DUST POLLUTION AND ITS INFLUENCE ON VEGETATION - A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

Full text

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.341
Original Review Article DOI: 10.26479/2019.0501.31
DUST POLLUTION AND ITS INFLUENCE ON VEGETATION –
A CRITICAL ANALYSIS
S. Kameswaran1, Y. Gunavathi2, P. Gopi Krishna2*
1. Department of Botany, Vikrama Simhapuri University PG Centre, Kavali, AP, India.
2. Department of Zoology, Vikrama Simhapuri University PG Centre, Kavali, AP, India
Abstract: The major sources of dust pollution include suspension of soil, agriculture-related
activities, road dust, vehicular exhaust, power plants, construction activities, open fires, brick
kilns, cement factories and volcanoes. Due to this pollution, plants suffer from stomatal closure
leading to cell/tissue changes, leaves’ necrosis, pigment loses and chlorosis. The first physiological
reaction after dust deposition to the vegetation takes place on the leaf with reduced net
assimilation efficiency. Moreover, the long-term depositions change the photochemistry leading to
retarded leaf growth. Deposits for many years over plants’ surface lead to a large-scale reduction
in the assimilate balance. Additionally, there are few reports on abrasive effects of dust, especially
under high wind speed; supporting secondary effects such as an increase in diseases and pest
incidence after the protective leaf cuticle were removed physically. Changes in soil chemistry due
to dust deposition in the rhizosphere also lead to a change in soil nutritional values. In this article,
we summarized the influences of dust pollution on various parameters of vegetation.
Keywords: Dusts; Air pollution; Photosynthesis; Stomatal closure; Fly ash.
Corresponding Author: Dr. P. Gopi Krishna* Ph.D.
Department of Zoology, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post-Graduate Centre, Kavali-524201,
Andhra Pradesh, India. Email Address: pitchika.gopikrishna@gmail.com
1. INTRODUCTION
Most developing nations have been influenced by atmospheric pollution, in terms of human health
[1], climate change [2] and loss of biodiversity [3]. With urban transport development, traffic-
derived pollutants become an increasing problem [4], [5], [6] and have been linked to respiratory
and cardiovascular disease, birth and developmental defects, cancer and so on. According to WHO

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.342
[7], the life expectancy of urban residents in strongly polluted areas could decrease by over one
year, particularly for children and people with lung and heart disease. There are 800000 deaths
annually, which could be due to urban air pollutants [8]. The major sources of dust pollution
include suspension of soil, agriculture related activities, road dust, vehicular exhaust, power
plants, construction activities, brick kilns and cement factories etc. [9], [10]. In addition,
transboundary and long range transport also contributes a significant amount of atmospheric dust
in the south Asian region [11]. Particulate matter pollutions usually arise from multi-various
sources. They can derive from anthropogenic activity as well as from natural sources [12]. They
can be released into the environment as primary or secondary particles. Primary particulate matters
develop and are produced directly from the sources. While secondary particulate matters are
reaction products in the atmosphere. Examples of such reaction products are ammonium sulfates
and nitrate of ammonia as well as aldehydes and ketones [13]. These substances adhere to other
atmospheric particles easily leading to the formation of nuclei of condensation [14]. Countries like
India have high loading of soil derived dust in the atmosphere under prevailing dry weather
conditions. The soil derived particulate matter is rich in CaCO3 and acts as an effective scavenger
of atmospheric SO2 forming CaSO4 which is also removed through dust-fall [15], [16], [17].
Deposition of such particulate matter on the foliar may lead to different phytotoxic effects
depending on the characteristics of the deposited material. The sulphate, nitrate and heavy metals
are the most commonly reported air pollutants responsible for phytotoxic effects [18]. Sulphate
and nitrate being acidic species have a higher aqueous affinity which allows these ions to mobilize
into the foliar mesophyll cells creating stress [19], [20]. Dust-fall having pH values ≥ 9 might
cause direct or indirect injury to the foliar tissues [21], [22]. Deposition of dust on the foliar
surface may alter its optical properties, particularly the foliar surface reflectance in the visible and
near infrared region [23], [24]. Dust-fall also alters optical properties of snow-cover which can
lead to an increase in temperature of vegetation surface [27], [28], changes in grazing patterns of
animal [25], [26], [27]. According to Sharifi et al., [28], the deposition of road dust of 40 g m–2
can cause the 2-3°C increase in leaf temperature in desert environments. The species having
stomata in grooves might be less affected than the species in which the stomata are located at the
outer surface of the leaf. Hence, dust-fall on foliar surfaces has significant impacts on the
photosynthesis and growth [28], [29]. Trees and shrubs are considered as efficient filters for road
dust [30], [31]. In the Indian region, dust is abundant in the atmosphere. Many industrial
processes, especially in quarrying causes fine particle matters producing in huge quantities around
the world [32]. Other major sources of particle matters are traffic and thermal power plants [33],
[34]. The contribution of different sources towards total dust pollution varies from location to
location. Even within traffic, the emissions from car vary a lot [35]. Langner [35] used for his
calculations of particulate matters filter efficacy rates of urban greens a mean particle matter

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.343
emission rate per car of 100 mg km-1. It is not easy to transfer empirically based deposition factors
to complex urban situations. Some silica particle matters derived from the rock in inland settings
and from shells or algae in coastal areas are relatively inert in nature [36], [37], [38]. Other
particulate matters like limestone quarry dust are highly alkaline in nature [39], [40]. Airborne
particulates, used as an indicator of heavy metal pollution due to atmospheric deposition, mainly
originates from fuel combustion by gasoline/diesel powered vehicles and non-combustion sources
including vehicle brake and tire abrasion, gardening, household waste discharge, architectural
painting and building structure erosion [41], [42], [43], [44] and it contains a mixture of heavy
metals, black carbon, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other substances suspended in the
atmosphere [45]. The roadside soil in Beijing is significantly contaminated by heavy metals [46],
of which some are carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, endocrine disruptors, whereas others
cause neurological and behavioral changes, especially in children [47]. Vegetation has been used
as an indicator of air pollution [48], [49], as their leaves can effectively adsorb air particulates
[50], [51], [52], [53], [54] and reduce air pollutants [55]. Dust can impact plants directly by
covering aboveground parts of the vegetation or indirectly over the soil and the root systems.
Apart from the pure size of the dust particle the physical and chemical characteristics of the
particles are also important for their effect on plants. Plants differ in the ability to collect
particulate matter from the air [56], [57] and in their reaction to particulate matters depositions.
Dust deposition on Plants
Generally, dust particles are filtered by plants at a much higher rate than fine particles [35]. The
amount of coal dust deposited on plant surfaces varies significantly spatiotemporally. Many of the
factors responsible for the coal dust deposition are similar to those governing deposition of other
pollutants. Generally greater surface roughness increases deposition rate [58]. This parameter is
especially important at greater wind speeds [59]. Chamberlain [59] also describes that wet surfaces
can result in higher deposition rates. The plant reaction differs depending on the size of the
deposited particles served that chemical interactions of dust with the vegetation surface are
impaired by the presence of water. For example, fly ash to a great extent is not water soluble and
thus the probability of chemical burn only very small. This may not apply to other types of dust.
Pilot experiments on particulate matters which affect plants were conducted by Dugger and
Cooley [60] on commercial crops. They compared charcoal, calcium carbonate, and aluminum
hydroxide dusts on Lycopersicon esculentum. All three dusts increased transpiration, but charcoal
reduced growth parameters while the other dusts increased it. Sree Rangaswami and Jambulingam
[61] studied in southern India the distribution of plant species around a cement factory that emits
dusts. Out of 54 species, they found only nine species were able to grow close to the factory. All of
those plant species possessed small leaves, resulting in a reduced dust load. Generally, unpaved
roads produce higher dust levels than paved roads [62]. Brown and Berg [40] undertook a detailed

