qanat systems of Palermo. The
carbonatic corps D and E (Mount Pellegrino and Mount Gallo) do not
159
Fig. 1. Hydro-structural map and qanats location. Source: Author, 2018.
160
Fig. 2. Location map of qanat areas and historical springs. Source: Author, 2018.
161
constitute active hydro-structures: they are sites of marine intrusion because
of their geological structure and intense karst.
In Fig. 2, the areas of diffusion of the qanats and of the main histori-
cal springs of the Palermo plain are indicated. We can see the great diffu-
sion of underground water systems, compared to the natural sources (only in
number of five springs), limited by the hydrogeological conditions. The most
productive areas of the qanats, in terms of water capacity, were those rooted
with their “water heads” in the alluvial cones of the calcareous-dolomitic
hydro-structures, in contact with the clay substratum of the Numidic Flysch
(Areas 1-2-3-4-6), with max flow= 50-80 l/s. In the North, the “qanats of
peneplane” the more superficial (Piana dei Colli and Piana di Gallo) rooted in
the calcarenitic hydro-structure, were less productive with a maximum water
flow= 25 l/s (Castelforte qanat)2.
The Dating Problem on Qanat Introduction in Sicily
At present there are no reliable diagnostic elements due to the lack of
a historiographical documentation and of traceable archaeological data: the
ceramics are generally absent in the galleries because of the extreme conti-
nuity of use they have been subjected during the past centuries. Last but not
least, the difficulty of finding the excavation marks of human hands and dis-
tinguishing them from the signs of geological dynamics. The discovery in an
inclined shaft obstructed by debris of the “Scalea I” qanat (Piana dei Colli)
of some ceramics fragments, considered not reworked and attributed to the
12th-13th centuries3, led to the hypothesis that the system in Sicily could
date to this period or antecedent. On the other hand, the observation that
the archival sources of the Muslim period in Sicily have never mentioned the
term qanat4 while reporting a vast repertoire of terms of agricultural hydrau-
lics still in use in Sicilian language can make it believe that this system may be
pre-existing to the Arab period. For the neighbouring North-Africa (Egypt,
Libya, Algeria) we have instead safer data that could be of reference also for
the dating of the Sicilian ingruttati, since these areas were Roman provinces.
2. F. Alfonso Spagna, Trattato di idraulica agraria, Palermo, 1877, pp. 262-263.
3. V. Biancone & S. Tusa, I qanat dell’area centro sett. della Piana di Palermo, in Archeologia e
territorio, Palermo, 1997, pp. 375-389.
4. A. De Simone, Palermo araba, in Storia di Palermo, v. II, Palermo, 2000, p. 100.
162
Recent studies conducted on some qanats found in the Garamantes region56,
the current Fezzan Libyan, have allowed, through the study of geomorpho-
logical and archaeological data, a sure dating of some of them between the
1st and the 4th century AD. To date, sharing his Persian origin, the uncer-
tainty about their introduction into Sicily continues, since similar hydrau-
lic structures, used for drainage, collecting and underground transport of
water, have recently been revisited and studied in Syracuse (Nymphaeum,
Theatre of Syracuse) and Agrigento (Kolymbetra, Zuccarello) and attributed
to the Greek period (4-2th century BC)7 8. At present the main hypotheses
of study on the spread of qanat from Persia in Sicily and Mediterranean area
are in summary as follows: 1) From Egypt, by the island of Crete and Ancient
Greek (through the Achaemenid empire domination, 6th-3th century BC).
2) From Egypt, through Fezzan, Libya, (Garamantian area) during Roman
5. A. Wilson, Foggaras in the land of Garamantes (Fezzan). e First International Symposium
on qanat, Yazd (Iran), 2000.
6. D. Mattingly & A. Wilson, Farming the Sahara: e Garamantian contribution in Southern
Libya, Arid land in Roman Times, paper from the International Conference, Rome, 2001.
7. S. Collin Bouer, Les adductions hydrauliques des villes grecques de Sicile, J. P. Brun &
Ph. Jockey (ed.), TEXNAI. Techniques et sociétés en Méditerranée, Paris, pp. 513-528.
