Dreaming in the Time of COVID-19: A Quali-Quantitative Italian Study

Abstract

Based on the continuity hypothesis of dreaming with waking life, we have studied the effects of isolation on the dreams of Italian persons, during the time of the COVID-19 pandemic. The present study included a sample of 796 subjects (73.2% women; ages 18–79 years, M = 30.3, SD = 12.8). Participants were asked to complete a dream questionnaire, as well as to report their most recent dream, by responding to specific questions related to the content of their dream (e.g., realism/bizarreness, positive vs. negative emotions, emotional intensity and tone). Results indicate the following: Female participants were higher recallers than men and reported higher emotional intensity and a predominantly negative emotional tone of their dreams, as well as higher negative emotions and sensory impressions in their most recent dreams; 159 dreams (20%) included explicit COVID-19 references; participants knowing people affected by or who have died of COVID-19 report higher emotional intensity and sensory impressions in their most recent dreams; and the most recent dreams have been set in external locations and have presented strong negative emotions, especially with respect to dangerous, violent, and frustrating situations. In sum, the findings of this study indicate that the method of quali-quantitative dream content analysis is a very informative approach for studying the effects of significant contextual and catastrophic events, such as COVID-19 pandemic, on people’s inner lives.

Full text

Dreaming in the Time of COVID-19: A Quali-
Quantitative Italian Study
Ilaria Iorio, Massimiliano Sommantico, and Santa Parrello
University of Naples Federico II
Based on the continuity hypothesis of dreaming with waking life, we have
studied the effects of isolation on the dreams of Italian persons, during the time of the
COVID-19 pandemic. The present study included a sample of 796 subjects (73.2%
women; ages 18 –79 years, M ⫽30.3, SD ⫽12.8). Participants were asked to complete
a dream questionnaire, as well as to report their most recent dream, by responding to
specific questions related to the content of their dream (e.g., realism/bizarreness,
positive vs. negative emotions, emotional intensity and tone). Results indicate the
following: Female participants were higher recallers than men and reported higher
emotional intensity and a predominantly negative emotional tone of their dreams, as
well as higher negative emotions and sensory impressions in their most recent dreams;
159 dreams (20%) included explicit COVID-19 references; participants knowing
people affected by or who have died of COVID-19 report higher emotional intensity
and sensory impressions in their most recent dreams; and the most recent dreams
have been set in external locations and have presented strong negative emotions,
especially with respect to dangerous, violent, and frustrating situations. In sum, the
findings of this study indicate that the method of quali-quantitative dream content
analysis is a very informative approach for studying the effects of significant
contextual and catastrophic events, such as COVID-19 pandemic, on people’s inner
lives.
Keywords: dreams, COVID-19 pandemic, isolation, negative emotions, traumatic events
In January 2020, the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention
reported that a new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) was identified as the causative
agent of the respiratory disease later called COVID-19. In March 2020, the World
Health Organization declared the spread of COVID-19 no longer an epidemic
XIlaria Iorio, XMassimiliano Sommantico, and XSanta Parrello, Department of Humanities,
University of Naples Federico II.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. The study complied with the American
Psychological Association ethical standards in the treatment of human research participants and conformed
to the provisions of the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. Informed consent was obtained
from all individual participants included in the study. All authors contributed in the same way to conceive the
study and its design, to draft the manuscript, and to interpret the data. All authors read and approved the
final manuscript.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Massimiliano Sommantico,
Department of Humanities, University of Naples Federico II, via Porta di Massa 1, 80133 Naples, Italy.
E-mail: sommanti@unina.it
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Dreaming
© 2020 American Psychological Association 2020, Vol. 30, No. 3, 199–215
ISSN: 1053-0797 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/drm0000142

confined to certain geographical areas, but a pandemic spread all over the planet.
Since then, the data regarding contagions (and deaths) in the world have been
steadily increasing, affecting 208 countries or regions. Italy is one of the European
countries most affected by the pandemic, with 218,268 confirmed cases and 30,395
deaths (the data at the time of writing).
COVID-19 contagion occurs from person to person with ease, and even people
with few symptoms or without symptoms can be contagious. For this reason, the
main defense against contagion, in the absence of vaccines, is social distancing. To
face the pandemic, the Italian government extended restrictive measures initially
adopted only for the regions identified as “red zones” (localities that sustained
community transmission) throughout the whole country. These measures, in
addition to very strict quarantine measures for infected people and for those who
have come into contact with them, include, among others: (a) the prohibition of all
forms of gathering people in public places; (b) the suspension of all sporting
activities in public or private locations; (c) the suspension of teaching activities of
any order and degree, with online teaching preferred; (d) the closure of museums;
(e) the suspension of commercial retail activities, except for the sale of food and
basic necessities; (f) the suspension of all catering activities (including bars, pubs,
restaurants, ice cream parlors, pastry shops); (g) the suspension of activities relating
to personal services (including hairdressers, barbers, beauticians); and (h) a
maximum use of smart-working methods. At the end of March, the Italian
government decided to suspend the majority of industrial and commercial produc-
tion and to prohibit all persons from leaving home, except for proven work needs,
emergency, or for health reasons. In these cases, a self-certification attesting the
reasons for moving from home was required, and numerous checks were carried out
by the police to verify its truthfulness. These measures were still in force during the
present study.
Such a drastic form of social isolation has never been seen historically. All
citizens, of all ages and social conditions, were asked to drastically change their
daily lives, interrupting relationships and activities, and staying at home. Only those
who carry out essential work remained exposed to danger, especially doctors and
nurses, who have in some cases died. A general climate of concern, therefore,
quickly sprang up, linked both to the fear of the disease and to the fear of the
economic consequences of inactivity. It is, therefore, not excessive to define this
period as traumatic, during which mental health services recorded both a
worsening of the symptoms of various people with past problems and a
generalized spread of anxiety and depression (Wang, Zhou, & Zong, 2020;
Zandifar & Badrfam, 2020).
Indeed, recent studies (Brooks et al., 2020;Pappa et al., 2020) have highlighted
that the quarantine–isolation related to the COVID-19 pandemic is associated with
increased psychological distress (especially in terms of symptoms of posttraumatic
stress disorder), anxiety, and depression. Furthermore, several studies (Altena et
al., 2020;Cellini, Canale, Mioni, & Costa, 2020;Huang & Zhao, 2020;Sher, 2020)
have especially focused on sleep disorders or poor sleep quality related to the
consequences of quarantine–isolation, such as, between others, changes in sleep
timing, the smart working, as well as the lack of rest and regular physical exercise.
In particular, Xiao, Zhang, Kong, Li, and Yang (2020) have demonstrated a positive
association between perceived reduction of the social capital (a sum of social trust,
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200 IORIO, SOMMANTICO, AND PARRELLO