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.344
study of an unpaved road in Alaska. He found that in the summer about 10 g m-2 day-1 was a
logarithmic decline in deposition away from the road, with deposition still occurring 1 km away.
Dusts affect plant physiology at both physically as well as at the chemical and biochemical level.
The absolute level of dust deposition might be important for physical effects. Fine dust particles
can clog stomatal openings [63], [64], reduce photosynthesis [65], increases leaf temperature [66],
[67] and increase transpiration [68].
Dust Effect on Leaf Morphology
Leaf is the most sensitive part to be affected by air pollutants instead of all other plant parts such
as stem and roots. The sensitivity rests on the fact that the major portions of the important
physiological processes are concerned with leaf. Therefore, the leaf at its various stages of
development serves as a good indicator of air pollution. Pollutants came from the auto emission
can directly affect the plant by entering into the leaf, destroying individual cells, and reducing the
plant ability to produce food. Urban air pollution is a major environmental problem, mainly in the
developing countries [69]. The response of the plant to dust accumulation may vary according to
different species, as dust deposition fluctuates with plant species due to leaf orientation, leaf
surface geometry, phyllotaxy, epidermal and cuticular features, leaf pubescence, height and canopy
of roadside plants [30], [70], [71], [72]. With the accumulation of dust, the roadside plant may
exhibit adaptive response by changing morphological and physiological attributes. Heavy metals
released from automobiles are extremely toxic and reduces plant growth and morphological
parameters. Therefore, a study conducted by Ahmad et al., [73] is agreement that the Cadmium
had toxicity at 5 mg L-1 in case of root and shoot growth. Air pollution due to vehicular emission
mostly arises from cars, buses, mini-buses, wagons, rickshaws, motorcycles and trucks. These
resources introduce varieties of pollutants (oxides of nitrogen, sulphur, hydrocarbon, ozone,
particulate matters, hydrogen fluoride, peroxyacyl nitrates, etc.) into the environment which not
only put an adverse effect on the health of human beings, and animals, but seriously treating the
trees and crops of such areas. Research studies revealed that plants growing in the urban areas are
affected greatly by these pollutants [74]. Pollutants can cause leaf injury, stomatal damage,
premature senescence, decrease photosynthetic activity, disturb membrane permeability and
reduce growth and yield in sensitive plant species [75]. Reductions in leaf area and leaf number
may be due to decreased leaf production rate and enhanced senescence. The reduced leaf area
results in reduced absorbed radiations and subsequently in reduced photosynthetic rate [75]. The
interactions between plants and different types of pollutants were investigated by many authors:
most of the studies on the influence of environmental pollution focusing on physiological and
ultrastructural aspects [76], [77]. Studies concerning the anatomy of the vegetative organs under
conditions of pollution have been also carried out [78], [79], [80], [81], [82]. Dineva
[83] and Tiwari et al. [75] recorded a reduction of leaf area and petiole length under pollution

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.345
stress conditions. Previous researches reported significant reduction in different leaf variables in
the polluted environment in comparison with clean atmosphere [84]. In their study on Platanus
acerifolia showed changes in leaf blade and petiole size in the polluted air. Significant reduction in
length and area of leaflets and length of petiole of Guaiacum officinale of polluted plants was
recorded. Reduction in the dimension of a leaf blade of five tree species in the vicinity of heavy
dust and SO2 pollution was also observed [84]. Significant effects of automobile exhaust on the
phenology, periodicity and productivity of roadside tree species was also reported [85]. The
decrease in leaf area in drought stress had been observed because of tolerance of water content of
tissue possible by the decrease in leaf area [86]. Increase in length, breadth of leaflets and decrease
in the area of the leaf had demonstrated in leaves of Albizia lebbeck under the stress of air
pollution [87], [88]. Moreover, a study on leaves of Callistemon citrinus planted in industrial area
clears that length, width of leaf and also leaf area decreased [88]. Cassia siamea plants growing at
two different sites (polluted and non-polluted) on two important roads of Agra city exhibited
significant differences in their flowering phonology and floral morphology [89]. Researchers
showed that stimulation of photosynthetic rates in elevated CO2 was nullified by decreased total
leaf area [90]. Totally describe of air pollution is related to the morphology of area of leaf visible
damage including a reduction of leaf area, changes in morphology as compare to unpolluted
condition, necrosis and chlorosis. Naido and Chricot [91] showed that by the effect of air pollutant
exchange of gases on the area of a leaf of Avicenia marina decreased. One way to increase
tolerance in contrast with stress is to balance the water content of tissue by decrease the leaf area
[86]. It seems that these species use this way as a defense mechanism.
Dust Effect on photosynthesis through deposition
The substantial effect of coal dust deposition on plant leaf surfaces probably lies thereby in a
reduction of the photosynthetic product [91], [92]. Krajickova and Mejstrik [93] found that
particulate matters from a coal-fired power plant affected photosynthesis of Calamagrostis
epigejos and Hypericum perforatum but the stomata were rarely blocked. They suggested that the
dust might act directly on the guard cells, though the mechanisms for this effect remain uncertain
until now. After dust deposition on the leaves, Rhododendron catawbiense exhibited an increased
absorption in the infrared spectrum and a reduced reflection and transmission of radiation [94].
Deposition of smaller particle sizes leads to stranger reduction of photosynthesis than with coarse
particles [95]. This effect is presumably due to the closer lining of dust particles on leaf surface
resulting in a greater shading effect of photosynthetically active radiation. In experiments, where
the dust of different particle sizes were applied electrostatically to Brassica plant leaves, no
difference in the photosynthetic efficiency of the plant was found. This may be due to uniform
particle distribution and a very thin layer of dust deposition. Plant reactions due to dust deposition
are species dependent. For example, the chlorophyll fluorescence of Ilex

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.346
rotunda and Ficus microcarpa has grown close by a ceramic plant are less affected than
for Machilus chinensis. Least changes of the photosystems II have been observed with Ilex
rotunda [96]. The chlorophyll fluorescence data of the mangrove, Avicennia marina, indicated that
leaves coated with dust exhibited significantly lower photosystem II (PS II) quantum yield, lower
electron transport rate through PSII, and reduced quantum efficiency of PSII (F-v/F-m) [91].
Nanos and Ilias [97] are reporting similar results for olive trees exposed to cement dust. In their
study, cement dust decreased leaf total chlorophyll content and chlorophyll a/chlorophyll b ratio.
As a result, photosynthetic rate and quantum yield decreased. Long-term effects include a change
in the leaf biochemistry and a possible increase in plant pathogen and Phytophagous arthropods
incidence [98]. Taylor et al., [98] reported leaf rolling and interveinal necrosis in Phaseolus
vulgaris after deposition of cement. Sperber [99] already assumed that plants adapted to low light
conditions are less affected by dust depositions than plants adapted to grow directly in the sun.
Dust may Effect on the Pigments Content
Air pollution stress leads to stomatal closure, which reduces CO2 availability in leaves and inhibits
carbon fixation. The net photosynthetic rate is a commonly used indicator of the impact of
increased air pollutants on tree growth [100]. Plants that are constantly exposed to environmental
pollutants absorb, accumulate and integrate these pollutants into their systems. It has reported that
depending on their sensitivity level, plants show visible changes which would include alteration in
the biochemical processes or accumulation of certain metabolites [101]. Sulphur dioxide (SO2¯),
nitrogen oxides (NOx) and CO2 as well as suspended particulate matter. These pollutants, when
absorbed by the leaves, may cause a reduction in the concentration of photosynthetic pigments
viz., chlorophyll and carotenoids, which directly affected to the plant productivity [102]. A
relationship between traffic density and photosynthetic activity, stomatal conductance, total
chlorophyll content, and leaf senescence has been reported [103]. One of the most common
impacts of air pollution is the gradual disappearance of chlorophyll and concomitant yellowing of
leaves, which may be associated with a consequent decrease in the capacity for photosynthesis
[104]. Chlorophyll is found in the chloroplasts of green plants and is called a photoreceptor.
Chlorophyll itself is actually not a single molecule but a family of related molecules, designated as
chlorophyll "a", "b", "c" and "d". Chlorophyll "a" is the molecule found in all plant cells and
therefore its concentration is what is reported during chlorophyll analysis [105]. Chlorophyll is the
principal photoreceptor in photosynthesis, the light-driven process in which carbon dioxide is
"fixed" to yield carbohydrates and oxygen. When plants are exposed to the environmental
pollution above the normal physiologically acceptable range, photosynthesis gets inactivated. The
distribution of plant diversity is highly dependent on the presence of air pollutants in the ambient
air and sensitivity of the plants. Chlorophyll measurement is an important tool to evaluate the
effects of air pollutants on plants as it plays an important role in plant metabolism and any