8. M. Wuttmann, Les qanats de Ayn Manawir. In P. Briant (ed.) Irrigation et drainage dans
l’antiquité. Qanats et canalisations souterraines en Iran, en Égypte et en Grèce, Paris, 2001,
pp. 109-350.
Table 1. Synopsis table of historical water systems. Source: Author, 2018.
163
period (2th BC-4th AD)9. From there, very locally, the technique passed to
Sicily and much more widely into the Iberian Peninsula10. 3) Arab diffusion
(9th-11th AD), not yet based on archaeological sources found. Likewise at
present there is not any archaeological evidence for the construction of qanats
in Sicily before the Islamic period11. We also know that the qanats in Syria are
nearly all of Roman origin, and currently, about 5% of the original number
of qanat systems during the Roman and Byzantine period are still in active
use12. There are clear indications that qanats have been used in Syria during
Roman-Byzantine eras, as much circumstantial evidence such as potsherds,
coin, and oil lamp found in qanat galleries confirm this hypothesis13. Until
today Syrians themselves refer to qanats, calling them “Romani” in their ver-
nacular language14.
Traditional Water Systems in Palermo
The conceptual schemes of hydraulic and hydro-geological functioning
of the main underground water systems of the Palermo plain (Table 1), from
the Late-Ancient age to the present, are illustrated and described in their evo-
lution and historical diffusion, from the vertical wells to the tunnel systems.
As these are excavations and minor works, their construction is not normally
codified by technique and by a written hydraulic theory but handed down
through the talent and practice of picuniaturi (well and galleries diggers) and
funtaneri (water masters) able to adapt to the local environment the various
water practices that in Sicily came from the Romans and from distant Persia,
through Arab domination.
9. N. Drake, A. Wilson, R. Pelling, K. White, D. Mattingly, S. Black, Water Table Decline,
Springline Desiccation and the Early Development of irrigated Agricolture in the Wadi al Ajal, Libyan
Fezzan, 2005, 95-111.
10. H. Globot, Les qanats une technique d’acquisition de l’eau, Paris, 1979, pp. 134.
11. X. Planhol, Kariz, origin and dissemination, Encyclopaedia Iranica, XV, 573-578.
12. J. I. Wessels, Cooperate or not cooperate? Collective action for rehabilitation of traditional water
systems in Syrie, Amsterdam, 2008.
13. I. Kobori, Y. Takahashi, Kawano, e water system of Taibi oasis, in I. Kobori (Ed.),
Qanawat Romani of Taibi oasis, Tokyo, pp. 53-82.
14. D. R. Lightfoot, Syrian qanat Romani: History, ecology, abandonement, “Journal of Arid
Environments”, 1996, pp. 321-336.
164
Fig. 3. Scheme of “connected wells”, geological section and plan view (P1, P2, P3-P4).
Source: Author, 2018.
Fig. 4. Typical scheme of an ingruttato of the Palermo plain (exit, like Farsi < mazhar).
Source: Author, 2018.
165
Wells With Blind Galleries
In the slow evolution of the water wells, which represented the oldest
method of exploitation of groundwater, a first form of improvement of their
efficiency was achieved with the creation of so-called “wells with blind galler-
ies”. They were made by digging from the bottom of the well one or two short
“blind” tunnels to scissors or opposites with a length of 5-10 m, dug accord-
ing to the experience of the picuniaturi, in the direction of the “water veins”,
small sections of rock where major drainage effects appeared on a macroscopic
level (Table 1). With this technique the overall drainage section of the well
was expanded, allowing greater water flow to be intercepted in the time unit,
thereby increasing the flow rate and reducing the negative effects of seasonal
fluctuations in the water table. At the base of the well there is often a widening
like a small chamber whose geometric shape was defined by the lithological
characteristics of the rock, often with a sub-square plan (1.20 x 1.20 m). This
small environment, known by the dialect word scammaratu, had the function of
further increasing the storage and availability of daily water15.
