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Fire risk reduction on the margins of an urbanizing world
Abstract
Purpose
Globally, over 95% of fire related deaths and injuries occur in low- and middle-income countries. Within informal settlements, the risk of fire resulting in injury or death is particularly high. This paper examines fire risks in informal settlements in New Delhi and Cape Town, and tented informal settlements in Lebanon.
Design/methodology/approach
Our analysis draws on primary sources, secondary literature, statistical data and qualitative interviews.
Findings
The distribution of fire risk across urban societies is a fundamentally political issue. Residential fire risk can be tackled by accessible, affordable, safety-compliant housing. That said, important interim measures can be taken to mitigate fire risk. Some of the risks requiring attention are similar across our case studies, driven by high population densities; flammable housing materials; unreliable or inaccessible access to safe power sources; and – in the case of Cape Town and New Delhi particularly – the inability of fire services to reach sites of fire. However, these common risks are embedded in distinct social, economic and political contexts that must be placed at the center of any intervention. Interventions must also be aware that the risk of fire is not spread evenly within informal settlements, intersecting as it does with factors like gender, age, health and disability.
Originality/value
Informal settlement fires have been under-studied to date. The studies that do exist tend to operate within disciplinary silos. This paper represents an important interdisciplinary approach to fire within informal settlements, which grounds technical data, modeling and experiments in political, social and economic realities.
... Uncontrolled informal dwelling fires are a significant threat to the lives and well-being of poor communities across the Global South (Rush et al. 2020), where over 1 billion people live in densely populated informal settlements (United Nations 2022, p. 18). Dwelling fires cause more than 150,000 deaths annually, with over 95% of deaths and burn injuries occurring in low and middle-income countries (WHO 2018). ...
... In September 2020, for example, a fire swept through one of Greece's largest migrant camps on Lesbos, destroying nearly 13,000 people's dwellings (BBC News 2020). In addition to avoidable deaths, injuries, and trauma, such fires further impoverish already socioeconomically vulnerable households (Pharoah 2009;Raphela 2011;Twigg et al. 2017;Rush et al. 2020), signaling an urgent need for interventions to reduce the incidence of fires and protect lives and property. ...
... In addition to CO, toxic gases released by synthetic materials, such as upholstered furniture, are the most common cause of death during fires (Stec 2017). Poor ventilation in informal dwellings also increases the risk of asphyxiation associated with smoldering fires (Walls et al. 2020). Thus, if a potential fire can be detected during the smoldering stage, before flames appear, this reduces the risk of asphyxiation and provides time and an opportunity to escape or extinguish fires before they burn out of control, thus preventing deaths and injuries, and reducing the spread and impact of fires (Zweig et al. 2018). ...
This article presents the findings of a pilot project to test the large-scale rollout of smoke alarms in an informal community in Cape Town, South Africa. The work provides novel insight into the effectiveness and challenges associated with using smoke detectors in low-income communities. Technical details and detector considerations are also provided that will assist in enhancing future interventions. The project installed 1200 smoke detection devices in TRA informal settlement in the suburb of Wallacedene, in the City of Cape Town, and monitored their effectiveness for a period of 12 months. The monitoring showed that there were 11 real activations, where the presence of the devices likely saved lives and homes. The project also identified a series of challenges, especially in relation to nuisance alarms, where everyday household emissions, dust, and insect ingress caused false alarms, leading some participants to uninstall devices. The findings of the pilot study suggest that although smoke detectors could provide a valuable tool for reducing the frequency and impact of informal settlement fires in South Africa and elsewhere, they need to be adapted to meet the specific needs and conditions encountered in informal dwellings. Modifications, such as adjusting device sensitivity, preventing dust and insect ingress and tailoring devices to everyday conditions, will be essential to make smoke alarms more suitable and effective in the future. Smoke alarms could become an important component of low-income community fire safety if such challenges can be addressed.
... Open flame sources (for cooking, heating, and lighting) and overloaded or poorly maintained (and often illegal) electrical connections are the most prevalent causes of fires in informal settlements. In the case of informal settlements, fire risk also depends on socioeconomic status and political involvement [39,45,46]. Fires in informal settlements are complicated sociotechnical phenomena involving a mix of fire dynamics, structural response, and human behavior [47]. ...
... Due to the fact that informal settlements fundamentally do not comply with norms of practice for construction items, it is challenging to create a code for suppression materials [41]. Thus, fire risk reduction requires multidisciplinary approaches from engineering and social sciences [1,2,40,41,45,90,91]. It is essential to evaluate the effective fire suppression elements considering Dhaka city's informal settlement condition [41,91]. ...
... Earthquake and fire preparedness training has been initiated [97]. However, the available training and fire preparedness planning should be updated following current and previous related research [1,2,40,41,45,90,91]. ...