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.347
reduction in chlorophyll content corresponds directly to plant growth [102]. Chlorophyll is an
index of productivity of the plant. Whereas certain pollutants increase the total chlorophyll
content, others decrease it [101]. Changes in concentration of pigments were also determined in
leaves of six tree species exposed to air pollution due to vehicle emissions [102]. The shading
effects due to deposition of suspended particulate matter on the leaf surface might be responsible
for this decrease in the concentration of chlorophyll in a polluted area. It might clog the stomata
thus interfering with the gaseous exchange, which leads to an increase in leaf temperature which
may consequently retard chlorophyll synthesis. Dusted or encrusted leaf surface is responsible for
reduced photosynthesis and thereby causing a reduction in chlorophyll content [102]. A
considerable loss in total chlorophyll, in the leaves of plants exposed to pollution supports the
argument that the chloroplast is the primary site of an attack by air pollutants such as SO2 and
NOx. Air pollutants make their entrance into the tissues through the stomata and cause partial
denaturation of the chloroplast and decrease pigment contents in the cells of polluted leaves. A
high amount of gaseous SO2 causes destruction of chlorophyll [106]. Several pieces of research
have recorded reduction in chlorophyll content under air pollution [75], [102], [104], [105], [106].
On the contrary, several pieces of research have exhibited an increase in chlorophyll content under
air pollution, such as Tripathi and Gautam [106] reported that Mangifera indica leaves subjected
to air pollution showed an increase (12.8%) in chlorophyll content [106]. Agbaire and
Esiefarienrhe [101] in a study have demonstrated that plants from experimental site contain more
chlorophyll compared with those from the control. Increase in the content of chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoid in Albizia lebbeck and Callistemon citrinus, has
been reported by Seyyednejad et al., [87]. Investigation proved that chlorosis, is the first indicator
of Flour effect on the plant [107]. Yun [108] showed the reduction in photosynthesis because of
the PSII function damage, in sensitive species of tobacco. Carotenoids exist in plasma of plant
tissues, photosynthetic or non-photosynthetic; the function of carotenoids in chloroplasts is as
pigments to capture the light. But probably, the more important role is in protecting the cells and
live organisms encounter with damage of free radical oxidative [109]. Plants fumigated with 40,
80 and 120 ppbv concentrations of O3 exhibited a significant reduction in total chlorophyll
content, RuBP carboxylase activity and net photosynthesis [110]. Carotenoids protect
photosynthetic organisms against potentially harmful photoxidative processes and are essential
structural components of the photosynthetic antenna and reaction center [102]. Carotenoids are a
class of natural fat-soluble pigments found principally in plants, algae, and photosynthetic
bacteria, where play a critical role in the photosynthetic process. They act as accessory pigments in
higher plants. They are tougher than chlorophyll but much less efficient in light gathering, help the
valuable but much fragile chlorophyll and protect chlorophyll from photoxidative destruction
[105]. In a study conducted by Joshi and Swami [104] on Eucalyptus cirtiodora subjected to air

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.348
pollution, highly reduced carotenoid contents were observed and in another study by the same
group reported that the carotenoids concentration was reduced due to vehicular emission [102].
Several researchers have reported reduced carotenoid content under air pollution [75], [105],
[106].
Dust Interference with Stomata functions
The effects are devastating in an arid environment, because even drought-tolerant crops, if wind
stressed, show an increased rate of water loss due to increased stomatal conductance, abrasion of
the vapor barrier and an increase of transpiration [110], [111]. A positive effect of the vegetation to
the environment is its air filtering ability: dust particles in the atmosphere get deposited on the
leaves, which improves the air quality. The leaves’ ability to act as dust receptors depends upon
their surface geometry, orientation, epidermal and cuticle features, leaf pubescence and plant
height [112]. However, at the same time, dust on the leaf surface affects plant growth and
development. For example, dust deposits on the leaves can alter their optical properties, especially
the surface reflectance in the visible and near-infrared range of the wavelength [113]. Dust
particulate matters deposition can cause blockage of the stomata on the upper surfaces of the
vegetation under natural condition and to a smaller extent at the lower surfaces. According to
Krajickova and Mejstrik [93], the stomatal diameters of most plants usually range from 8-12 µm.
Therefore, dust particle size is an important criterion for a possible leave penetration. Particles
with PM10 and smaller sizes can theoretically interfere with stomatal functions. Clogging the leaf
stomata lowers the rate of transpiration and carbon assimilation, which finally causes a significant
reduction in the photosynthesis rate. Dust affect less plant, which exhibits physical protection
structures such as trichomes compared to plants without such physical barriers. Cornisch et
al., [114] concluded that an increase in yield is associated with the stomatal conductance in Pima
cotton (Gossypium barbadense L.). Stomatal conductance depends on environmental factors, the
position at the canopy and age of the leaves [115]. Coal dust significantly reduced carbon dioxide
exchange of upper and lower leaf surfaces of the mangrove, Avicennia marina by 17-39%,
whereby the reduction was generally greater on the lower leaf surface, which has the dense mat of
trichomes and salt glands [91]. Nano and Ilias [97] describe a decrease of the stomatal
conductance to H2O and CO2 in Olea europaea exposed to cement dust, resulting in a reduced
productivity of olive trees. Hirano et al., [64] found that dust decreased stomatal conductance of
cucumber and kidney beans in the light, but increased it in the dark by plugging the stomata, when
the stomata were open during dusting. When the dust of smaller size particles was applied to the
plants, the effect was greater. However, the effect was negligible by closed stomata during dusting.
Fluckiger et al., [116] found, that 1 mg cm-1 of silica dust was necessary to cause a decrease in
stomatal diffusive resistance in Populus tremula, but only 0.5 mg cm-2 was necessary to cause an
increase in leaf temperature. Metabolic functions in plants operate only in a certain optimal

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.349
temperature range. If a leaf heats up above 34oC, photosynthetic enzymes begin to denature and
the leaf cannot perform its normal function. For example, Jiao and Grodzinski [117] describe an
inhibition of photosynthetic export in Salvia splendens above 35oC in both photorespiratory
conditions, whereby photosynthesis only under photorespiratory conditions was inhibited. Sucrose
and raffinose but not stachyose accumulated in the leaf at 40oC. Plants react in this situation with
an increase in transpiration to lower leaf temperatures.
Dust interaction with the Cuticle
Ulrichs et al., [38] and Majumder et al., [118] used silica dust applied to Brassica leaf surfaces as
insecticides. The dust had strong lipophilicity and weak hydrophobic characteristics. Thereby, the
dust got physically absorbed on the surface waxes of the leaves causing an irreversible damage
resulting in a reduced photosynthetic rate. Bacic et al., [119] made comparisons between the
surfaces of Pinus halepensis needles from a site with relatively clean air and one near to a cement
factory in Croatia. Induced changes in the appearance and quantity of surface wax were recorded
only for the samples collected near to the cement factory. In particular, crystalline wax in supra-
stomatal cavities appeared to coalesce and subsequently additional amorphous wax formed around
the rim of the stoma. However, this effect depends on physico-chemical properties of the dust
particulates and environmental conditions. Ulrichs et al., [120] showed that application of fly ash
on leaves did not interact with the leaves in open fields. In open field conditions, small size
particles drift easily from the leaf surface via air movement and precipitation. Therefore,
dusts impair directly neither leaf surfaces nor photosynthesis significantly.
Dust effect on Sugar
Soluble sugar is an important constituent and source of energy for all living organisms. Plants
manufacture this organic substance during photosynthesis and breakdown during respiration
[106]. Tripathi and Gautam [106], in their study, revealed a significant loss of soluble sugar in all
tested species at all polluted sites. The concentration of soluble sugars is indicative of the
physiological activity of a plant and it determines the sensitivity of plants to air pollution.
Reduction in soluble sugar content in polluted stations can be attributed to increased respiration
and decreased CO2 fixation because of chlorophyll deterioration. It has been mentioned that
pollutants like SO2, NO2, and H2S under hardening conditions can cause more depletion of soluble
sugars in the leaves of plants grown in the polluted area. The reaction of sulfite with aldehydes and
ketones of carbohydrates can also cause a reduction in carbohydrate content [106]. Some
researchers showed that Concentrations of total and soluble sugars decreased significantly in the
sensitive trees to the air pollution. In damaged Quercus cerris leaves the decrease in
concentrations of sugars was higher in September. The decrease in total sugar content of damaged
leaves probably corresponded with the photosynthetic inhibition or stimulation of respiration rate
[121]. Furthermore, an increase in the amount of soluble sugar is a protection mechanism of leaves