The Connected Wells
At the beginning of the nineteenth century with the spread of metal ‘water
wheels’ (iron and cast iron) of the noria Gattaux that quickly replaced the
medieval senia (arab<saniya), made of wooden wheels16, the exploitation of
groundwater was improved for two reasons: 1) it was possible to withdraw the
water at a greater depth, up to 20-30 m (against 10-15 m of the senia), inter-
cepting deeper water layers, until then unexplored; 2) The yield in volumes
was improved, increasing the water flow up to over 5 liters/s. On the other
hand, the picuniaturi of Palermo managed to improve the productivity of the
wells by digging tunnels connecting several wells between them to their base,
called “pozzi allaccianti”, connected wells (Table 2 and Fig. 3). In one of the
wells, considered the ‘main well’, of systematic channeling of the water, the
device of the noria Gattaux was inserted allowing in this way greater and con-
tinuous withdrawals of water over time. As a result, larger farmland surfaces
and extensive cultivation were made in the plain of Palermo17. A pair of horses
15. Op. cit. F. Alfonso Spagna, pp. 262-263.
16. Op. cit. F. Alfonso Spagna, pp. 386-389.
17. P. Todaro, Les systemes hydrauliques à puits et galeries de Villa Rao (Palerme), e
Mediterranean world environment and history, E. Fouache (Ed.), ELSEVIER, Université de
Paris-Sorbonne, 2002, pp. 263-273.
166
Fig. 5. Scheme of a typical roman aqueduct.
Fig. 6. Gesuitico Alto qanat and Scibene qanat with “Sirocco room” (like Iranian Hos
khaneh, Pakeneh). Source: Author, 2018.
167
or even oxen guaranteed the rotation movement of the ‘water wheel’ without
interruption, day and night18. For smaller devices, only one beast (often a
donkey) was sufficient.
The Ingruttati
The underground water system ingruttato is a variant of emerging catch
galleries such as qanat, the only difference consists in the final outlet into a
small well (Fig. 4). In this case the water was extracted by water-wheel systems
(senia, noria) or more recently by hydraulic pump. The underground tracks
of the structures we have studied do not exceed 500 m in length (in relation
to the extent of land ownership) and are located in areas characterized by very
low slope, where the water table was not very deep (about 10 m). Galleries of
this type were found in various parts of the Palermo plain like Piana dei Colli:
Scalea I, Scalea II, Villa Raffo (Table 1 & Fig. 4) and in the southern plain of
Palermo (Olivuzza, Fossa della Garofala)19.
The Qanats
Unlike the ancient Greek and Roman aqueducts that had the sole function
of transporting surface water (spring or river and lake basins), until the final
distribution and use for mainly potable purposes (Fig. 5), the qanat systems
exploit only the groundwater (aquifers) that are drained, collected and, at the
same time, transported to the surface by gravity alone20 21 (Table 1.4). Their
main function is for irrigation and secondly the domestic use. Unlike the
ingruttati, whose tunnels are kept underground, (Table 1.3), the qanat are
emerging galleries, thanks to their lower slope compared to that of the ground,
creating at the outlet, artificial sources. (Table 1.4). The qanats (called in the
nineteenth century “pozzi a ripiano”) were known locally with the generic
dialectal etymology ingruttati22 (pl.). In the Palermo’s plain the water storage
of the qanat took place in a basins called “gebbia” (< Arabian = Ğābyia) low
and mighty irrigation tanks in masonry, square in shape, which were placed at
the outlet of the galleries in the surface. Galleries with a maximum length of
18. Op. cit. F. Alfonso Spagna, pp. 256-257.
19. P. Todaro, Sistemi d’acqua tradizionali siciliani: qanat, ingruttati e pozzi allaccianti nella
Piana di Palermo, Journal article: Geologia dell’Ambiente, 4,2014, pp. 19-28.
20. P. Todaro, Il sottosuolo di Palermo, Flaccovio Ed., Palermo, 1988, pp. 25-36
21. P. Todaro, e ingruttati in the plain of Palermo, First International Symposium on qanat,
Yazd (Iran),2000, pp. 44-56.
22. P. Todaro, Guida di Palermo sotterranea, L’EPOS Ed., 2002, pp. 36-42.
168
Table 2. Histogram qanats of Palermo plain. Source: Author, 2018.
Fig. 7. Qanats in trenches (artificial tunnel) and in natural tunnels. Source: Author, 2018.
169
up to 2km characterize the qanats of Palermo plain. For example: the Qanat
Bonanno and Floridia at Ciaculli, qanat Furceri at S. Ciro-Maredolce, just
at the feet of Mount Grifone; qanat Blando and Amato at Cruillas; qanat
Castelforte in the Piana dei Colli. The highest density of the qanats is in the
west of the city in the areas of Mezzomonreale, Villa Tasca, Cuba and Olivuzza.