Fire hazards have become increasingly widespread in urban settings. Despite numerous fatalities and injuries, there is a dearth of information in Bangladesh about public preparedness for fire hazards, particularly in informal settlements. This study aims to ascertain an individual’s holistic fire preparedness level in informal settlements of Bangladesh’s capital, Dhaka. A total of 530 respondents participated in a face-to-face field survey. We have performed, where appropriate, Kruskal–Wallis or Mann–Whitney U tests, Spearman’s rank correlation, and ordinal logistic regression analysis. The study population reported frequent fires in their area (36%), while the majority (> 85%) did not participate in any fire preparedness program. While 71% had previously encountered a fire, only 15% were familiar with fire equipment. Approximately 25% of the study population was aware of fire safety protocols and an emergency evacuation plan in the event of a fire. Over 80% of the people lacked emergency supplies in the event of a fire, including cash, emergency equipment, food and water, and emergency supply kits. They also indicated poor technological integration. Many of them did not have emergency contact numbers (65%), their house did not have an emergency communication system (83%), and they were unaware of contacting fire brigades and local authorities during fires (58%). The field survey results indicate females are less prepared to respond to fires than males. Respondents’ location, the self-rating status of their current place’s safety against fire, and participation in fire occurrence-related preparedness activities were associated with holistic individual fire preparedness. Thus, authorities should examine these factors while determining how to strengthen fire preparedness. Fire preparedness campaigns and effective education are required to ensure the competence of holistic fire preparedness.
... Thus, people are bound to live in low-slung housing or within informal settlements. Urban fires are examples of a global problem which the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction calls "an extensive risk," i.e., a broad-based risk [16] "of repetitive or persistent low or modest hazard conditions, often very localized in nature, leading to weakening cumulative effects" [17]. This issue is mostly ignored as a policy issue, partly because of a lack of accurate information on the national and local incidence and effects, coupled with insufficient financial, technical, and manual capacity to act in a way that reduces the fire risk [14], [18]. ...
... Studies have been carried out to find effective strategies for managing different forms of disasters and are being suggested and addressed. As the informal settlements are illegitimate or impermanent and not planned or legalized by the state, it means informal settlements can be planned and formed by inhabitants in different ways [16]. This review focuses on accidental fires which is caused by naturally and unnaturally within the informal settlements or low quality building. ...
... Several studies (n=3) were conducted in the United States of America (USA); [28], [29], [41], USA and Turkey; [36], studies (n=4) were conducted in China; [38], [42], [44], [46], (n=3) in South Africa; [32], [34], [40], (n=2) in Tanzania; [43], [47], the residue initiated from Australia; [49] [30]. One study is conducted in more than two countries including New Delhi, Cape town, Lebanon; [16]. ...
Global policies on fire disaster management have highlighted individual and community responsibilities and roles in managing risk and promoting coping capacity. The establishment of local preparedness techniques is viewed as a vital element in real response and rescue. The main purpose of the paper is to review. This review paper represents a synthesis of available literature on emergency fire disaster preparedness published between 2000 and 2020, based on eligibility criteria. We performed a systematic search using electronic as well as manual methods for published articles. After that, we identified fire preparedness planning and management strategies suitable for developing countries like Bangladesh context. However, people require sufficient knowledge, motivation, and resources to engage in preparedness management activities. Public involvement has now been acknowledged as one of the main factors in reducing fire disaster risk. Fire disaster management from probable reaction, comprehensive risk reduction culture, and the capability of disaster management system in refining the response and recovery management can help to mitigate the challenges in Bangladesh. So, the target is to build resilience through improved disaster risk reduction policies and practices, and similarly maintain and improve capacity fire services. Furthermore, studies are needed to analyze the conditional cash transfer interventions to prevent fire disasters in Bangladesh and other countries that would provide better evidence. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 International License.
... The third study [19] discusses the political, social, and economic circumstances in which fire risk is experienced. It studies how the lack of planning and poor materials; type of energy used for cooking, heating, and other related needs; and lack of accessibility and communication can lead to more fires and crises in RCs. ...
... These studies, related to SDG11, discussed indirectly how SDG11 is connected to SDGs (1-10), SDG13, SDG16, and SDG17. The four studies [17][18][19][20] concluded that the social-political-economic aspects for each settlement are complex, and both Jahre et al. [18] and Rush et al. [19] confirmed that one solution does not fit all. However, all studies under this category conclude that political aspects are the most effective factor in this situation. ...
... These studies, related to SDG11, discussed indirectly how SDG11 is connected to SDGs (1-10), SDG13, SDG16, and SDG17. The four studies [17][18][19][20] concluded that the social-political-economic aspects for each settlement are complex, and both Jahre et al. [18] and Rush et al. [19] confirmed that one solution does not fit all. However, all studies under this category conclude that political aspects are the most effective factor in this situation. ...
Many studies have stated the results of interventions presented in refugee camps to improve the quality of refugees’ lives and reduce their suffering. However, there has been no formal systematic review and meta-analysis comparing the evidence of the relative effectiveness of these interventions along with sustainability and the current 2030 Agenda. We developed a comprehensive search strategy designed to identify all peer-reviewed articles that presented interventions related to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in a refugee camp setting. We examined only articles with a specific focus on development goals. We screened the titles and, where necessary, the abstracts of 1108 publications. Seventy-two studies were judged to contain relevant evidence and were reviewed in detail. Data were extracted from these studies and pooled by meta-analysis to provide summary estimates of the effectiveness of existing procedures. Health and education sectors were the most frequently discussed SDGs. Results and recommendations from included studies were categorized into seven sectors: planning, development, and shelters; health and well-being; education; water and sanitation; energy; work and economic growth; and others. In order to improve the quality of life of refugees and internally displaced persons living in camps, more research that addresses both SDGs and camp planning and management is needed. This study is the first review found in the literature to report on sustainability in refugee camps.