belonging, and participation) during the quarantine–isolation, higher stress, higher
anxiety, and poorer sleep quality.
Based on the continuity hypothesis of dreaming, which states that dream
content reflects waking life (Domhoff, 1996;Schredl & Piel, 2006), it is possible to
think that the subjective impact of catastrophic life events such as the COVID-19
pandemic could be reflected in the dream content of people subject to isolation
measures. Indeed, findings in the literature of dream studies, as related to war
conflicts, to catastrophic and/or traumatic events (Barrett, 2001;Hartmann &
Basile, 2003;Rosen, Reynolds, Yeager, Houck, & Hurwitz, 1991;Schredl & Piel,
2006), as well as to waking concerns or threats (Bradshaw, Lafrenière, Amini,
Lortie-Lussier, & De Koninck, 2016;Davidson & Lynch, 2012;Hartmann, 2011;
Mathes & Schredl, 2016), show that these events have a strong impact on dreams
due to their emotional salience, thus influencing dream content.
In a similar way, according to classical psychoanalytic thinking (Adams-Silvan
& Silvan, 1990;Freud, 1900,1915–1917;Sommantico, 2016,2018;Sommantico, De
Rosa, & Parrello, 2017;Velotti & Zavattini, 2019), dreams can be interpreted, not
only as an attempt at the fulfillment of repressed wishes but also as a way to
retrospectively master and transform a waking life traumatic event. And so,
following this line of thought, it seems that significant events in waking life can be
associated with specific experiences of dreaming, especially with dreamt emotions
and threats.
The Present Study: Aims and Hypotheses
The main aim of the present study is to analyze the content of dreams in the
time of COVID-19. In accordance with the continuity hypothesis of dreaming,
with respect to catastrophic and traumatic events (Barrett, 2001;Hartmann &
Basile, 2003;Rosen et al., 1991;Schredl & Piel, 2006), we hypothesized that the
dreams of people living with the isolation measures related to the COVID-19
pandemic are mainly realistic and are characterized by strong negative emo-
tional intensity, a strong emotional tone, and the presence of sensory impres-
sions.
Furthermore, we were interested in understanding if, and how, the danger of
contagion and the quarantine–isolation measures were represented in dreams. We
then hypothesize that most recent dreams are set in locations external to the places
where the quarantine–isolation is lived out. Above all, negative emotions, such as
anxiety and fear, will emerge, related to dangerous situations.
Finally, based on previous dream research (Nielsen et al., 2000;Schredl,
2002;Schredl & Reinhard, 2008;Settineri, Frisone, Alibrandi, & Merlo, 2019),
we hypothesized that women recall their dreams more often, and they also
evaluate their dreams as more emotionally intense, than men do. In particular,
studies and meta-analyses (Schredl, 2010b;Schredl & Lahl, 2010) not only
indicated that women tend to recall their dreams more often than men but also
tried to identify what factors might explain this difference, such as frequency of
nocturnal awakenings, interest in dreams, neuroticism, and sex role orientation.
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DREAMING IN THE TIME OF COVID-19 201