They have a lower linear development, ranging from 500÷1000 m, often
articulated in several secondary branches and appendages at various levels,
whose depth does not normally exceed 20m; among these the qanat Scibene
(Fig. 6) and the qanat Danisinni whose construction could date back to the
Roman period. In the locality Casa Micciulla the qanat Gesuitico is still
active (Fig. 6), made at the beginning of the 16th century, which develops on
three levels of deepening and with different branches of production that still
today reach high water rate they can exceed 30 liters/s. Its waters intercepted
by pumping in the “well” mother of Case Micciulla, are distributed to the
surviving farmers of the area (citrus groves and orchards). In relation to their
depth, if the qanats are superficial, they were excavated using a covered trench,
if they are deep in “natural tunnels”. The type and structure of the covers are
in ashlars of calcarenite, of different shapes and sizes according to the depth
reached by the tunnels and to the loads they had to bear (Fig. 7, a-b-c-d)23.
The current state of art of the qanats is of a general abandonment: they are
frequently found buried by debris discharged through the shaft wells and
turned into underground landfills (jectaturi). Unlike modern drilled wells,
which in the long term can irreversibly deplete the groundwater reserves, the
qanat respect the natural equilibriums exploiting the groundwater with lower
withdrawals of the annual meteoric contributions, respecting the seasonal
recharge limits. As for the diffusion of these characteristic irrigation systems,
from a first statistical survey performed on a sample of 100 cases examined
(Table 2), it appears that the “wells with blind galleries” are the most
widespread (59%), follow the “connected wells” (pozzi allaccianti) (14%),
ingruttati (18%) then the qanat systems, the percentage of which proved to
be quite modest (9%).
Regarding their length, locally variable from a few hundred meters to
a maximum of almost 3 km, it depends mainly on three territorial factors:
1) The topographical gradient of the land; 2) The depth (5-30 m) and the
slope of the water table. As a first approximation, the simplified analytical
23. P. Todaro, Sistemi d’acqua tradizionali siciliani: qanat, ingruttati e pozzi allaccianti nella
Piana di Palermo, Journal article: Geologia dell’Ambiente, 4, 2014, p. 28.
170
verification of the hydraulic congruity of a qanat is indicated in the attached
calculation sheet (Fig. 8), where the basic geometry of this traditional
system is reproduced with the assumption of the characteristic data and the
variables to be inserted in the resolutive trigonometric formula appropriate
to the hypothesised model. Table C illustrates an approach of comparison
between the representative geometrical and territorial dimensions of
the qanats in Iran and in Sicily. How it is possible to see there are some
important differences between the main dimensions in plan and in section
of the qanats and ingruttati examined (Yazd area and Palermo’s plain). They
are due to various factors depending on the different tools and excavation
techniques, but above all on the different hydro-geological and geotechnical
conditions of the crossed soils.
Fig. 8. Trigonometric scheme of analytical verification of a qanat in the Palermo plain.
Source: Author, 2018.
N°
Dimensions
IRAN
ITALY (Sicily)
1
Length
0.2 - 100 km
0.2 - 2.5 km
2
Height
0.90 - 1.50 m
1.50 - 4.00 m
3
Width
0.50 - 0.80 m
0.50 - 1.05 m
4
Depth
10 - 100 m
5 - 30 m
5
Gallery gradient
0.002 - 0.005
0.004 - 0.005
6
Land gradient
unknown
0.004 - 0.015
7
Interval shaft
20 - 200 m ?
16 - 35 m
8
Water flow Speed
unknown
≈ 0.05 m/s
9 Wells dimension in plan unknown
140×70 cm; 70×70 cm; 62×200 cm; 105×105 cm;
206×103 cm
Table 3. Comparative dimensional approach between qanats in Iran and ingruttati in Sicily.
Source: Author, 2018.