... In many countries, deaths and injuries due to fire in urban areas have been reduced by more equitable infrastructure, more affordable and accessible formal housing, and the provision of state services, including urban planning, professional fire-fighting services, and building regulations (Rush et al. 2020). Such developments have proved more challenging in low-and-middle-income countries, where 95% of the world's fire deaths and morbidity remain (WHO 2018). ...
... Across the nation, informal settlements fires occur daily in South Africa (Rush et al. 2020), and conflagrations that destroy many dwellings occur with disturbing regularity. Although statistics on fire are limited in scope and quality (Twigg et al. 2017), they indicate that fire instance and its impact are substantial. ...
... In recent years, there has been a growing interest in exploring fire risk and reduction within informal settlements. This interest is welcome, but interventions will only be successful to the degree that they take people's lived realities in such settlements seriously (Chance 2018;Rush et al. 2020). ...
Informal settlements present a challenge for fire safety because they lack the regulation of building standards that have been central to reducing fire risks elsewhere. Rather than being the product of specialist designers (such as architects and engineers), constrained by regulation, informal settlement dwellings are instead predominantly the work of their occupants. Thus, the design and construction of informal settlement structures can be understood as a result of proximal design by the residents themselves – drawing on the concept proposed by Usenyuk et al. in their 2016 paper “Proximal Design: Users as Designers of Mobility in the Russian North.” This paper applies, and critiques, the proximal design concept through a focus on the informal settlement fire problem in South Africa. Our case study points to weaknesses in the way that Usenyuk et al. apply the concept of proximal design. Not only do Usenyuk et al. emphasize that proximal design involves mastery of a severe environment, but they also fail to give sufficient attention to the social context. Although a focus on proximal design provides insights into the informal settlement fire problem, it is vital that the focus on proximate activities does not obscure the importance of broader societal factors.
... As shown in Figure 1, fire spread in IS is also unique due to the high dwelling proximity in these settlements, the presence of combustibles between the dwellings, high fuel loads which affects the size of the external plumes, and the effect of vegetation and topography (e.g., wind and land slope) [3,7]. ...
... As shown in Figure 1, fire spread in IS is also unique due to the high dwelling proximity in these settlements, the presence of combustibles between the dwellings, high fuel loads which affects the size of the external plumes, and the effect of vegetation and topography (e.g., wind and land slope) [3,7]. [2] in 2018 emphasizing the size of the external plume from vertical openings (doors and window) and leakage at joins of walls and roofs. ...
According to recent UN reports, it is estimated that more than one billion people live in informal settlements globally, exposing them to a large potential fire risk. In previous research, it was found that the main fire spread mechanism between dwellings is the external flaming (plume) and radiative heat fluxes from the vertical openings at the dwelling of origin to the surroundings. In this paper, an experimental and numerical study was conducted to quantify the effect of adding horizontal roof openings to the design of informal settlement dwellings to reduce the fire spread risk by decreasing the length of flames and radiation from the external plumes at the vertical openings. In total, 19 quarter scale ISO-9705 compartment fire experiments were conducted using an identical fuel load (80 MJ/m2) of polypropylene and were used to validate a physical computational fluid dynamics model for future studies. Five different total horizontal openings areas (0.0025, 0.01, 0.04, 0.09, and 0.16 m2) were investigated using two horizontal openings designs: (1) four square openings at the four corners of the compartment and (2) one slot cut at the middle of the compartment. It was found that adding horizontal openings decreased the average heat flux measured at the door by up to 65% and 69% for corner and slot cases, respectively. Heat flux reductions were achieved at opening areas as low as 0.01 m2 for slot cases, whereas reductions were only achieved at areas of at least 0.09 m2 for corner cases. The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model was validated using the experimental results. It successfully captured the main fire dynamics within the compartment in addition to the values of the external radiative heat flux. Further, a new empirical ventilation factor was generated to describe the flow field through both openings configurations which showed strong coupling with the inlet mass of fresh air to the compartment.
... Through-drawer structures with good ventilation also contributed to the extent of fire spread [26]. Currently, the main focus is on the assessment of fire risk and the application of modern fire prevention techniques and proposed fire rescue measures (Table 1) involving historical towns [27][28][29], single dwellings, heritage temples [30,31], bridges [32,33], and villages [34][35][36]. This is the first quantitative study of traditional fire prevention strategies in ancient dwellings. ...
Ancient villages are precious architectural treasures that have been protected from fire hazards for centuries through traditional fire prevention strategies. However, research on traditional fire response strategies is limited, with existing studies mainly focusing on climate response strategies, conservation, and renewal. No prior research has revealed the quantitative fire response strategies used for ancient buildings. This paper takes the first ancient village in western Hunan, High-Chair village, as an example, and it (1) assesses the fire risk of High-Chair village; (2) determines the traditional fire response strategies of the ancient village, including fire prevention culture, residential layout, wall forms, and fire resistant materials; and (3) uses CFD simulation to reveal and verify the science and rationale of the traditional patio layout and hill wall forms. The study suggests utilizing CFD simulation to quantitatively assess and validate fire response strategies. Such knowledge of fire prevention can provide fire mitigation solutions for rural construction.