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.350
it has been shown in Pinto bean in exposure with different concentration of ozone [122].
Following ozone exposure, soluble sugars in pine needle decreased [123]. Subsequently, they
increased, frequently in association with foliar injury [122], [124]. The increase of soluble sugars
was also observed following chronic exposure [124]. The increase in soluble sugar was reported
in Albizia lebbeck and Callistemon citrinus grown in the industrial land [88]. Investigations
revealed that the more resistant species plants to the air pollution as compared to sensitive species
showed more concentration of soluble sugar [125], [126].
Dust effect on Proline
Some workers have been published the increase in free proline content in response to various
environmental stresses in plants [127]. Typical environmental stress (high and low temperature,
drought, air, and soil pollution) can cause excess Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in plant cells,
which are extremely reactive and cytotoxic to all organisms [127]. High exposure to air pollutants
forces chloroplasts into an excessive excitation energy level, which in turn increases the
generation of ROS and induces oxidative stress [100]. The deleterious effects of the pollutants are
caused by the production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in plants, which cause the
peroxidative destruction of cellular constituents [75]. It has been reported that proline act as a free
radical scavenger to protect plants away from damage by oxidative stress. Although the
scavenging reaction of ROS with other amino acids, such as tryptophan, tyrosine, histidine, etc.
are more effective compared with proline, proline is of special interest because of its extensive
accumulation in plants during environmental stress [128]. Tankha and Gupta [129] showed the
increase in the content of proline with increasing SO2 concentration. According to existence of
SO2 and CO in the industrial area as the result of chemical activities, these results probably
indicate that it has been clearly inconceivable to designate a harmless threshold toxic
SO2 concentration for level of particular species since other environmental factors during pollution
profoundly affect the degree of damage [87]. A significant increase in the content of proline
in Albizia lebbeck grown in the polluted area has been reported the concentration of proline
increased in leaves of Callistemon citrinus planted round petrochemical site in comparison with
control site [88]. Proline is a universal osmolyte accumulated in response to stress and may have a
role in plant defense reactions [130]. Obviously proline has main role in protection in different
kinds of stress. Accumulation of proline in plants is a physiological response to osmotic stress
[131]. The effects of pollutants on plants include pigment destruction, depletion of cellular lipids
and peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acid [75]. There appears to be a relationship
between lipid peroxidation and proline accumulation in plants subjected to diverse kinds of stress,
for example, proline accumulation in leaves of plants exposed to SO2 fumigation [129], heavy
metals [128] and salt [132] stress has been reported [128], [129], [132].

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.351
Dust effect over the soil
Dust particulates drift resulting from agricultural liming and fertilization can have an
eutrophication effect on nearby soils. The best-studied dust particulates depositions are for coal fly
ash from power plants. For decades, numerous researchers have looked into the possible use of
coal fly ash in agriculture [133], [134], [135]. Hard coal fly ash is a small less, grey, fine-grained
and powdery substance, which consists mainly of spherical, glassy particles. Main components of
coal fly ash are SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3. Both Logan and Harrison [136] and Wong [137] described
coal fly ash as rich in calcium and magnesium oxide and thus explaining the high pH value
observed by others. Coal fly ash contains polychlorinate biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, and various metals in the mg per kg range. In various investigations, fly ash as
substrate was used and data were interpreted from the viewpoint of plant nutrition [138], [139],
[140]. Generally, changes in soil chemistry after dust particulates depositions may be most
important for long-term effects on plants [141].
Soil nutritional value
Plants use inorganic minerals for nutrition. Many factors influence nutrient uptake for plants. Ions
can be readily available to roots or could be “tied up” by other elements or the soil itself. Soil
alkaline or acidic in pH makes minerals unavailable to plants. The optimal soil pH ranges for most
crop plants between 5.5 to 6.2 or slightly acidic. This creates the greatest average level for
availability for all essential plant nutrients. Therefore, extreme fluctuations in pH can cause
deficiency or toxicity of nutrients. Cawse et al., [142] found that rainfall around a cement plant in
South Wales was high in phosphorus and vanadium and had a pH in the alkaline range. Garden
cress was relatively insensitive to pH changes [143], [120]. Theis and Wirth [144] found that
major components of coal fly ash particulates were Al. Fe and Si with smaller concentrations of
Ca, K, Na, Ti, S and numerous trace elements. Some of those elements like Ca, Fe, Mg and K are
required for plant growth [145], [146]. Some others like Be, Se and Mo can be toxic. Generally,
coal fly ash is not an optimal source of phosphorus since it was found to be inferior to
monocalcium phosphate [147]. However, Ca2+ and Mg2+ can increase plant growth, as shown for
legumes [133], [134]. Next, to the nutritional value, dust particulates can have negative effects on
the soil nutritional value. As for example, alarming concentrations of lead were found in the dust
of densely populated urban areas and in water and land of various areas near the industrial waste
disposals [148]. Plants absorb lead and accumulation of this metal is reported for roots, stems,
leaves, root nodules, seeds etc. [149]. Furthermore, the lead content of plant tissues increases with
the increase of exogenous lead level. Lead affects plant growth and productivity, whereby the
magnitude of the effect depends on the plant species. Photosynthesis has been found to be one of
the most sensitive plant processes and the effect of the metal is multifacial. Lead also inhibits
Nitrogen fixation and NH4 assimilation in the root nodules. It appears that toxic effect of this

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.352
metal is primarily at the physiological level [148]. Warambhe et al., [150], had evidence that high
coal fly ash depositions result in high soil pH values and phytotoxic boron contents in these areas
that disturb plant growth. Only after sufficient precipitation, the phytotoxic characteristics of the
substrates with very high coal fly ash content decrease. Other researchers claimed that higher
boron contents in coal fly ash have soil-ameliorating characteristics [137]. Cline et al., [151]
showed that yields of soybeans increased up to 35% by coal fly ash applications on sandy and clay
soils in the south of Ontario. On the yield of corn, coal fly ash had, however, no effects.
Soil texture and density
Normally, dust particulates deposition makes only a fraction of the topsoil volume. Therefore, a
change of the physical structure of the soil is very unlikely. This is, of course, different dust
particulates are collected and artificially deposited or mixed in the soil. For example, soil
properties are influenced by coal fly ash application [152]. Here the physical and chemical
properties of soil vary according to the original properties. Several researchers described the role
of increasing coal fly ash contents in the soil with positive effects on the water holding capacity in
sandy [153], [154], and coarse-grained [155] soils.
Impact of Dust on Plant Communities
Some of the earliest references regarding to dust influences on plant community structures date
back to 1910. Parish [156] was interested in the shrub and grassland vegetation in California near
cement factories. He found a shift in the vegetation community close to some cement factories
[157]. Lotschert and Kohm [158] reported bark pH and Ca2 content changes in the bark of trees
after long-term dust exposure. Since water stress is one of the major urban stressors for trees such
findings can help to select plant species and varieties in anthropogenically determined systems.
2. CONCLUSION
Present work provides basic information about the variation in dust particles accumulation of plant
species. Variation of dust pollutions positively shows the impacts on plants species with the
alteration of morphological, biochemical, epidermal, stomata functions, soil conditions, and soil
nutritions and also species communities etc. Deposition of quarry dust has resulted in the
reduction in the leaf area and chlorophyll content and also in the stunted growth. In this article, we
summarized the influences of dust pollution on various parameters of vegetation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
One of the authors YG thankful to the DST (Inspire Program), New Delhi for providing financial
support.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflict of interest.