Method
Research Instruments
Sociodemographic Questionnaire. Respondents provided sociodemographic
data (e.g., age, gender, region of residence, level of education, and profession) via
a basic Sociodemographic Questionnaire. Respondents were also asked to report
information about their quarantine (e.g., number of people, dimensions of their
house, availability of a private room), and whether they know people affected by or
who have died of COVID-19.
Dream Questionnaire. Dream frequency recall was measured on a 7-point
scale (0 ⫽never;1⫽less than once a month;2⫽about once a month;3⫽about
two to three times a month;4⫽about once a week;5⫽several times a week;6⫽
almost every morning;Schredl, 2002,2010a;Settineri et al., 2019). Following the
indications of Schredl (2002,2010a), participants were also asked to self-rate their
dreams’ realism (on a 3-point scale: 0 ⫽nonrealistic dreams;1⫽dreams are
sometimes realistic;2⫽dreams are often realistic), the creative aspect of their
dreams (on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 ⫽no creative aspects to 5 ⫽many
creative aspects), the emotional intensity of their dreams (on a 5-point scale, ranging
from 1 ⫽not intense to 5 ⫽very intense), and the overall emotional tone of their
dreams (on a 3-point scale: ⫺1⫽predominantly negative;0⫽balanced,⫹1⫽
predominantly positive).
Regarding the instructions for reporting “The Most Recent Dream,” we
followed the indications set out by Hall and Van de Castle (1966), later modified by
Domhoff (1996,2003). We asked participants to indicate (a) whether the dream
occurred last night, last week, or last month; (b) the date the dream occurred; and
(c) what time of the day the dream was recalled. Participants were also asked to (a)
describe the dream exactly and as fully as they could remember it; (b) describe the
setting of the dream, whether it was familiar or not; (c) describe the people and
their sex, age, and relationship to the dreamer; (d) describe any animals or objects
that appeared in the dream; (e) describe their feelings during the dream and
whether they were pleasant or unpleasant; and (f) tell exactly what happened
during the dream to themselves and the other characters. Participants were also
asked to self-rate their dream (Domhoff, 1996;Schredl, 2002,2010a) regarding (a)
the intensity of the positive emotions of the dream (on a 4-point scale, ranging from
0⫽no emotions to 3 ⫽intense emotions); (b) the intensity of the negative emotions
of the dream (on a 4-point scale, ranging from 0 ⫽no emotions to 3 ⫽intense
emotions); (c) realism/bizarreness of the dream (on a 4-point scale, ranging from
0⫽realistic dream to3⫽bizarre dream); and (d) the presence of sensory
impressions in the dream (on a 4-point scale, ranging from 0 ⫽no sensory
impressions to 3 ⫽strong sensory impressions).
Dream Content Analysis
As stated by Schredl (2010a), the crucial aim of content analysis is to quantify
“particular aspects of the verbal material [. . .] for differentiating between findings
which are due to chance and findings which might reflect ‘real’ differences in the
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202 IORIO, SOMMANTICO, AND PARRELLO

population” (p. 65). Despite the fact that dream content analysis has several
shortcomings (such as the loss of information and the impossibility to capture the
uniqueness of people’s dreams), one of the most important issue is related to the
use of the validity of dream content scales, as well as the presence of independent
judges analyzing dream emotions (Hoffman, 2013;Schredl, 2002;Schredl, 2010a;
Schredl & Doll, 1998).
For the present quantitative analyses, the rating scales used in the study were
the same as those used for The Most Recent Dream. This was done to compare
participants’ self-ratings and judges’ ratings of the following: (a) the intensity of
the positive emotions; (b) the intensity of the negative emotions; (c) realism/
bizarreness; and (d) the presence of sensory impressions. All scales used the same
format as the self-rating scales in the Dream Questionnaire. The interrater
reliability coefficients (Spearman rank correlations) for these scales were high and
ranged from .69 (realism/bizarreness) to .81 (negative emotions).
For the qualitative analyses (Richards, 2015), the Grounded Theory Model
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967) was used to explore the presence of common aspects
in participants’ dreams, analyzed by three independent researchers. Grounded
theory “is an inductive, theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to
develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultane-
ously grounding the account in empirical observations or data” (Martin & Turner,
1986, p. 141). Beyond the researcher’s need to come up with preliminary hypoth-
eses, which provides greater freedom to explore the research area and which allows
for issues to emerge, the grounded theory approach offers several other benefits.
These include (a) rigorous insight into areas that are relatively unknown by the
researchers; (b) capacity to interpret complex phenomena; (c) accommodation of
social issues; (d) appropriateness for socially constructed experiences; and (e) no
constraints of a priori knowledge.
The content analyses were oriented around specific questions. The search for
recurring emotional valence and symbolic elements was linked to (a) elements of
the traumatic situation people are experiencing; (b) aspects related to the condition
of quarantine–isolation; and (c) aspects related to “escape” from the quaranti-
ne–isolation situation.
Data Analyses
Survey data were then entered into SPSS 23.0 (IBM Corp, 2015) for the
quantitative analyses and QRS NVivo 11 (Bazeley & Richards, 2000;Richards,
1999) for the quali-quantitative analyses. Data were checked/verified by project
staff for accuracy, to maintain the researcher’s irreplaceable meaning-making
process. Ordinal logistic regression models were used for ordinal outcome variables
(i.e., dream recall frequency, etc.; pvalue ⬍.05).
Procedure and Participants
Participants were recruited in Italy via the Internet from April 2020 to May
2020, according to the following criteria: more than 18 years of age and compliant
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DREAMING IN THE TIME OF COVID-19 203