... Fires can occur due to various factors, including natural factors such as dry weather and human factors such as errors in using electrical equipment or uncontrolled waste burning (Lu, et al, 2020). The development of urban areas also increases vulnerability to fires, especially in areas with high population density and semi-permanent buildings (Rush et al, 2020). Therefore, assessing the vulnerability to fire disasters in urban areas is essential to help plan and implement effective and efficient mitigation measures. ...
At least 617 cases of fire disasters were recorded in Balikpapan City from 2010 to 2020. In response, fire disaster mitigation is still a problem, especially in dense residential areas and unclean environments. One of the sub-districts with the characteristics of dense settlements and a history of fire incidents is Karang Rejo Village. This condition can be an obstacle in disaster mitigation. Therefore, it is necessary to identify appropriate mitigation efforts for this sub-district. Vulnerability assessment can be an essential first step to reducing the impact and losses of a fire disaster. The purpose of this study is to formulate fire disaster mitigation based on the level of vulnerability in Karang Rejo Village, Central Balikpapan District, using the spatial multi-criteria analysis method. The research results obtained are structural fire disaster mitigation at low, medium, and high vulnerability by mitigating aspects of building density, percentage of built-up areas, building materials, the width of access roads, availability of water reservoirs, availability of vacant land, the portion of households working in the informal sector, and the ratio of poor people.
... It is estimated that an annual migration of 70 million individuals into metropolitan regions takes place [2], with much of this increase happening in the global south during the previous several decades. As urban populations expanded, an increasing number of people were compelled to reside in inadequate informal settlements (the term informal settlement covers all the settlements that do not have legal state permission to exist [3]). In South Africa, for instance, informal settlements (IS) account for roughly 13% of all households, or about 2.19 million out of 16.9 million [4], whereas in Brazil, it is estimated that over 11 million people, or about 6% of the entire population, live in IS [5]. ...
Previous full-scale fire studies revealed that the role of wind on fire spread between informal settlement dwellings was critical. However, the influence of wind conditions on informal settlement dwellings fire spread is currently understudied in the literature. This study aimed to investigate the effect of external wind conditions on fire spread between two informal settlement dwellings with a distance of 1 meter between them. A parametric numerical analysis was performed using the computational fluid dynamics code Fire Dynamics Simulator. The numerical models were benchmarked through laboratory experiments. The investigation included an analysis of the fire spread mechanism, flashover conditions, and heat transfer processes at the boundaries of the dwellings. Simulations were conducted with burning wood cribs as fuel and three wind speeds (6 m/s, 10 m/s, and 14 m/s) with four wind directions (East, West, South, and North). Results showed that wind speed and direction had a significant impact on the fire dynamics of the origin dwelling and its spread to neighboring dwellings. The wind direction also influenced the time to flashover in both dwellings, with a delay observed when the wind flowed through the alley between the two dwellings. The total heat transfer coefficient was found to be directly proportional to the wind speed for all directions. The internal radiative heat transfer coefficient of one wall was found to represent the total heat transfer coefficient in different scenarios. This study highlights the complexity of determining the role of wind in urban fire spread and underscores the need for further research in this area.
... First, there are shared environmental health risks associated with informal settlements including air pollution (Arora et al., 2018), insufficient access to safe water and sanitation (Kamau & Njiru, 2018;Richmond et al., 2018), and risks associated with living on marginal land (Cui et al., November 2018). There are also health risks to living in unsafe homes, such as heat injuries (Mukhopadhyay et al., December 2020), injury from poor construction (Rush et al., 2020), and health issues associated with dampness and mold (Alaazi & Aganah, 2020) or indoor cooking practices (Elsey et al., 2016). Finally, due to the high population densities in informal communities there is increased risk for transmission of communicable diseases (Oppong et al., 2015). ...
In 2018, the UN estimated that 23.5% of the world’s urban population was living in informal settlements by United Nations (The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2019, 2021). This number is projected to increase as urbanization rates continue to rise in locations where governments cannot keep pace with infrastructure and housing developments. The populations living in these informal settlements face unique health challenges; slum health is an understudied subject when compared against rural health, urban health, and poverty and health. The current literature lacks a focused analysis of research on the health of women living in informal settlements. This population is of particular concern due women’s unique need for reproductive health care, the health impacts of work done by women, and the disadvantages women face due to gender discrimination and violence. This study reviewed and summarized publications from the past 10 years focused on the health of women living in informal settlements in Sub-Saharan Africa. This review also included analysis of study location, spatial scale, health focus, and characteristics of the study population. Results from this review provide insight into topics and locations where future research is needed to address health disparities of women living in slums.
... Nowadays, many studies on IS fires have been carried out, including fire dynamics [2][3][4], human behaviors [5,6], fire detection [7] and fire investigation [8]. When it comes to fire risk, David Rush et al. have examined fire risks in IS in New Delhi, Cape Town and Lebanon, based on literature, statistical data and qualitative interviews [9]; Natalia Flores Quiroz et al. have obtained fire risk perception of the IS complex inhabitants with surveys to comprehend why the fire started [10]; Richard et al. have qualitatively presented an appraisal of various interventions and strategies to improve fire safety in IS in South Africa [11]; Isabela et al. have assessed the fire exposure and risks in IS in Tanzania, mainly based on interviews [12]; Morrissey and Taylor have analyzed the factors influencing the fire risk in the IS in Cape 2 of 18 Town qualitatively [13]. In addition to fires, considering other disasters, such as flooding or earthquake, some studies have also analyzed the comprehensive risks in IS [14][15][16][17]. ...