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.353
REFERENCES
1. Anderson JO, Thundiyil JG and Stolbach A. Clearing the air: a review of the effects of
particulate matter air pollution on human health. J. Med. Toxicol. 2012; 8: 166-175.
2. Kan H, Chen R and Tong S. Ambient air pollution, climate change, and population health in
China. Environ. Int. 2012; 42: 10-19.
3. Lovett GM, Tear TH, Evers DC, Findlay SEG, Cosby BJ, Dunscomb JK, Driscoll CT and
Weathers KC. Effects of air pollution on ecosystems and biological diversity in the eastern
United States. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 2009; 1162: 99-135.
4. Walsh M and Shah JJ. Clean Fuels for Asia: Technical Options for Moving Toward Unleaded
Gasoline and Low-Sulfur Diesel. World Bank Technical Paper No. 377. The World Bank,
Washington D.C., 1997.
5. Ning Z and Sioutas C. Atmospheric processes influencing aerosols generated by combustion
and the inference of their impact on public exposure: A review. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2010;
10: 43-58.
6. Cao L, Appel E, Hu S, Yin G, Lin H and Rosler W. Magnetic response to air pollution recorded
by soil and dust-loaded leaves in a changing industrial environment. Atmos. Environ. 2015;
119: 304-313.
7. World Health Organization (WHO), Health aspects of air pollution with particulate matter,
ozone and nitrogen dioxide. Report 2003 on a WHO working group. Bonn; 2003,
http://www.euro.who.int/_data/asset s/pdf_file/0005/112199/E79097.pdf.
8. World Health Organization (WHO), the World Health Report 2002: Reducing Risks,
Promoting Healthy Life. WHO, Geneva, 2002.
9. Karanasiou A, Amato F, Moreno T, Lumbreras J, Borge R, Linares C, Boldo E, Alastuey A and
Querol X. Road dust emission sources and assessment of street washing effect. Aerosol Air
Qual. Res. 2014; 14: 734-743.
10. Upadhyay N, Clements AL, Fraser MP, Sundblom M, Solomon P and Herckes P. Size-
differentiated chemical composition of re-suspended soil dust from the Desert Southwest
United States. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2015; 15: 387-398.
11. Begum BA, Biswas SK, Pandit GG, Saradhi IV, Waheed S, Siddique N, Seneviratne MCS,
Cohen DD, Markwitz A and Hopke PK. Long-range transport of soil dust and smoke pollution
in the South Asian region. Atmos. Pollut. Res. 2011; 2: 151-157.
12. Schelle-Kreis J, Sklorz M, Herrmann H and Zimmermann R. Sources, occurrences,
compositions – Atmospheric aerosols. Chemie in Unserer Zeit. 2007; 41: 220-230.
13. Tong CH, Blanco M, Goddard WA and Seinfeld JH. Secondary organic aerosol formation by
heterogeneous reactions of aldehydes and ketones: A quantum mechanical study.
Environmental Science and Technology. 2006; 40: 2333-2338.

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.354
14. Gibson ER, Gierlus KM, Hudson PK and Grassian VH. Generation of internally mixed
insoluble and soluble aerosol particles to investigate the impact of atmospheric aging and
heterogeneous processing on the CCN activity of mineral dust aerosol. Aerosol Science and
Technology. 2007; 41: 914-924.
15. Kulshrestha MJ, Kulshrestha UC, Parashar DC and Vairamani M. Estimation of SO4
contribution by dry deposition of SO2 onto the dust particles in India. Atmos. Environ. 2003;
37: 3057- 3063.
16. Gupta GP, Kumar B, Singh S. and Kulshrestha UC. Urban climate and its effect on
biochemical and morphological characteristics of Arjun (Terminalia arjuna) plant in National
Capital Region Delhi. Chem. Ecol. 2015; 31: 524-538.
17. Gupta GP, Singh S, Kumar B and Kulshrestha UC. Industrial dust sulphate and its effects on
biochemical and morphological characteristics of Morus (Morus alba) plant in NCR Delhi.
Environ. Monit. Assess. 2015; 187: 67.
18. Sheppard LJ. Causal mechanisms by which sulphate, nitrate and acidity influence frost
hardiness in red spruce: Review and hypothesis. New Phyto. 1994; 127: 69- 82.
19. Grantz DA, Garner JHB and Johnson DW. “Ecological effects of particulate matter”. Environ.
Int. 2003; 29: 213-239.
20. Buchner P, Takahashi HM and Hawkesford J. Plant sulphate transporters: Co-ordination of
uptake, intracellular and long-distance transport. J. Exp. Bot. 2004; 55: 1765-1773.
21. Vardak E, Cook CM and Lanaras T. Effect of dust from a limestone quarry on the
photosynthesis of Quercus coccifera, and evergreen Sclerophyllous shrub. Bull. Environ.
Contam.Toxicol. 1995; 54: 414-419.
22. Auerbach NA, Walker MD and Walker DA. Effects of roadside disturbance on substrate and
vegetation properties in arctic tundra. Ecol. Appl. 1997; 7: 218-235.
23. Hope AS, Fleming JB and Stow DA. Tussock tundra albedos on the north slope of Alaska:
Effects of illumination, vegetation composition, and dust deposition. J. Appl. Meteorol. 1991;
30: 1200-1206.
24. Gupta GP, Kumar B, Singh S and Kulshrestha UC. Deposition and Impact of Urban
Atmospheric Dust on Two Medicinal Plants. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 2016; 16:
2920-2932.
25. Spatt PD and Miller MC. Growth conditions and vitality of Sphagnum tundra community
along the Alaska Pipeline Haul Road. ARCTIC. 1981; 34: 48-54.
26. Spencer S and Tinnin R. Effects of coal dust on plant growth and species composition in an
arid environment. J. Arid Environ. 1997; 37: 475-485.
27. Walker DA and Everett KR. Road dust and its environmental impact on Alaskan taiga and
tundra. Arct. Alp. Res. 1987; 19: 479-489.

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.355
28. Sharifi MR, Gibson AC and Rundel PW. Surface dust impacts on gas exchange in Mojave
Desert shrubs. J. Appl. Ecol. 1997; 34: 837-846.
29. Wijayratne UC, Scoles-Scilla SJ and Defalco LA. Dust deposition effects on growth and
physiology of the endangered Astragalus Jaegerianus (Fabaceae)”. Madroño. 2009; 56: 81-88.
30. Farmer AM. The effects of dusts on vegetation – A review. Environ. Pollut. 1993; 79: 63-75.
31. Beckett KP, Freer-Smith PH and Taylor G. Particulate pollution capture by urban trees: Effect
of species and wind speed. Global Change Biol. 2000; 6: 995-1003.
32. Fennelly PF. Primary and secondary particulates as pollutants. Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association. 1975; 25: 397-704.
33. Brook JR, Poirot RL, Dann TF, Lee PKH, Lillyman CD and Ip T. Assessing sources of PM2.5
in cities influenced by regional transport. Journal of Toxicol. Environ. Health. 2007; 70: 191-
199.
34. Gilmour MI, McGee J, Duvall RM, Dailey L, Daniels M, Boykin E, Cho SH, Doerfler D,
Gordon T and Devlin RB. Comparative toxicity of size-fractionated airborne particulate matter
obtained from different cities in the United States. Inhalation Toxicology. 2007; 19: 7-16.
35. Langner M. Staubumsatz in verkehrsexponierten Baumkronen und Partikelverteilung in
stadtischen Grunflachen. Berliner Geographische Arbeiten. 2007; 109, 1-12.
36. Mewis and Ulrichs Ch. Effects of diatomaceous earth on water content of Sitophilus granaries
(L.) (Col.: Curculionidae) and its possible use in stored product protection. Journal of Applied
Entomology. 2001; 125: 351-360.
37. Mewis and Ulrichs Ch. “Action of amorphous diatomaceous earth against different stages of
the stored product pests Tribolium confusum, Tenebrio molitor, Sitophilus granaries and Plodia
interpunctella”. Journal of Stored Products Research. 2001; 37: 153-164.
38. Ulrichs Ch, Krause F, Rocksch T, Goswami A and Mewis I. “Electrostatic application of inert
silica dust based insecticides to plant surfaces”. Communications in Agricultural and Applied
Biological Sciences, Ghent University. 2006; 71: 171-178.
39. Darley EF. Studies on the effect of cement-kiln dust. Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association. 1966; 16: 145-150.
40. Brown J, Berg R (Eds) Environmental Engineering and Ecological Baseline Investigations
along the Yukon River-Purdhoe Bay Haul Road, US Army Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory”, CRREL Report 80-19. 1980; Pp: 101-128.
41. Sabin LD, Lim JH, Venezia MT, Winer AM, Schiff KC, and Keith DS. “Dry deposition and
resuspension of particles-associated metals near a freeway in Los Angeles”. Atmos. Environ.
2006; 40: 7528-7538.
42. Biasioli M, Barberis R and Ajmone-Marsan F. “The influence of a large city on some soil
properties and metals content”. Sci. Total Environ. 2006; 356: 154-164.