with the quarantine measures. All data were collected through self-report ques-
tionnaires, written or translated into the Italian language, using an Internet-based
survey (Hewson, Vogel, & Laurent, 2016). Participation in the study was voluntary,
anonymous, and unpaid. All participants included in the study gave consent to
participate on the first page of the survey. The informed consent included detailed
information about the aims and procedures of the study, confidentiality, and the
anonymity of the responses. After signing the informed consent, participants first
completed the Sociodemographic Questionnaire. Participants then completed the
Dream Questionnaire and reported The Most Recent Dream. Means across each
participant’s reported dreams were calculated for word count. Dream reports were
arranged and scored on the dream rating scales by three independent judges.
The study complied with the American Psychological Association ethical
standards in the treatment of human research participants and conformed to the
provisions of the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. Further-
more, the study was approved by the Ethical Committee of Psychological Research
of the Department of Humanities of the University of Naples Federico II (protocol
no. 14/2020).
There were 890 respondents, but only 796 (73.2% women; ages 18–79 years,
M⫽30.3, SD ⫽12.8) reported their most recent dream. Half of the participants
were students (50.1%). Participants living in the center or in the suburbs of a big
city were 48.8%. The majority of participants (40.2%) were in a relationship but
lived alone (32.8% were single, 23.9% married or cohabiting, 2.5% were divorced,
and 0.6% were widows). Participants living with family during the quarantine
period were 82.3% (10.3% in couple, 5.3% alone, and 2.1% with friends). The
mean number of people cohabiting during the quarantine period was 3.5 (SD ⫽
1.3). The majority of participants (51.5%) live in a house that is between 80 and 140
m
2
, with their own room available (75.4%), and many had animals living with them
(38.4% had dogs and/or cats). The sample had a high level of education, with 52.4%
of the participants having completed secondary school and 41.4% having completed
a university degree or a postuniversity degree. Participants who knew someone
infected by COVID-19 were 29.5%, and participants who knew someone who died
of COVID-19 were 8.4%.
Results
Dream Recall Frequency and Content Measures
Regarding the dream recall frequency, the sample was divided, according to
the recommendations of Schredl (2002), into three categories: (a) low recallers ⫽
never to about once a month, 17.3%; (b) medium recallers ⫽about two to three
times a month to about once a week, 34.9%; and (c) high recallers ⫽several times
a week to almost every morning, 47.7%. Regarding realism/bizarreness, partici-
pants reported dreams, on average, sometimes realistic (M⫽1.2; SD ⫽0.7).
Regarding the creative aspect, participants reported medium creative content (M⫽
2.9; SD ⫽1.2) of their dreams. Regarding the emotional intensity, participants
reported a high emotional intensity (M⫽3.9; SD ⫽1.0) of their dreams. Finally,
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204 IORIO, SOMMANTICO, AND PARRELLO

regarding the emotional tone, participants reported a mainly balanced emotional
tone in their dreams (M⫽⫺0.2; SD ⫽0.6; see Table 1).
The dependent ordinal variables (dream recall frequency, realism/bizarreness,
creative aspects, emotional intensity, and emotional tone) were compared with
gender as an independent variable, with age and level of education controlled.
Results are shown in Table 2.
In line with previous studies, significant causal relationships were found with
dream recall frequency, emotional intensity, and emotional tone, thus indicating
that female participants are higher recallers than men, as well as report higher
emotional intensity and a predominantly negative emotional tone of their dreams.
No significant causal relationships were found for realism/bizarreness and creative
aspects.
Most Recent Dream Quali-Quantitative Analysis
In reporting the Most Recent Dream, the majority of participants (55.9%)
indicated that the dream occurred during the last week (25.6% last night and 18.5%
last month) and that they mainly recalled the dream during the morning (83.9%).
The mean dream length was 134.0 words (SD ⫽136.9).
Regarding the intensity of emotions, participants reported medium positive
emotions (M⫽1.5; SD ⫽1.1) and high negative emotions (M⫽1.9; SD ⫽1.1).
Regarding realism/bizarreness, participants reported medium realism (M⫽1.6;
SD ⫽0.9). Finally, regarding the presence of sensory impressions, participants
reported a high presence of sensory impressions (M⫽1.8; SD ⫽1.0; see Table 3).
Zero-order correlations between participants’ self-ratings and judges’ mean
ratings are shown in Table 4. Results showed medium to large significant positive
associations, with rvalues (pⱕ.01) ranging from .52 to .66.
The dependent ordinal variables (positive emotions, negative emotions,
realism/bizarreness, and sensory impressions) were compared with gender, the
COVID-19 variables (knowing a COVID-19 case or death), and the time when the
most recent dream occurred (last night, last week, last month) as independent
variables, with age and level of education controlled. Results are shown in Table 5.
Regarding the effect of gender, and in line with previous studies, significant
causal relationships were found with positive emotions, negative emotions, and
Table 1
Dream Recall Frequency and Content
Dream variables
Females Males Total sample
N⫽583 (% or M,SD)N⫽213 (% or M,SD)N⫽796 (% or M,SD)
Low recallers 14.1 26.3 17.3
Medium recallers 35.2 34.3 34.9
High recallers 50.8 39.4 47.7
Realism/bizarreness 1.2, 0.7 1.1, 0.7 1.2, 0.7
Creative aspects 2.9, 1.2 2.9, 1.2 2.9, 1.2
Emotional intensity 3.9, 0.9 3.6, 1.0 3.9, 1.0
Emotional tone ⫺0.2, 0.6 ⫺0.1, 0.6 ⫺0.2, 0.6
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DREAMING IN THE TIME OF COVID-19 205