The specific risk assessment of Informal Settlements (IS) is important for the management of IS and protection of environmental safety and public health. In this paper, we introduced the different types of IS in China, and conducted the fire risk assessment on 26 burning buildings in these IS, providing a semi-quantitative and dynamic fire risk perception of IS in China for the readers. Two methods, the risk index and the Bayesian network, are proposed and adopted for the fire risk assessment in IS. First, a risk index system with totally 69 factors is used to assess the degree of fire risk of buildings in IS semi-quantitatively, and the result shows that fire equipment and fire safety management on IS are seriously lacking. Then, a Bayesian network of building fire risk with totally 66 nodes was established to dynamically assess the fire risk from ignition to spread as well as the safety evacuation. Overall, the possibility of ignition is high, but due to the role of fire equipment and fire protection design, the possibilities of the fire from ignition to spread is gradually reduced. Finally, we also put forward some feasible suggestions for occupants in IS, community organizations and emergency managers to reduce the fire risk from the aspects of fire equipment and fire safety management.
... Kültürel miraslar için risk türleri hızlı gelişen tehlikelere bağlı oluşan afetlerden (büyük depremler, seller, yangınlar ve silahlı çatışmalar gibi) kademeli ve kümülatif süreçlere yani yavaş gelişen risklere kadar değişiklik gösterir. Birleşmiş Milletler Afet Riskini Azaltma Ofisi (UNDRR), tarafından hazırlanan Afet Riskinin Azaltılması Hakkındaki Küresel Değerlendirme Raporu 2015(GAR 2015)'a göre yangınlar dünya üzerinde tarihi yapılara hasar veren en büyük tehlike olarak tanımlanmaktadır (GAR, 2015) (GAR, 2019) (Rush, D. et al. 2019). ...
... Floods and landslides, especially in developing and tropical countries, are among the most frequent disasters in the world [17][18][19][20]. Informal settlements do not escape this trend and are normally affected by hydrometeorological/climatic hazards (floods, landslides, droughts) and eventually to fires [21][22][23][24][25]. Dozens of countries have limited or scarce data to estimate differentiated risk levels at the informal settlement scale. ...
More than a billion people live in informal settlements worldwide. Their high exposure and
vulnerability increase the risk of disaster in their lives. Global changes challenge the capacity to seek practical and quick solutions for the most disadvantaged groups. Most people in Costa Rica reside in the Greater Metropolitan Area (GAM, or Gran Área Metropolitana in Spanish), and nearly half of the informal settlements of the country are also located there. This paper aims to determine the disaster risk of every informal settlement of the GAM in Costa Rica. The study merges the official information that is available to calculate the hazard, exposure, vulnerability, and the risk levels of every informal settlement in the GAM. Moreover, a risk index for informal settlements in the GAM was created using a Pearson correlation technique, normalizing, and spatially distributing the results in three groups (high, medium, and low). The study outputs indicate that municipalities with a greater number of informal settlements also concentrate the higher risk unit’s percentage. Moreover, a direct statistical relationship is present between the historical number of disaster events in the municipalities with more informal settlements. The urban context proves useful to apply a methodology that could
determine the disaster risk level of informal settlements in less-developed countries where baseline information for hazard, exposure, and vulnerability calculation is usually scarce, limited, or low in quality. This research shows the conditions of dozens of countries belonging to the Global South and constitutes a useful example for all of the stakeholders of disaster risk reduction worldwide.
... In the last few years, researchers have shown interest in understanding informal settlements dwelling (ISD) fires. The focus has been on (a) full-scale experimental work [1][2][3][4][5][6] (which includes a standardized ISD fire test and multiple dwellings fire experiments), (b) fire risk in ISs [7][8][9][10][11], and (c) the analysis of real informal settlement (IS) fire incidents [12][13][14][15][16]. The analysis of real fire incidents has provided information pertaining to fire spread mechanisms and factors that influence the fire spread to adjacent dwellings and spread rates (e.g., wind, topography, firefighting efforts) [12,14]. ...
... This has led to a growing number of informal settlement fire research projects, which have been primarily focused on understanding (a) fire risk and (b) fire dynamics of the phenomena through full-scale experiments. Rush et al. [2] studied the fire risks similarities and differences between ISs in New Delhi, Cape Town and in Lebanon. The fire risks in ISs in Cape Town have been studied in depth by Refs. ...
In recent years, there has been a growing number of projects on informal settlement (IS) fire research, which has been primarily focused on understanding the fire dynamics in IS through full-scale experiments. However, much less is known about real IS fire incidents. Recently, a Framework for Fire Investigations in Informal Settlements (FFIIS) was developed. However, the FFIIS has not been applied to real IS fire incidents yet. This paper seeks to conduct fire investigations by applying the FFIIS to three real fire events. One of them was recorded by a CCTV camera and was analysed in depth in previous work. The video footage was used to benchmark the findings obtain using the FFIIS. The application of the FFIIS allows one to develop hypotheses that more accurately define the area of fire origin and pattern formation sequence. This implies that the fire pattern for large post-flashover fires in ISs can be treated as wildland fires pattern, as proposed by the FFIIS. Additionally, spread rates and the impact of dwellings’ separation distances, in these incidents, are studied. Understanding the limitations and the quality of the information that can be obtained when applying the FFIIS is fundamental to improve the guidelines proposed.