List and Location of Underground Traditional Water Systems
The location of the list order numbers is shown on the hydro-struc-
tural map (Fig. 1). As you can see, so far, have been catalogued n.54 water
systems, according to the types shown in Table 1, with the exception of
the wells with blind galleries that have not been located, the ingruttati,
the wells connected and the qanat are indicated and numbered 1. Out of a
total of 54 inventoried systems of only 16, we have known the topographic
layouts and the typological characteristics. Of all the others we know only
the location and some data and information taken from the bibliography or
collected from direct testimonies.
Conclusion
The vast majority of qanats/ingruttati are in a state of total neglect and
degradation, partially buried and/or turned into landfill (jectaturi= under-
ground storages of heterogeneous materials, debris, backfills, war ruins),
interrupted in more parts from the building construction and infrastructural
works. Among the qanats best preserved and protected with a “buffer zone”
by an archaeological heritage law since 1996, it is good to remember the fol-
lowing: Gesuitico Alto, Scibene, Gesuitico Basso and Danisinni-Cappuccini,
located just west of the historic center of Palermo. All these systems, for their
historical, anthropological and didactic-geological value, can be valorised
as a cultural and tourist resource, with the creation of adequate guided spe-
leo-treck paths, in safety and in compliance with the necessary standards.
299
AUTHORS
Editors
Ayda Alehashemi is architect and landscape architect specialized on water infrastructures and
their integration with urban structures. She has obtained her Ph.D from the University of
Tehran, Iran. She is assistant professor at IKIU university of Qazvin in Iran and adjunct pro-
fessor at ENSA Paris-Malaquais. She is co-director of International chair of water architecture,
urban and landscape stablished in ENSA Paris-Malaquais.
Jean-Francois Coulais is a Professor of Urban Studies at the Paris Malaquais National School
of Architecture and researcher at LIAT (Laboratoire Infrastructures Architecture & Territoires).
He holds a PhD in Urban Studies from École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, and a
Master’s degree in Management of Science and Technology from Harvard University, in a joint
curricular with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is an Associate Researcher at
IPRAUS Laboratory (CNRS, UMR AUSser 3329) and a Member of the National Scientific
Council at the French Ministry of Culture for Urban and Landscape Education in Architec-
tural Schools (Ville, Territoire, Paysage).
Gilles Hubert is Professor in Urban Engineering and Environment at Gustave Eiffel University
since 2009. He holds a PhD in civil engineering from National Institute of Applied Sciences in
Lyon. After his PhD, he served as mission head and then director of the Rhône-Alpes Group of
Research on Infrastructures and Water (GRAIE). He has been researcher at the Ecole des Ponts
ParisTech for twelve years in the Water, Environment and Urban Systems Laboratory (LEESU),
with which he remains associated. From 2003 to 2009, he had been full professor at Cergy-Paris
University and director of a research unit in geography (MRTE Laboratory). From 2016 to 2019,
he has been deputy director of an urban studies research center (Lab’urba). Currently his research
focuses on the relationship between water management and urban environment (with particular
attention to the issue of flood risk).
Contributors
Mohsen Abbasi Harofteh is assistant professor of conservation architecture and a Faculty
member of architecture in Yazd University. He is the head of Yazd World Heritage base as well
as a member of Yazd city council. He has researched and lectured in the field of Islamic archi-
tecture and architecture and city conservation in Yazd art and architecture school for 10 years
a period which resulted in publishing 5 books and about 50 articles in Journals, conferences,
and newspapers.
300
Sina Abedi is architect, graduated from the National School of Architecture of Versailles
(ENSA-V). He is a doctoral researcher at University of Paris-Est and the National School
of Architecture of Paris-Malaquais. He is also a member of the laboratory LIAT (Laboratory
Infrastructure, Architecture and Territory).
Hélène Balaresque is a research officer in Land Management for the State Water Authority of
the Seine Basin. She has worked on various research topics related to Water Management; such
as aquatic environments, consideration of the landscape in an ecological restoration project and
land-use strategy for watershed management. She holds two Masters; in Land Planning from
the Landsurveyors and Topographers School and in Landscape Design Practice and Theory,
from the National School of Landscape Architecture & AgroParisTech.
Ghazal Banan is Franco-Iranian architect, studied at faculty of fine arts in University of Tehran
and “l’école d’architecture et de paysage de Bordeaux”. Fascinated by geography and further
strengthened by her experience in the fields of landscaping and public space, experiences which
she acquired while working alongside a number of renowned firms. Ghazal Banan has received
numerous awards for her works including the EDF BAS CARBONNE prize in 2016. Engaged
in research and experimentation, she was a visiting teacher at the University of Architecture of
Ve ni ce "I UAV ".