sensory impressions, thus indicating that female participants report higher emo-
tional intensity and sensory impressions in their most recent dreams. Regarding the
effect of knowing a COVID-19 case or death, significant causal relationships were
found with positive emotions, negative emotions, and sensory impressions, thus
indicating that participants knowing people affected by or who have died of
COVID-19 report higher emotional intensity and sensory impressions in their most
recent dreams. Finally, regarding the effect of the time when the most recent dream
occurred, significant causal relationships were found with positive emotions, thus
indicating that participants whose most recent dreams occurred last week reported
higher positive emotions. No significant causal relationships were found for
realism/bizarreness.
With the support of NVivo, three independent judges classified 5,738 refer-
ences, in a textual corpus consisting of 796 dreams (1,06,727 words). Each reference
was placed in one or more nodes: (a) main nodes, or starting macrocategories,
which corresponded to the structural elements of the dream sought by the judges
(settings, characters, actions, etc.); (b) subnodes that emerged from the exploration
of the text (see Tables 6 and 7).
Node 1. Settings. The dream settings are internal (home,prison,madhouse,
hospital, etc.) in 319 references (37%), but mostly external (543 references, 63%):
streets,squares,beaches,swimming pools,shopping centers,fairs,bars, and so forth.
Both the houses, which are often crowded and with many windows, and the
external places are sometimes familiar, sometimes “strange.” Here are some
examples of excerpts from dreams: “It was a kind of stilt house, beautiful super
Table 2
Regression Analyses for Dream Variables
Dream variables
Effect of gender
␤␹
2
p
Dream recall frequency .045 36.57 .000
*
Realism/bizarreness .003 2.41 .300
Creative aspects .007 5.63 .060
Emotional intensity .027 22.05 .000
*
Emotional tone .015 12.39 .002
*
Note. ␤⫽standardized estimates.
*
pⱕ.05.
Table 3
Most Recent Dreams’ Content
Dream variables
Females Males Total sample
N⫽583 (% or M,SD)N⫽213 (% or M,SD)N⫽796 (% or M,SD)
Dream length 138.4, 134.5 122.1, 142.7 134.0, 136.9
Last night 26.4 23.5 25.6
Last week 56.9 53.1 55.9
Last month 16.6 23.5 18.5
Positive emotions 1.4, 1.1 1.7, 0.9 1.5, 1.1
Negative emotions 2.0, 1.1 1.7, 1.1 1.9, 1.1
Realism/bizarreness 1.5, 1.0 1.6, 1.0 1.6, 0.9
Sensory impressions 1.8, 1.0 1.7, 1.0 1.8, 1.0
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206 IORIO, SOMMANTICO, AND PARRELLO

elegant and full of windows”; “I was locked up in a madhouse and there was a
woman chasing me with the intent to kill me”; “I was with someone at a fair, but
I don’t remember who he is, however I get lost among the stalls scrupulously
looking at every object and there were a lot of people and I struggled to breathe
and I felt oppressed”; “I was at the bar in the city where we happen to go with one
of my closest friends and my brother”; “We went to the sea, to the swimming pool
and in the evening, we went out to the town.”
Node 2. Characters. Apart from the dreamer,family members,friends, and
colleagues who belong to the daily life of the present appear in the dreams (713
references, 52.9%). So do many people from the past, that is, people with whom we
have not had relationships for a long time (244 references, 16.1%): ex-boyfriends,
old school friends, and loved ones who died. Finally, unknown and crowd appear in
391 references (29%). Here are some examples: “My girlfriend and I arrive in a
tourist village surrounded by nature: during the trip our bags were lost”; “I was with
my colleagues in the workplace, very busy but calm”; “I was at my house, I don’t
remember if the current one or not, my parents quarreled, and I had to decide who
was right”; “I was speaking at a village festival with a friend of mine with whom I
have lost relationships lately and they talked about our estrangement. Then I also
saw an ex-boyfriend of mine in the dream, but I don’t remember what we said”; “I
dreamt of being at my house with my grandmother, who died about 3 years ago. She
asked me to turn on the stove because she was cold, and I tried”; “There was the
eruption of Vesuvius. Many people ran towards a kind of bunker. Instead, my
family proceeded to the volcano.”
Table 4
Zero-Order Correlations Between Participants’ Self-Ratings and Judges’ Ratings (N ⫽796)
Rating scales Positive
emotions J Negative
emotions J Realism/
bizarreness J Sensory
impressions J
Positive emotions P .56
*
Negative emotions P .66
*
Realism/bizarreness P .54
*
Sensory impressions P .52
*
Note.P⫽participants; J ⫽judges.
*
p⬍.01.
Table 5
Regression Analyses for Most Recent Dream Variables
Dream variables
Effect of
gender
Effect of
knowing a
COVID-19 case
Effect of
knowing a
COVID-19 death
Time when
the dream
occurred
␤␹
2
p␤␹
2
p␤␹
2
p␤␹
2
p
Positive emotions .019 15.28 .000
*
.012 9.88 .007
*
.013 9.81 .007
*
.018 14.42 .002
*
Negative emotions .026 20.96 .000
*
.013 10.40 .006
*
.011 9.07 .011
*
.008 6.61 .086
Realism/Bizarreness .003 2.07 .355 .003 2.12 .347 .003 2.59 .274 .004 2.96 .398
Sensory impressions .009 7.36 .025
*
.008 6.41 .040
*
.009 7.46 .024
*
.010 7.81 .051
Note. ␤⫽standardized estimates.
*
p⬍.05.
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DREAMING IN THE TIME OF COVID-19 207