... In work somewhat similar to this paper, but on a much larger scale and without video footage available, Kahanji et al. [7] analysed the fire spread of the real informal settlement fire that occurred in Imizamo Yethu in 2017, where 2194 homes were destroyed. Rush et al. [8] discussed similarities and differences between IS fires in South Africa and those occurring in New Delhi, India, along with tented camps in Lebanon. ...
Informal settlements (IS) (also known as slums, shantytowns, ghettos, etc.) regularly experience fires. There has been an increasing interest in understanding fire dynamics in ISs. However, research has tended to focus on theories developed or based on idealized experiments rather than analysing real fire incidents, primarily because of the difficulty in obtaining data from real events. This work describes a recent fire incident that took place in an IS in South Africa. The analysis is based on the recording of a transit CCTV camera that captured the entire fire incident, the Fire & Rescue Service Incident Report and interviews conducted with the firefighters who responded to the incident. The footage provides high quality data allowing for novel analysis and understanding of such events never previously attainable. In a period of 33 minutes, an estimated 42 dwellings were affected at an average burning rate of 1.2 m/min and 15.45 m2/min. This paper describes (a) the fire spread, (b) the human behaviour, and (c) firefighters’ response and operations. The study of such incidents allows for a detailed understanding and development of policy for safety during urban environment large-scale fires. Additionally, improved interventions, firefighter strategies, community layouts, and response strategies can be developed for low-income communities.
... IS growth is mostly concentrated in the Global South (GS) and more specifically in Africa, South East Asia and South America. In 2050, it is estimated that IS populations will rise to 1.2 billion, which will increase the dwellings density in these settlements and, as a direct result, will increase the fire risks [1]. ...
Characterising the risk of the fire spread in informal settlements relies on the ability to understand compartment fires with boundary conditions that are significantly different to normal residential compartments. Informal settlement dwellings frequently have thermally thin and leaky boundaries. Due to the unique design of these compartments, detailed experimental studies were conducted to understand their fire dynamics. This paper presents the ability of FDS to model these under-ventilated steel sheeted fire tests. Four compartment fire tests were modelled with different wall boundary conditions, namely sealed walls (no leakage), non-sealed walls (leaky), leaky walls with cardboard lining, and highly insulated walls; with wood cribs as fuel and ISO-9705 room dimensions. FDS managed to capture the main fire dynamics and trends both qualitatively and quantitatively. However, using a cell size of 6 cm, the ability of FDS to accurately model the combustion at locations with high turbulent flows (using the infinitely fast chemistry mixing controlled combustion model), and the effect of leakage, was relatively poor and both factors should be further studied with finer LES filter width. Using the validated FDS models, new flashover criteria for thermally thin compartments were defined as a combination of critical hot gas layer and wall temperatures. Additionally, a parametric study was conducted to propose an empirical correlation to estimate the onset Heat Release Rate required for flashover, as current knowledge fails to account properly for large scale compartments with thermally thin boundaries. The empirical correlation is demonstrated to have an accuracy of ≈ ± 10% compared with the FDS models.
... However, IS fires are not only a challenge in South Africa, but all over the world, and settlements are growing fast. 5,6 UN Habitat estimates that by 2050 there will be 1.2 billion informal settlement dwellers in Africa alone. 7 Hence, informal settlements are here to stay, and they will grow. ...
Informal settlements are growing rapidly, and in Africa they are likely to double in size within the coming few decades. Informal settlements (IS) (also known by names such as slums, ghettos, favelas and shantytowns) are typically dense, and people’s homes are built from highly combustible materials. Hence, when a fire breaks out it can spread rapidly, leaving thousands homeless. Every year in South Africa fires are affecting large numbers of people, costing municipalities millions of rands (ZAR), and are severely hindering the upliftment of the poorest in our communities.
This guideline seeks to provide a holistic approach to improving fire safety for communities. It is important to realise that this complex problem can only be improved by a multi-sectoral response addressing various issues such as: reducing the risk of ignition, providing early warning systems, having community involvement, having well-resourced and well-prepared fire departments, reducing the combustible nature of homes, and many other similar factors.
The audience of this book is broad in that it seeks to assist fire departments, local municipalities, national government, engineers, town planners and non-governmental organisations involved in IS fire safety. This work initially provides an understanding of communities living in settlements, as often interventions overlook the daily reality of these people which leads to interventions being ineffective. Fire behaviour, fire spread and fire safety engineering is then discussed, and it is shown how this can be applied to ISs. This is done to dispel many common myths, and to show what can, and can’t, improve fire safety. To understand IS fire incidents a timeline of a typical fire incident is provided, along with a case study on the 2017 Imizamo Yethu disaster. Many interventions, strategies and devices are discussed, looking at what could be adopted to improve fire safety. It is important to realise that a basket of solutions is typically needed, and a single intervention may have a very limited impact. A list of tasks that communities can undertake before, during and after a fire incident provides a useful resource for organisations working with communities.
Ultimately there is no easy solution to this problem. However, through a concerted, evidence-based approach significant fire safety improvements can be made to help the poorest in our land.