Ali Chavoshian is director of the Regional Centre on Urban Water Management (RCUWM)
under the auspices of UNESCO since 2014. He has served in various capacities in several
national and international water related projects for more than 25 years. In the capacity of
RCUWM Director, his main duties are capacity building, research and development and also
networking in water security in human settlements in the West and Central Asia. Chavoshian
has also served as the technical advisor to the Tehran Municipality on urban river restoration
and capacity development.
Nariman Farahza is assistant professor of architecture at the Yazd University form 1995 and is
already the head of architecture department in Art and Architecture Faculty in this university.
He stablished Vernacular Architecture Research Center (VARC) in Yazd University in 2012
and is the head of Earthen Architecture department of VARC. He has researched and lectured
in regeneration and conservation of earthen architecture and supervised several M.A. and Phd
thesis in these fields.
Andreea Grigorovschi is an architect and urban designer, Associate Professor at Ecole Nationale
Supérieure d’Architecture de Strasbourg within the department “Architecture, City and Terri-
tory” and full member of AMUP Research Unit. Since 2016, she holds a PhD in Urban Archi-
tecture from the University of Strasbourg. Her research activity focuses on the new meanings of
the “metropolitan project” (with respect to the “urban project”), its conceptual, operational and
representation methods and tools. Since 2015, a significant part of her research work is devel-
oped within the Franco-Chinese Innovative Metropolitan MobilityChair (ENSAS-CAUP Tong-
ji-ARTELIA), focusing on the specificities of the metropolitan project in Asian and European
metropolises and the question of mobility. She is currently the scientific coordinator of the Inno-
vative Metropolitan Mobility Chair and academic director of the Double Masters Degree Fr-Cn
program (ENSAS-CAUP Tongji) at ENSA Strasbourg.
301
André Guillerme is Professor Emeritus of History of Techniques at the National Conservatory
of Arts and Crafts (CNAM). A historian of the Middle Ages and a civil engineer by training, he
taught Urban Sciences in the French national Engineering Equipment Schools. Research Director
at CNRS, then Professor at the Institute of Urbanism, he coordinated and led pioneering research
at the TMU Lab in history of the urban environment. His research covers the History of Indus-
trial Construction and more generally the history of water in western cities.
Dr. Savitri Jalais is an architect, teaches at the École Nationale Spérieur d’Architecture de
Toulouse and is affiliated to the research laboratories LRA Toulouse and IPRAUS Paris. She
coordinates architectural project studios related to the revitalization of historic city centers and
the intervention on built heritage and participates in the Master's seminar entitled “Architec-
ture- Heritages, theories and devices”. She is also involved in the postgraduate training DPEA
"Urban Project, Heritage and Sustainable Development" in Hanoi, Vietnam and in research
projects pertaining to the valorization and reactivation of traditional water systems in India.
Dalila Kameche. As an architect-teacher and PHD holder in Techniques History of the CNAM
(National Academy of Arts and Professions), Dalila Kameche is a senior lecturer at the EPAU
(Polytechnic School of Architecture and Urbanism). Her research focuses on the hydraulic issue
of Algiers in the Ottomans era (XVI-XIX centuries). Through her training in patrimony, she has
participated in the restoration of major buildings, such as the National Public Museum of Bardo
and the "Quartier des Janissaries" of the Citadel, which is finished nowadays.
Majid Labbaf Khaneiki specializes in social aspects of water in indigenous communities. He
holds a PhD in human geography with a dissertation on water cooperation in traditional agrarian
communities. Over the past years, he has been working as senior researcher for UNESCO-IC-
QHS. He has so far authored or co-authored twelve and tens of articles on indigenous water
management and technologies, and water history. He has also conducted or cooperated with over
20 research projects on similar subjects in Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, India and Azerbaijan.
Manfredi Leone is Professor of Landscape Architecture at the Department of Ar- chitecture of
the University of Palermo. Landscaper and architectural designer, he is Vice-president at the Sicily
Section of the Italian Landscape Architects Association. AIAPP. He is founder and Board member
of I-ASLA, Italian Academic Society of Landscape Architecture. He is author of numerous publi-
cations and has been Visiting Professor in the USA, Australia, Spain, Argentina.