Node 3. Animals. Only in a small number of references (113) do animals
appear. In 70.8% of the cases, they are pets (80 references), dogs and cats; in 29.2%
of cases, they are other kind of animals (33 references). Sometimes they are
dangerous, and sometimes they are themselves in need of help. Here are some
examples: “A dog enters and bite me. I’m frightened and I try to run away even if
in itself the dog was not aggressive at all, in fact it seemed very quiet”; “We are out
of the hospital, my mother walks away, my cat is with me, dying. I hold her in my
arms”; “Suddenly a huge rat comes in and tries to attack me, I close the front door”;
“A cockroach with a single antenna walks on the wall, scares me and I seek help
from the people present”; “There is a rabbit in a cage, and I am worried and want
to free it.”
Node 4. Objects. In 783 references, objects appear: (a) generic (549 refer-
ences, 70.1%), that is, household objects, furnishings, and so forth; (b) movement
Table 6
Nodes and Subnodes of Most Recent Dreams’ Categorical Analysis (1; N ⫽796)
Nodes Subnodes
1. Settings Internal External
862 ref. 319 ref. 543 ref.
(37%) (63%)
2. Characters Present Past Unknown/crowd
1,348 ref. 713 ref. 244 ref. 391 ref.
(52.9%) (18.1%) (29%)
3. Animals Pets Others
113 ref. 80 ref. 33 ref.
(70.8%) (29.2%)
4. Objects Generic Movement related Technological Weapons
783 ref. 549 ref. 146 ref. 60 ref. 28 ref.
(70.1%) (18.6%) (7.7%) (3.6%)
Note. ref. ⫽references. There are 5,738 analyzed references.
Table 7
Nodes and Subnodes of Most Recent Dreams’ Categorical Analysis (2; N ⫽796)
Nodes Subnodes
5. Emotions Positive Negative
994 ref. 242 ref. 752 ref.
(24.4%) (75.6%)
Anxiety/fear Frustration Generic
410 ref. 211 ref. 131 ref.
(54.5%) (28.1%) (17.4%)
6. Actions Canonical Exceptional
1,491 ref. 799 ref. 692 ref.
(53.6%) (46.4%)
Sharing Body Movement Help/care Danger Violence/
transgression Incomplete Death
276 ref. 215 ref. 268 ref. 40 ref. 343 ref. 146 ref. 164 ref. 39 ref.
(34.5%) (27%) (33.5%) (5%) (49.6%) (21.1%) (23.7%) (5.6%)
7. COVID-19 Disease Quarantine Checks
147 ref. 43 ref. 77 ref. 27 ref.
(29.2%) (52.4%) (18.4%)
Note. ref. ⫽references. There are 5,738 analyzed references.
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208 IORIO, SOMMANTICO, AND PARRELLO

related (146 references, 18.6%), that is, stairs and means of locomotion such as cars,
motorbikes,planes, and so forth; (c) technological (60 references, 7.7%), that is,
computers,mobiles, and so forth; and (d) weapons (28 references, 3.6%), pistols,
knives,axes, and so forth. Here are some examples: “I had to take a plane to go
from Madrid to Santiago de Chile. As always, I was very afraid of flying, but also
of getting infected”; “I was on my old scooter on the ring road, even if the
surrounding landscape was very different and more desolate than the real one, with
my cousin and her friend”; “I was on a boat. I was hiking with my old high school
classmates”; “I was trying to escape from someone who wanted to kill me. He was
a person familiar to me, but I can’t remember him: He had a pistol with a silencer.”
Node 5. Emotions. Terms that explicitly refer to emotions and feelings
appear in 994 references. Positive emotions are found only in 242 references
(24.4%): serenity,joy,pleasure, and so forth. Negative emotions appear in 752
references (75.6%) and are divided into three areas: (a) anxiety/fear (410 refer-
ences, 54.5%): anxiety,anguish,fear,panic,terror, and so forth; (b) frustration (211
references, 28.1%): sense of helplessness,sense of frustration,anger,sense of guilt,
and so forth; and (c) generic negative emotions (131 references, 17.4%): negative
feelings,sadness,annoyance,bewilderment, and so forth. Here are some examples:
“I’m going to get married. Our wedding was scheduled for late May, but we had to
postpone it. I am happy”; “I dream of making love with my girlfriend for weeks, a
dream obviously with very positive and pleasant emotions”; “I was anxious because
my daughter had to hand over homework and she was failing to stay on schedule”;
“I dreamt of being in a very crowded cinema. I was starting to cover my mouth and
nose with a scarf, and I remember well the panic sensation that suddenly assailed
me, the terror of being able to become infected pervaded me”; “I remembered that
I had not brought self-certification with me and I was panicking.”
Node 6. Actions. The categorized actions number 1,491 and have been
divided into (a) canonical (799 references, 53.6%), that is, actions that are part of
the routine of daily life and (b) exceptional (692 references, 45.4%), that is,
unusual, strange.
The canonical actions are divided as follows: (a) sharing actions (276 refer-
ences, 34.5%), which refer to being together (cooking,speaking,walking,fighting,
etc.); (b) body related (215 references, 27%): sometimes in the sense of affective
intimacy (hugging,kissing,having sex, etc.), other times related to bodily percep-
tions or expressions (crying,screaming,feeling pain, etc.); (c) movement related
(268 references, 33.5%), like going out,running away,traveling, and so forth; and
(d) help/care (40 references, 5%): how to help,cure, and protect. Here are some
examples: “I went to a disco on the beach with my friends, while they took a drink
all around me it became my graduation party”; “We go to his house, I embrace him
like a 16-year-old girl, I squeeze him to hurt him almost and I wanted his kisses as
much as ever”; “I dreamt of going to the supermarket with my cousin and a friend
of mine.”
Exceptional actions have been divided into (a) dangerous actions (343
references, 49.6%), in which the dreamer or other characters are threatened by
various dangers and uncertain situations, but also wars,earthquakes,eruptions, and
so forth; (b) violence/transgression (146 references, 21.1%), in which the dreamer
witnesses or suffers robberies,assaults,betrayals, and so forth; (c) incomplete
actions (164 references, 23.7%), that is, actions that the dreamer cannot conclude
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DREAMING IN THE TIME OF COVID-19 209