... Statistics available for fires in Cape Town over the period [2009][2010][2011][2012][2013][2014][2015] show that the average fire extended to less than 7 dwellings [8]. Yet, the city's informal settlements still experienced at least one fire involving 20 or more dwellings per week on average [9]. There is a clear discrepancy between daily small fires and the less-frequent large fires which can destroy hundreds of homes. ...
Informal settlements are home to approximately one billion people globally and are growing due to rapid urbanisation in less economically developed countries. Their dense layouts, often combined with light, combustible building materials make them highly vulnerable to fires. In some cases fires have spread through hundreds or thousands of homes in a single fire, rendering the inhabitants homeless. Tackling this issue requires a sound understanding of the many spatial factors which can contribute to fire spread between individual dwellings and into the wider settlement. This paper presents initial methods for assessing and quantifying fire risk in informal settlements due to a variety of spatial factors in the case of Cape Town, South Africa – a city which has a notable history of devastating informal settlement fires. GIS techniques were used to obtain data to build a model for the quantification of risk imposed by the settlement layout with respect to three key metrics; dwelling spacing, edge density and critical patch size. The results of the risk model and data of past fires suggest that the settlement layout is a critical factor in determining the ability of large fires to establish within a settlement. A framework for additional infrastructural and environmental risk is also presented, identifying the need for a wide-ranging interdisciplinary approach to the problem of urban fires.
... With the increase of urban populations and the increasing frequency of informal settlement fires in areas such as Cape Town; deaths and morbidity are likely to increase. There is an imperative, therefore, to understand better and mitigate against these fire risks whilst being sympathetic to their complex social and political structures [5,6]. ...
Approximately one billion people globally live in informal settlements with a large potential fire risk, where a single dwelling fire may result in a very large urban conflagration leaving hundreds, if not thousands, of people homeless. What is not well understood, however, is how fires in informal settlement dwellings develop and spread, and what influence the dwelling boundary has on these two areas. In this work, four different real-scale compartments were constructed and ignited under a large fire calorimeter hood. The cases include a typical thin metal-walled dwelling (baseline), a no leakage dwelling, a dwelling lined with cardboard and a dwelling with highly insulated walls. The fuel locations, fuel loads of 25 kg/m², ignition method and ambient conditions were kept identical in four experiments. Important parameters of compartment fire development, such as heat release rate, gas temperatures, fuel mass loss rate, wall and ceiling temperature were recorded. To investigate the fire spread mechanism between dwellings, the incident radiation heat flux around the dwellings and projection flame length were measured as well. It was found that the boundary conditions in informal settlement significantly affect the fire dynamics and fire spread of informal settlement, and that current analytical/empirical equations are not capturing accurately experimental observations.
Bu makale, Türkiye'de itfaiye birimlerine posta yolu ile uygulanan "itfaiye en-vanter çalışması"nın betimsel analizine dayanmaktadır. Çalışmanın gerçekleşti-rildiği Türkiye Ortadoğu Amme İdaresi Enstitüsü (TODAİE), Cumhurbaşkanlığı Kararnamesi ile 2018'de kapatıldığında, başka şeylerle birlikte raporu henüz ta-mamlanmış İtfaiye Envanter Çalışması da bir belirsizlik içinde kalmıştır. İtfaiye Envanter Çalışması, Türkiye'de itfaiye istatistiklerinin tutulmaması nedeniyle, itfaiye istatistiklerini derlenen ilk çalışmadır. Bu makalede, sözü edilen çalış-manın 30 büyükşehir ile sınırlı verilerinin betimsel analizine yer verilmiştir. Bu tercihin nedeni, büyükşehir itfaiyelerinin 2016 tarihli verilerini test etme olana-ğının bulunmasıdır. Araştırmada, itfaiye hizmeti üç boyutta kavranmıştır. Bun-lardan ilki altyapıdır; istasyon ve araç sayısı değişkenleri ile ölçülmüştür. İkinci boyut, iş gücüdür; bu boyut altında personel sayısı ile personel eğitimi üzerinde durulmuştur. Son boyut ise hizmet üretim sürecidir; bu boyut kapsamında farklı yangın türlerine müdahale yöntemleri ve iş akış süreci kavranmaya çalışılmış-tır. Posta yoluyla uygulanan anket çalışması üç bölümden meydana glemiştir.
Fires in informal settlements are devastating to residents of these precarious urban environments. This paper highlights the use of spatial metrics and wind speed and direction for fire spread risk identification for informal settlement fires in Cape Town. Data on: fire incidents, dwelling footprints, and the wind conditions during a fire, are analysed both together and separately. Fire incidence data analysed with wind data reveals that the majority of fires occur in December with the most destructive fires taking place during moderate wind conditions. At higher wind speeds, the distance between the flame and adjacent dwelling is not reduced but the flame height is, leading to reduced radiation. Also, convective cooling at higher wind speeds increases the time-to-ignition and flashover of the adjacent dwelling. Analysis of dwelling data reveals that the average and standard deviation of distance to the first nearest neighbour together with edge density can be used to identify areas at risk of fire spread. A threshold approach using the distance to a dwelling's first nearest neighbour together with the range in distance from the dwelling's first to third nearest neighbours allow for the identification of specific dwellings within a settlement which are at risk of fire spread.