Cristiana Mazzoni is an architect, urban designer and Professor of Architecture and Urban design
in the National Architectural school of Paris-Belleville. During her academic career she has been
teaching as visiting professor in Italy, Germany, France, Spain, USA and China. She is the Director
of the Research Center UMR AUSser, in the framework of the French Scientific Research Center
(CNRS) and member of the Metropolitan Development Council of Strasbourg. She is the scien-
tific director of the “Metropolitan Architecture and Great Events” Chair (MAGE Chair).
Fairouz Megdiche-Kharrat is a qualified architect (since 2003) specialized in “Landscape, Terri-
tory & Patrimony” (since 2013). In October 12th 2018, she obtained the double title of doctor
in “Studies of Landscapes and development of territories” (University of Sousse, Tunisia) and
doctor in Geography in “Men, spaces, time, resources, environments” (Sorbonne Université,
302
Paris). Her research interests include historic hydraulic systems and related landscapes, specifically
those of the MENA region.
Mohammad Reza Noghsan Mohammadi is an architect, urban designer and Professor of
Architecture and Urban design in the School of Art &Architecture, Yazd University. He was
the head of the school for more than 9 years. He directs several research project funded by the
Yazd municipality and the Iran Ministry of higher education. He is director general of Depart-
ment of Road and Urban Development of Yazd Province since 2015. His research and profes-
sional works are mostly presented in national and international conferences. He has published
several papers in ISC and scientific research journals.
Mohammad Reza Owlia is a theorist in traditional art and architecture. he has more than 40
years professional executive and theoretical activities in traditional architecture, conservation
and restoration. Collecting "Persian architecture terminology" from verbal sources, he worked
on a creative issue in his Ph.D. thesis for 10 years. He is a member of faculty of architecture in
Yazd University and visiting professor in different universities of Tehran, Isfahan and Mashhad,
besides that surpvising more than 50 M.A. and Ph.D. thesis is seen in his CV.
Farzane Owlia is a conservator and restorator. She obtained her master degree in conservation
and restoration of historical monuments and sites from Shahid Beheshti University, Iran. She
teaches Islamic Architecture at Imam Javad university, and she also is a member of department
of education in Eivan Emarat co.
Cristina Pallini is Architect (Politecnico di Milano, 1990), PhD in Architectural Composi-
tion (IUAV Venice, 2001). Associate Professor at the Department of Architecture Built Envi-
ronment and Construction Engineering, Politecnico di Milano. She Teaches at the School of
Architecture Urban Planning Construction Engineering AUIC, Politecnico di Milano. Her
research has been funded by Italian and foreign institutions, including AKPIA @ MIT (2004),
the Onassis Foundation (2006), Newcastle University (SALP, 2016). PI in PUMAH Planning,
Urban Management and Heritage (FP7 Marie Curie IRSES, 2012-2016) and MODSCAPES
(Modernist reinventions of the rural landscape), HERA call “Uses of the past”, 2016-2019).
Christian Piel is urbanist and engineer in hydrology. He graduated in DESS urbanism/ Post-
graduate Diploma Specialised in urban planning from Sorbonne University in Paris, and also
received his degree as an engineer in hydrology from CG 93’s Department of Water and San-
itation. He is founder and the director of UrbanWater in Paris, where he engaged in many
projects all over the word con- cerning water management in the city.
Helder Casal Ribeiro is Architect (Faculty of Architecture, University of Porto, 1992), PhD
in Architecture (FAUP, 2013). He Teaches at FAUP since 1999; currently Auxiliary Profes-
sor, lectures Design Studio (MIARQ) and in Doctorate Programme in Architecture (PDA).
Visiting Professor at Politecnico di Milano: Scuola di Architettura e Società, Polo di Mantova
(2014-16) and ABC_PhD Programme (2017-). Researcher at the Study Centre of Architecture
and Urbanism (CEAU) in Atlas da Casa group, where he has three research projects: Modern
Experimentation in Porto (since 2013); Dialogues and Affinities – design practices (since
2016); Modern discourses and narratives in the identity of exhibition spaces (since 2017).