or keep under control (not controlling the car,a bike losing balance,inability in
taking an exam,cannot ask for help, etc.); and (d) death (39 references, 5.6%); in
a small percentage of references, the death of the dreamer or other characters is
told. Here are some examples: “I was in a bunker and there was war outside. I was
terrified of the sound of exploding bombs”; “I was subjected to a robbery by a
pickpocket to whom I offered my belongings”; “We were celebrating something but
after a few moments we heard shots from outside. We catapulted onto the street
and witnessed a shooting. After a few moments one of my friends was hit by a
bullet”; “We have to go back in and I’m going to get back the car that is parked next
to the sidewalk. The car is no longer there, so I try to contact the police with the
mobile, but I can’t dial the numbers”; “I feel like I’m in a maze, I can’t find the way
out. Suddenly I find myself stuck in corridors that look like those of a luxury hotel”;
“A colleague of mine came to my office and commits suicide by jumping off the
balcony. I start to be afraid of being blamed for murder and I don’t know why.”
Node 7. COVID-19. Only in 147 references do dreamers make explicit
reference to COVID-19: It is cited as a virus causing disease, contagion,infection,
and various symptoms (43 references, 52.4%), but above all as the cause of
quarantine (77 references, 52.4%), and, finally, as a cause of the checks to which
people are subjected (27 references, 18.4%), which impose the use of self-
certifications, the meeting with the police, and the risk of fines. Here are some
examples: “I dreamt that I contracted the virus and therefore had to go to a clinic
to be isolated. I was fine and I wasn’t attached to respirators or anything, the only
emotion I remember having was a sense of amazement”; “I was leaving the house
for the first time during the quarantine with my friends, but was not yet allowed to
leave”; “We were in the car in a long queue and I find that the queue was due to
the police checks that allowed only the people who had a self-certification to pass:
At that point I was taken by anxiety because I have no documents with me.”
Discussion
Beyond collecting data from the Dream Questionnaire, this study examined
the Most Recent Dreams reported by adult Italians. All dreams were coded by
three independent judges to provide a more reliable and complete picture of the
extent to which specific themes can be observed in dreams during the time of
COVID-19.
Consistent with previous research (Nielsen et al., 2000;Schredl, 2002,2010b;
Schredl & Reinhard, 2008;Settineri et al., 2019), women reported recalling dreams
more often than men. Furthermore, women reported significantly higher emotional
intensity and a predominantly negative emotional tone in their dreams. Finally,
women more frequently reported a frustrating situation with higher negative
emotions in their most recent dreams.
Participants who knew people affected by or who have died of COVID-19
reported higher emotional intensity and sensory impressions in their most recent
dreams. In light of the transformative function of dreams (Adams-Silvan & Silvan,
1990;Sommantico, 2018), we can hypothesize that knowing people affected by or
who have died of COVID-19 is a real emotionally significant experience, which
could further stimulate the need for a dream job that would manifest itself in a
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210 IORIO, SOMMANTICO, AND PARRELLO

greater emotional intensity of dreams, as well as in a greater presence of sensory
impressions. Furthermore, these data are in line with both the continuity hypothesis
of dreaming with waking life (Barrett, 2001;Hartmann & Basile, 2003;Rosen et al.,
1991;Schredl & Piel, 2006) and the classical psychoanalytic thinking, according to
which significant events in waking life can be associated with specific experiences of
dreaming, especially with dreamt emotions and threats.
According to previous investigations (Schredl, 2002;Schredl & Doll, 1998),
dreams’ emotions (especially positive ones) are underestimated by judges when
compared with dreamers’ self-ratings. This may be due to the fact that the judges
took into account the presence of words that explicitly name emotions. Despite this
difference, the correlation coefficients between judges’ ratings and dreamers’
self-ratings remain statistically significant.
Regarding the settings of the most recent dreams, they were mainly external to
the places where the quarantine–isolation is lived (e.g., streets, beaches, bars, etc.).
On the contrary, objects (e.g., household objects, furniture, computers, mobiles,
etc.) and animals (pets) are those the people use and encounter while inside the
quarantine–isolation place. We can interpret these findings by hypothesizing that
people subject to strict quarantine–isolation measures project the desire to escape
from forced domestic life in their dreams. Particularly interesting is the recurrence
in dreams of characters with whom the dreamer had not had relationships for a long
time (ex-partners, ex-friends, dead people, etc.), who now return to ask for contact
and with whom meeting does not appear uncanny, but natural. We can perhaps
hypothesize that this is a way of representing the lack of social contact, which the
quarantine–isolation enforces as “reversible,” or as an expression of nostalgia for
the lost past.
Regarding the emotions elicited in most recent dreams, it is interesting to note
that positive emotions (e.g., serenity, pleasantness, happiness, etc.) were signifi-
cantly less intense than negative emotions (e.g., anguish, fear, panic, terror, etc.).
Furthermore, these negative emotions were mainly related to dangerous or violent
situations (in which the dreamer is involved as a spectator or as an actor), as well
as to frustrating situations, in which the dreamer fails or is prevented from
completing something. It should also be noted that there are some situations of
danger, violence, death, and the impossibility to act in which the emotion
experienced is not explicitly mentioned, as in a sort of singular “alexithymia,”
typical of traumatic processes (Di Giacinto et al., 2015;Taylor & Bagby, 2013).
Furthermore, the significant number of canonical actions that refer to relationality
and to the body also suggests how central this issue is in the condition of forced
quarantine–isolation.
Finally, regarding the themes that emerged from the qualitative analyses, we
highlighted a partial superposition with previous studies that investigated typical
themes in most recent dreams, in terms of the rank order of the themes (Mathes,
Schredl, & Göritz, 2014;Nielsen et al., 2003;Yu, 2015). Indeed, in our sample,
between the most prevalent typical dream themes, there were “being chased,
pursued, arguments,” “trying something again and again,” “sexual experiences,”
“school, teachers, studying,” and “swimming or vacationing.” Despite this similar-
ity, there was a difference in the prevalence of other themes. Indeed, in our sample,
the other most prevalent, typical themes were “being physically attacked,” “being
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DREAMING IN THE TIME OF COVID-19 211