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.356
43. Mielke HW, Laidlaw MA and Gonzales C. “Lead (Pb) legacy from vehicle traffic in eight
California urbanized areas: Continuing influence of lead dust on children’s health”. Sci. Total
Environ. 2010; 408: 3965-3975.
44. Kong SF, Lu B, Ji YQ, Zhao XY, Chen L, Li ZY, Han B and Bai ZP. “Levels, risk assessment
and sources of PM10 fraction heavy metals in four types dust from a coal-based city”.
Microchem. J. 2011; 98: 280-290.
45. Bell ML, Morgenstern RD and Harrington W. Quantifying the human health benefits of air
pollution policies: review of recent studies and new directions in accountability research.
Environ. Sci. Policy. 2011; 14: 357-368.
46. Chen X, Xia X, Zhao Y and Zhang P. Heavy metal concentrations in roadside soils and
correlation with urban traffic in Beijing, China. J. Hazard. Mater. 2010; 181: 640-646.
47. Ali H., Khan, E. and Sajad, M.A. Phytoremediation of heavy metals - Concepts and
applications. Chemosphere. 91: 869-881, 2013.
48. Ram SS, Kumar RV, Chaudhuri P, Chanda S, Santra SC, Sudarshan M and Chakraborty A.
Physicochemical characterization of street dust and re-suspended dust on plant canopies: An
approach for finger printing the urban environment. Ecol. Indic. 2014; 36: 334-338.
49. Norouzi S, Khademi H, Cano AF and Acosta JA. Using plane tree leaves for biomonitoring of
dust borne heavy metals: A case study from Isfahan, Central Iran. Ecol. Indic. 2015; 57: 64-73.
50. Freer-Smith PH, Sophy H and Goodman A. The uptake of particulates by urban woodland:
Site description and particulate composition. Environ. Pollut. 1997; 95: 27-35.
51. Prusty BAK, Mishra PC and Azeez PA. Dust accumulation and leaf pigment concentration in
vegetation near the national highway at Sambalpur, Orissa, India. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf.
2005; 60: 228-235.
52. Nowak DJ, Crane DE and Stevens JC. Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in the
United States. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening. 2006; 4: 115-123.
53. Jamil S, Abhilash PC, Singh A, Singh N and Behl HM. Fly ash trapping and metal
accumulating capacity of plants: Implication for green belt around thermal power plants.
Landscape Urban Plann. 2009; 92: 136-147.
54. Qiu Y, Guan D, Song, W and Huang K, Capture of heavy metals and sulfur by foliar dust in
urban Huizhou, Guangdong Province, China. Chemosphere. 2009; 75: 447-452.
55. Hofmann H, Bartholomeus K, Calders SV, Wittenberghe K, Wuyts and Samson R. On the
relation between tree crown morphology and particulate matter deposition on urban tree
leaves: A ground-based LiDAR approach. Atmos. Environ. 2014; 99: 130-139.
56. MOELLER D, Luft. Chemie, Physik, Biologie, Reinhaltung, Recht. Berlin, de Gruyter, 2003.
Mit 168 Abb. u. 178 Tab. 23, 750 S. Farb. ill. OPbd. - Sehr gutes Ex.

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.357
57. Wolf-Benning U. Kleinraumige und zeitliche Variabilitat von Feinstaub und Grobstaub sowie
Stickstoffdioxid in Berlin. Berliner Geographische Arbeiten. 2006; 105: 130.
58. Belot Y, Baille A and Delmas JL. Modele numerique de dispersion des pollutants
atmospheriques en presence de couverts vegetaux. Atmospheric Environnment. 1976; 10: 89-
98.
59. Chamberlain AC, Transport of Lycopodium spores and other small particles to rough surfaces.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Ser. A. 1967; 296: 45-70.
60. Duggar BM and Cooley JS. The effect of surface films and dusts on the rate of transpiration.
Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 1914; 1: 1-22.
61. Sree Rangasami SR and Jambulingam R. Cement dust pollution on maize crop. Madras
Agricultural Journal. 1973; 60: 1310-1313.
62. Roberts JW, Watters HA, Mangold CA and Rossano AT. Cost and benefits of road dust control
in Seattle’s industrial valley. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. 1975; 25: 948-
952.
63. Oblisami G, Pathmanabhan G and Padmanabhan C. Effect of particulate pollutants from
cement-kilns on cotton plants. Indian Journal Air Pollution Control. 1978; 1: 91-94.
64. Hirano T, Kiyota M and Aiga I. Physical effects of dust on leaf physiology of cucumber and
kidney bean plants. Environmental Pollution. 1995; 89: 255-261.
65. Borka G. The effect of cement dust pollution on growth and metabolism of Helianthus annus.
Environmental Pollution (Ser.A). 1980; 22: 75-89.
66. Steinhubel G. and Halas L. Poruchy v tvorbe susiny pri zvysenych teplotach vyvolanych v
listoch drevin prasnou imisiou. Lesnicky Casopis. 1967; 13: 365-383.
67. Guggenheim R, Fluckiger W, Fluckiger-Keller H and Oertli JJ. Pollution of leaf surfaces in the
vicinity of a motorway. Berichte Umweltbundesamt. 1980; 79: 462-468.
68. Eveling DW. Effects of spraying plants with suspensions of inert dusts. Annals of Applied
Biology. 1969; 64: 139-151.
69. Mage D, Ozolins G, Peterson P, Webster A, Orthofer R, Wandeweerd V and Gwynne M. Urban
air pollution in megacities of the world. Atmospheric Environ. 1996; 30: 681-686.
70. Davison, A. W. & Blakemore, J. (1976). Factors determining fluoride accumulation in forage.
Pp.17-30 in Effects of air pollutants on plants (Ed. T.A. Mansfied). Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK: Pp: 209.
71. Chaphekar SB, Boralkar DB and Shetye RP. Plants for air monitoring in industrial area. In:
Furtado JI (ed.) Tropical Ecology and Development. I.S.T.E. Kuala Lampur, 1980; pp. 669-
675.