Frédéric Rossano, landscape architect, urban planner, Dr of Sc. ETH Zurich, is currently asso-
ciate professor at Strasbourg School of Architecture and director of AMUP Research Unit. Born
in Grenoble, France in 1970, he attended Versailles School of Landscape Architecture, graduating
cum laude in 1998.His work covers the fields of landscape and urban design, based on his experi-
ence as a project leader and associé at KCAP Architects and Planners Rotterdam/Zurich. He has
conducted numerous large-scale studies and urban designs in Europe, mostly addressing urban
extensions and urban renewal in relation to environmental and transport strategies.
Ali Asghar Semsar Yazdi graduated from the Institute of Applied Sciences in Lyon-France
(INSA de Lyon) with PhD degree in civil engineering (1995). From 1995 to 2005 he has took
part in establishing and running water organizations such as Yazd Regional Water Author-
ity, Yazd Water Museum, Qanat College, and International Center on Qanats and Historic
Hydraulic Structures (UNESCO-ICQHS). From 2006 to 2013 he has been the Director of
the International Center on Qanats and Historic Hydraulic Structures and contributed to
many researches in the field of water indigenous knowledge. In 2003, he was awarded the title
of the "best researcher" by the Iranian Ministry of Science, research and technology. He has
also received Farabi International Award because of his outstanding contribution to the field
of humanities. He is now director of TKCE consulting engineers. He has authored or co-au-
thored tens of papers and books on traditional water management and Qanat system.
Saleh Semsar Yazdi graduated from the University of Tehran with an MS degree in civil engi-
neering, Water management in 2010. From 2010 to 2020 he has contributed in research and
studies in different public and private organizations like Water and Environment Research
Institute of Tehran University, International centre on Qanats and Historic Hydraulic Struc-
tures (UNESCO-ICQHS) and TKCE Consulting engineers. He is currently Chairman of the
board of this company. He has authored and co-authored different papers and books on water
management and Qanat traditional system.
Mehrnoush Soroush is a landscape archaeologist specializing in ancient water management
systems in the Middle East. Her research investigates how water management practices in arid
and semiarid environments developed at the intersection of societal change and environmental
dynamics. Mehrnoush hold a Ph.D. from the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World at
New York University, and a master’s degree in Architecture from University of Tehran. Cur-
rently, she is a Visiting Fellow in Center for Geographic Analysis at Harvard University.
Pietro Todaro is an archeo-hydrogeologist and geoengineering geology, independent researcher.
He conducted studies as expert for the underground traditional water systems in the Palermo
plain, in the Mediterranean area and in the Algerian Sahara. Consultant expert in improvement
of traditional water techniques and providing draining galleries. UNESCO advisor for “foggara”
water systems in Algeria (Gourara-Touat) where he conducted studies and interventions to
increase drainage efficiency of foggaras. He published about eighty scientific and popular books
and articles.
Other contributors
Saied Ahmari, Tehran Engineering and Technical Consulting Organization (TETCO), Tehran
Municipality, Tehran, Iran
Martina Botta, Department of Architecture, University of Palermo, Italy
Naser Dehghanian, Regional Centre on Urban Water Management (RCUWM- UNESCO),
Tehran, Iran
Ludovic Drapier, Paris 12 Val-de-Marne University, Physical Geography Laboratory, UMR
8591 CNRS, Paris, France
Reza Dowlati Fard, Regional Centre on Urban Water Management (RCUWM- UNESCO),
Tehran, Iran
Marie-Anne Germaine, Paris Nanterre University, Mosaïques Laboratory, UMR LAVUE
7218 CNRS, Paris, France
Paolo Inglese, University Museum System, University of Palermo, Italy
Mohamed Moussa, Institute of Arid Regions, Laboratory of Eremology and Combating
Desertification, Medenine, Tunisia
Rachid Ragala, Sorbonne Université, Laboratory Analysis and Social Mathematics Center
CNRS-EHESS, Paris, France
Tiziana Turco, University Museum System, University of Palermo, Italy
Claudia Urso, Department of Architecture, University of Palermo, Italy
Fatemeh Fallah Zavareh, Tehran Engineering and Technical Consulting Organization
(TETCO), Tehran Municipality, Tehran, Iran