blamed or punished,” “being persecuted,” “spouse or lover having extramarital
relations or being unfaithful,” and “shooting or remote attacks.”
Taken together, these results can be interpreted in light of the continuity
hypothesis of dreaming (Barrett, 2001;Hartmann & Basile, 2003;Rosen et al., 1991;
Schredl & Piel, 2006), indicating that the dreams of people living under the isolation
measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic are mainly realistic and are charac-
terized by strong negative emotional intensity, strong emotional tone, the presence
of sensory impressions, and the presence of dangerous and frustrating situations.
Despite this, we cannot exclude the existence of a possible bias highlighted by
Malinowski (2016), affirming that “it may be that there is a memory bias toward
recalling dreams that are particularly troubling, since they reflect what is troubling
also in waking life, which the participants may have been ruminating upon” (p.
119).
Strengths and Limitations
To our knowledge, this is the first completed Italian study on dreaming in the
time of COVID-19. The first strength of the present study, following the indication
of Schredl (2010a), is the use of both valid and reliable self-rating and judged dream
content scales. Furthermore, specifically regarding the used rating scales, the
interrater reliability coefficients are high, as well as the confidence levels and the
effect sizes (Hoffman, 2013).
The first general limitation is related to sampling strategy. Indeed, judgmental
sampling, as well as convenience sampling, such as snowball sampling, implies
specific possible biases: for example, volunteers’ bias (related to the special
characteristics of individuals who voluntarily participate in a study; e.g., Hoffman,
2013). Furthermore, our sample was not balanced with respect to gender. Future
research could try to work with more gender-balanced samples. A final limitation
relates to the participants’ wide age range. Indeed, it is possible that, as highlighted
by different studies (Schredl, Berres, Klingauf, Schellhaas, & Göritz, 2014;Settineri
et al., 2019), some constructs, such as dream recall frequency, vary across different
life phases. Future follow-up research could analyze this issue. In sum, previous
limitations and the cross-sectional study design also limit the conclusions that can
be drawn, especially their generalizability.
Conclusions
The present study was conducted during the worst phase of the COVID-19
pandemic in Italy, when the mass media communicated every day the increasing
numbers of the sick and dead, especially among the elderly, and continually
reminded audiences of the obligation to practice social distancing, as summarized
in the expression “I stay home.”
The large number of people who responded in a short time to our request to
participate in the study (890 in 14 days) perhaps speaks to the increase in recall of
dream activity at a time when there is a push to represent something new and
unknown, or even a need to narrate and confront it.
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212 IORIO, SOMMANTICO, AND PARRELLO

In accordance with the continuity hypothesis of dreaming and with psycho-
analytic thinking, the results show how catastrophic events are reflected in dream
life both directly, through realistic dreams and explicit references to COVID-19,
and indirectly and symbolically. In particular, the element of the pandemic that the
unconscious seems to have used the most is isolation in the home, represented in
dreams as an unusual and disturbing experience, especially through denial, escape
to external places, and close encounters with others, including those with whom
people have not had contact for a long time. The transgression of the quaranti-
ne–isolation, desired and feared, is thus the basis of dreams marked by danger and
the threat not so much of the other, but of relationships: One dreams, in fact, of
being attacked and attacking, being betrayed and betraying, being accused and
accusing, witnessing death and dying. But the most specific feature of the traumatic
experience is the sense of powerlessness: that is, the feeling that you do not have the
individual resources to face reality. However, dreamwork is just one way to start
elaborating this collective catastrophic experience. Narrating it and making it
available to the scientific community is a further step.
In sum, this study highlights that an integrative experimental and clinical
perspective, including qualitative and quantitative analyses, as well as different
theoretical approaches, such as the continuity hypothesis and the psychoanalytic
framework, could contribute to a more comprehensive analysis of dreaming.
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