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.358
72. Chaturvedi RK, Prasad S, Rana S, Obaidullah SM, Pandey V and Singh H. Effect of dust load
on the leaf attributes of the tree species growing along the roadside. Environ. Monit. Assess.
2013; 185: 383-391.
73. Ahmad MJ, Akhtar Z, Zahir A and Jamil A. Effect of cadmium on seed germination and
seedling growth of four wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars. Pak. J. Bot. 2012; 44: 1569-
1574.
74. Uaboi-Egbenni PO, Okolie PN, Adejuyitan OE, Sobande AO, and Akinyemi O. Effect of
industrial effluents on the growth and anatomical structures of Abelmoschus esculentus (Okra).
Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2009; 8: 3251-3260.
75. Tiwari S, Agrawal M and Marshall FM. Evaluation of ambient air pollution impact on carrot
plants at a sub urban site using open top chambers. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2006; 119: 15-30.
76. Heumann HG. Ultrastructural localization of zinc in zinc-tolerant Armeria maritime sp. halleri
by autometallography. Journal of Plant Physiology. 2002; 159:191- 203.
77. Psaras GK and Christodoulakis NS. Air pollution affects on the ultrastructure of Phlomis
fruticosa mesophyll cells. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 1987; 38:
610-617.
78. Alves ES, Baêsso Moura M and Domingos M. Structural analysis of Tillandsia usneoides L.
exposed to air pollutants in São Paulo City–Brazil. Water Air and Soil Pollution. 2008; 189:
61-68.
79. Ahmad SH, Reshi Z, Ahmad J and Iqbal MZ. Morpho-anatomical responses of Trigonella
foenum-graecum L. to induced cadmium and lead stress. Journal of Plant Biology. 2005; 48:
64-84.
80. Silva LC, Azevedo AA, Silva EAM and Oliva MA. Effects of simulated acid rain on the
growth and anatomy of five Brazilian tree species. Australian Journal of Botany. 2005; 53:789-
796.
81. Silva C, Oliva MA, Azevedo AA and Araújo JM. De Responses of Restinga plant species to
pollution from an iron pelletization factory. Water Air and Soil Pollution. 2006; 175:241-256.
82. Verma RB, Mahmooduzzafar TO, Siddiqi and Iqbal M. Foliar Response of Ipomea pes-tigridis
L. to Coal Smoke Pollution. Turkish Journal of Botany. 2006; 30:413- 417.
83. Dineva SB. Comparative studies of the leaf morphology and structure of white ash Fraxinus
americana L. and London plane tree Platanus acerifolia Wild growing in polluted area.
Dendrobiology. 2004; 52: 3-8.
84. Jahan S and Iqbal MZ. Morphological and anatomical studies on leaves of different plants
affected by motor vehicle exhausted. J. Islamic Acad. Sci. 1992; 5: 21-23.

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.359
85. Bhatti GH and Iqbal MZ. Investigations into the effect of automobile exhausts on the
phenology, periodicity and productivity of some roadside trees. Acta Sociotatis Botanicorum
Poloniae. 1988; 57: 395-399.
86. Hale MG, Orcutt DM and Thompson LK. The Physiology of Plants under Stress. 1st Edn.,
Wiley Interscience Publication, Wiley and Sons Inc., New York. 1987; 206.
87. Seyyednejad SM, Niknejad M and Yusefi M. Study of air pollution effects on some physiology
and morphology factors of Albizia lebbeck in high temperature condition in Khuzestan. J. Plant
Sci. 2009; 4: 122-126.
88. Seyyednejad SM, Niknejad M and Yusefi M. The effect of air pollution on some
morphological and biochemical factors of Callistemon citrinus in petrochemical zone in South
of Iran. Asian J. Plant Sci. 2009; 8: 562-565.
89. Chauhan SV, Chaurasia B and Rana A. Impact of air pollution on floral morphology of Cassia
siamea Lamk. J. Environ. Biol. 2004; 25: 291-297.
90. Noormets A, McDonald EP, Dickson RE, Kruger EL, Sober A, Isebrands JG and Karnosky DF.
The effect of elevated carbon dioxide and ozone on leaf- and branch-level photosynthesis and
potential plant-level carbon gain in aspen. Trees-Structure Function. 2001; 15: 262-270.
91. Naido G and Chricot D. The effect of coal dusts on photosynthetic performance of
mangrove, Avicenia marina in Richards bay, South Africa. Environ. Pollut. 2004; 127: 359-
366.
92. Auclair D. Effects of dust on photosynthesis 2. Effects of particulate matter on photosynthesis
of scots pine and poplar. Annales des sciences Forestieres. 1977; 34: 47-57.
93. Krajickova A and Mejstrik V. The effect of fly-ash particles on the plugging of stomata.
Environmental Pollution. 1984. 36: 83-93,
94. Eller BM and Brunner U. Der Einfluss von Straßenstaub auf die Strahlungsabsorption durch
Blatter. Archiv fur Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Serie B. 1975; 23: 137-146.
95. Hirano T, Kiyota M, Kitaya Y and Aiga I. The physical effects of dust on photosynthetic rate
of plant leaves. Journal of Applied Meterology. 1990; 46: 1-7.
96. Wen E, Kuang Y and Zhou G. Sensitivity analyses of woody species exposed to air pollution
based on eco-physiological measurements. Environmental Science and Pollution Research.
2004; 11: 165-170.
97. Nanos GD and Ilias IF. Effects of inert dust on olive (Olea europaea L.) leaf physiological
parameters. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2007; 14: 212-214.
98. Taylor HJ, Ashmore MR and Bell JNB. Air Pollution Injury to Pollution, Imperial College for
Environmental Technology, London, total 1986; Pp.33.
99. Sperber A. Auswirkungen von Staub auf Photosynthese und Stoffproduktion verschiedener
Pflanzen. Inaugurat-Dissertation. University Bonn. 1975; Pp: 108.

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.360
100. Woo SY, Lee DK and Lee YK. Net photosynthetic rate, ascorbate peroxidase and glutathione
reductase activities of Erythrina orientalis in polluted and non-polluted areas.
Photosynthetica. 2007; 45: 293-295.
101. Agbaire PO and Esiefarienrhe E. Air Pollution Tolerance Indices (APTI) of some plants
around Otorogun gas plant in Delta State, Nigeria. J. Applied Sci. Environ. Manage. 2009;
13: 11-14.
102. Joshi PC and Swami A. Air pollution induced changes in the photosynthetic pigments of
selected plant species. J. Environ. Boil. 2009; 30: 295-298.
103. Honour SL, Bell JNB, Ashenden TW, Cape JN and Power SA. Responses of herbaceous
plants to urban air pollution: Effects on growth, phenology and leaf surface characteristics.
Environ. Pollut. 2009; 157: 1279-1286.
104. Joshi PC and Swami A. Physiological responses of some tree species under roadside
automobile pollution stress around city of Haridwar, India. Environmentalist. 2007; 27: 365-
374.
105. Joshi N., Chauhan A. and Joshi, P.C. Impact of industrial air pollutants on some biochemical
parameters and yield in wheat and mustard plants. Environmentalist. 2009; 29: 398-404.
106. Tripathi A.K. and Gautam, M. Biochemical parameters of plants as indicators of air
pollution. J. Environ. Biol. 2007; 28: 127-132.
107. Kendrick JB, Darly EF, Middieton JT and Paulus AO. Plant response to polluted air: Specific
effects of air pollutants on plants vary according to plant species and modifying internal and
external factors. California Agric. 1956; 10: 9-15.
108. Yun MH. Effect of ozone on CO2 assimilation and PSII function in plants with contrasting
pollutant sensitivities. Dissertation Abst. Int. 2007; Vol. 68, No. 10.
109. Fleschin S, Fleschin M, Nhta S, Pavel E and Mageara V. Free radicals mediate protein
oxidation in biochemistry. Roum. Biotechnol. Lett. 2003; 5: 479-495.
110. Chapla and Kamalakar JA. Metabolic responses of tropical trees to ozone pollution. J.
Environ. Biol. 2004; 25: 287-290.
111. Armbrust DV and Retta A. Wind and sandblast damage to growing vegetation. Ann. Arid
Zone. 2000; 39: 273-284.
112. Prajapati SK. Ecological effect of airborne particulate matter on plants. Environ. Skept. Crit.
2002; 1: 12-22.
113. Prajapati SK and Tripathi BD. Seasonal variation of leaf dust accumulation and pigment
content in plant species exposed to urban particulates pollution. J. Environ. Qual. 2008; 37:
865-870.

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.361
114. Cornish, Radin JW, Turcotte EL, Lu ZM and Zeiger E. Enhanced photosynthesis and
stomatal conductance of Pima cotton (Gossypium harbadense L.) bred for increased yield.
Plant Physiol. 1991; 97: 484-489.
115. Hitron O and Zur B. Differences in stomatal response within cotton canopy. Biotronic. 1990;
19: 39-48.
116. Fluckinger W, Oertli JJ and Fluckiger H. Relationship between stomatal diffusive resistance
and various applied particle sizes on leaf surface. Zeitschrift fur Pflanzenphysiologie. 1979;
91: 173-175.
117. Jiao J and Grodzinski B. The effect of leaf temperature and photorespiratory conditions on
export of sugars during steady-state photosynthesis in Salvia splendens. Plant Physiology.
1996; 111: 169-178.
118. Majumder DD, Banerjee R, Ulrichs Ch, Mewis I and Goswami A. Nano-materials: Science
of bottom-up and top-down. IETE Technical Review on “Nanotechnology education a
paradigm shift”. 2007; 24: 9-25.
119. Bacic T, Lynch AH and Cutler D. Reactions to cement factory dust contamination by Pinus
halepensis needles. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 1999; 41: 155-166.
120. Ulrichs Ch, Dolgowski D, Mucha T, Reichmuth Ch and Mewis I. Insektizide und
phytotoxische Wirkung von Steinkohlenglugasche. Gesunde Pflanzen. 2005; 57: 110-116.
121. Tzvetkova N and Kolarvo D. Effect of air pollution on carbohydrate and nutrients contents
on some deciduous tree species. Bulg. J. Plant Physiol. 1996; 22: 53-56.
122. Dugger WM and Ting IP. Air pollution oxidant-their effects on metabolic processes in plants.
Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 1970; 21: 215-234.
123. Wilkinson TG and Barnes RL. Effect of ozone on CO2 fixation patterns in pine. Can. J. Bot.
1973; 9: 1573-1578.
124. Miller PR, Parmeter JR, Flick BH and Martinez CW. Ozone dosage response of Ponderosa
pine seedlings. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 1969; 19: 6-6.
125. Kameli A and Losel DM. Carbohydrate and water stress in wheat plants under water stress.
New Phytologist. 1993; 125: 609-614.
126. Ludlow KF. Carbohydrates metabolism in drought stress leaves of pigeon pea (Cajanus
cajan). J. Exp. Bot. 1993; 44: 1351-1359.
127. Levitt J. Respons of Plant to Environmental Stresses. 1st Edn., Academic Press, New York,
1972.
128. Wang F, Zeng B, Sun Z, and Zhu C. Relationship between proline and Hg2+-induced
oxidative stress in a tolerant rice mutant. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2009; 56: 723-
731.

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.362
129. Tankha and Gupta RK. Effect of Water deficit and SO2 on total soluble protein, nitrate
reductase activity and free proline content in sun flower leaf. Biol. Planta. 1992; 34: 305-
310.
130. Khattab H. The deffence mechanism of cabbage plant against phloem-sucking aphid
(Brevicoryne brassicae L.). Aust. J. Basic Applied Sci. 2007. 1: 56-62.
131. Szekely G. The role of proline in Arabidopsis thaliana osmotic stress response. Acta
Biologica Szegediensis. 2004. 48: 81-81.
132. Woodward AJ and Bennett IJ. The effect of salt stress and abscisic acid on proline
production, chlorophyll content and growth of in vitro propagated shoots of Eucalyptus
camaldulensis. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 2005; 82: 189-200.
133. Page AI, Elseewi AA and Straughan IR. Physical and Chemical properties from fly ash from
coal-fired power-plants with special reference to environmental impacts. Residue Reviews.
1979; 71: 83-120.
134. Adriano DC, Page AL, Elseewi AA, Chang AC and Straughan I. Utilization and disposal of
fly ash and other coal residues in terrestrial ecosystems: A review. Journal of Environmental
Quality. 1980; 9: 333-344.
135. Maiti SS, Mukhopadhyay M, Gupta SK and Banerjee SK. Evaluation of fly ash as a useful
material in agriculture. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science. 1990; 38: 342-344.
136. Logan TJ and Harrison BJ. Physical characteristics of alkaline stabilized sewage sludge (N-
Viro soil) and their effects on soil physical properties. Journal of Environmental Quality.
1995; 4: 153-164.
137. Wong JWC and Su DC. Reutilization of coal fly ash and sewage sludge as an artificial soil-
mix: effects of pre-incubation on soil physic-chemical properties. Bioresource Technology.
1997; 59: 97-102.
138. Elseewi AA, Bingham FT and Page AL. Availability of sulphur in fly ash to plants. Journal
of Environmental Quality. 1978; 7: 69-73.
139. Hill MF and Lamp CA. Use of pulverized fuel ash from Victorian brown coal as a source of
nutrients for pasture species. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 1980; 20: 377-
384.
140. Kalra MC, Jain, Joshi HC, Choudhary R, Harit RC, Vatsa BK, Sharma SK and Kumar SK.
Fly ash as soil conditioner and fertilizer. Bioresource Technology. 1998; 64: 163-167.
141. Scheffer F, Prezmeck E and Wilms W. Untersuchungen uber den Einfluss von Zementofen-
Flugstaub auf Boden und Pflanzen. Staub. 1961; 21: 251-254.
142. Cawse PA, Baker SJ and Page RA. The influence of particulate matter on rainwater acidity
and chemical composition. U.K. Atomic Energy Authority Report R 13478, HMSO, London,
1989.

Kameswaran et al RJLBPCS 2019 www.rjlbpcs.com Life Science Informatics Publications
© 2019 Life Science Informatics Publication All rights reserved
Peer review under responsibility of Life Science Informatics Publications
2019 Jan – Feb RJLBPCS 5(1) Page No.363
143. Grantzau E. Geeignete Keimpflanzen zur Prufung der Pflanzenvertrag lichkeit von
Komposten, Substraten und Boden. Erich Schmidt, Berlin. 1997; Pp: 43.
144. Theis TI and Wirth JL. Sorptive behavior of trace metals on fly ash in aqueous systems.
Environmental Science and Technology. 1977; 11: 1096-110.
145. Kachoo D, Dixit AK and Bali AS. Influence of crop residue, fly ash and varying starter
dosages on growth, yield and soil characteristics in rice (Oryza sativa) - wheat (Triticum
aestivum) cropping system under irrigated conditions of Jammu region. Indian Journal of
Agricultural Science. 2006; 76: 3-6.
146. Inam A. Use of fly ash on turnip (Brassica rapa L.) cultivation. Pollution Research. 2007;
26: 39-42.
147. Martens DC. Availability of plant nutrients in fly ash. Compost Science. 1971; 12: 15-19.
148. Singh RP, Tripathi RD, Sinha SK, Maheshwari R and Srivastava HS. Response of higher
plants to lead contaminated environment. Chemosphere. 1997; 34: 2467-2493.
149. Hevesy G. The absorption and translocation of lead by plants. Biochemical Journal. 1923;
17: 439-445.
150. Warambhe PE, Kene DR, Thakre KK, Darange OG and Bhoyar VS. Evaluation of
physicochemical properties of fly ash of thermal power station, Koradi (Nagpur) for its
likely use in agriculture. Journal of Soils and Crops. 1993; 3: 75-77.
151. Cline JA, Bijl M and Torrenueva A. Coal fly ash as a soil conditioner for field crops in
southern Ontario. Journal of Environmental Quality. 2000; 29: 1982-1989.
152. Grewal KS, Yadava PS, Mehta SC and Oswal MC. Direct and residual effect of fly ash
application to soil on crop yield and soil properties. Crop.Res. 2001; 21: 60- 65.
153. Roberts TJ. The effect of land type and fine particle amendments on the emergence and
growth of subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) with particular reference to water
relations. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research. 1966; 17: 657-672.
154. Campbell DJ, Fox WE, Aitken RL and Bell LC. Physical characteristics of sands amended
with fly ash. Australian Journal of Soil Research. 1983; 21: 147-154.
155. Chang AC, Lund LJ, Page AL and Warnecke JE. Physical properties of fly ash amended
soils. Journal of Environmental Quality. 1977; 6: 267-270.
156. Parish SB. The effect of cement dust on citrus trees. Plant World. 1910; 13: 288-291.
157. Sadhana Chaurasia, Ashwani Karwariya and Anand Dev Gupta, Impact of Cement Industry
Pollution on Morphological Attributes of Wheat (Triticum species) Kodinar, Gujarat, India.
Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology. 2014; 8: 84- 89.
158. Lotschert W and Kohm, HJ. Characteristics of tree bark as an indicator in high emissions
areas. Oecologia. 1977; 27: 47-64.