Complexity is the main feature of many fire-prone environments, in which the fire regime is driven by climate and socio-economic development on short and long timescales. In this study, the interaction between social and forest environments is modelled for the first time by assimilating socio-economic assets to a new flammable species with its own dynamics. This is a completely new approach that offers a new perspective to interpret shifts in fire regimes. The ten-years fire regime trend observed in Italy between 1970 and 2018, according to the model results, may be attributed to a progressive change of land use and inhabited development. The introduction of a new species adds complexity to fire dynamics and modifies the self-regulating Mediterranean forest fire regime. The results evidence that the evolution of a mosaic of natural and man-managed tiles of land may erase the "natural" chaotic fire regime, exacerbate fire frequency and increase fire risk in inhabited areas.
Large conflagrations of informal settlements occur regularly, leaving thousands of people homeless daily and taking tens of thousands of lives annually. Over the past few years, a large amount of data has been collected from a number of full-scale informal settlement fire experiments. This paper uses that data with a semi-probabilistic fire model previously proposed by the authors, to illustrate the potential applications of the fire spread method proposed. The current model is benchmarked against a 20-dwelling full-scale informal settlement fire experiment, and the effects of the (a) ignition criteria, (b) wind direction, and (c) wind speeds on the predicted fire spread rates are investigated through the use of a parametric study. Colour maps of the fire spread rates and patterns are then used to visually interpret the effects of different types of fire scenarios and fire breaks. Finally, the fire spread capability within BRISK is used to derive a linear equation for the potential fire spread rate as a function of the settlement spatial metrics (e.g., density and distance to nearest neighbour). To further illustrate the potential application of this work, the fire spread rate equation is then applied across the whole of Cape Town, South Africa, to show the 10 informal settlement areas most at "risk" of large conflagrations.
Bystanders are often the first to respond to disasters and, for this reason,
Community-Based Disaster Response Teams (CBDRTs) should be established
in vulnerable communities. The literature review examines Disaster Risk
Reduction initiatives and identifies that there is little information available
regarding strategies and training curriculum that could be used to establish and
maintain CBDRTs in developing nations and with vulnerable groups. The three
research questions for this investigation ask how CBDRT courses could be
adapted for these communities, what topics and activities would be most useful
for such training, and how the teams could be established and maintained. The
research objectives are to identify strategies that could be used to train CBDRT
groups in these contexts, to propose an outline for a basic training course, and
to describe techniques that could contribute to the sustainability of these teams.
Research was conducted with CBDRTs in developing nations using a mixed
methods methodology with the United States Federal Emergency Management
Agency’s (FEMA) Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) programme
being employed as a case study. Quantitative data was obtained from a
questionnaire completed by CERT course graduates, and qualitative
information was acquired from key informant interviews. After a review of the
CERT programme that discusses its history, curriculum, success stories, and
potential pitfalls, the data collected is presented through statistical analysis of
the questionnaire replies and thematic analysis of the interview transcripts.
Suggested CBDRT training strategies are creating courses for adolescents,
modifying the material for non-literate learners, and providing additional
practical activities. Recommendations for establishing programmes include
developing teams for young people, cooperating with Community-Based
Organisations to solve existing problems, and offering CBDRT training in the
post-disaster environment. Techniques for maintaining the teams involve
developing leadership, creating support networks, and cultivating partnerships
with local authorities. The final conclusion is that the CERT model could be
used as the basis for an international CBDRT training programme, although it
would require adaption of the course content and presentation style.
Bystanders are often the first to respond to disasters and, for this reason, Community-Based Disaster Response Teams (CBDRTs) should be established in vulnerable communities. The literature review examines Disaster Risk Reduction initiatives and identifies that there is little information available regarding strategies and training curriculum that could be used to establish and maintain CBDRTs in developing nations and with vulnerable groups. The three research questions for this investigation ask how CBDRT courses could be adapted for these communities, what topics and activities would be most useful for such training, and how the teams could be established and maintained. The research objectives are to identify strategies that could be used to train CBDRT groups in these contexts, to propose an outline for a basic training course, and to describe techniques that could contribute to the sustainability of these teams. Research was conducted with CBDRTs in developing nations using a mixed methods methodology with the United States Federal Emergency Management Agency's (FEMA) Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) programme being employed as a case study. Quantitative data was obtained from a questionnaire completed by CERT course graduates, and qualitative information was acquired from key informant interviews. After a review of the CERT programme that discusses its history, curriculum, success stories, and potential pitfalls, the data collected is presented through statistical analysis of the questionnaire replies and thematic analysis of the interview transcripts. Suggested CBDRT training strategies are creating courses for adolescents, modifying the material for non-literate learners, and providing additional practical activities. Recommendations for establishing programmes include developing teams for young people, cooperating with Community-Based Organisations to solve existing problems, and offering CBDRT training in the post-disaster environment. Techniques for maintaining the teams involve developing leadership, creating support networks, and cultivating partnerships with local authorities. The final conclusion is that the CERT model could be used as the basis for an international CBDRT training programme, although it would require adaption of the course content and presentation style. i
Thermally-thin compartment fire studies are a reasonable approach to understand fire dynamics in informal settlements, where dwellings built with such materials (e.g. steel sheets) are commonly found. Since the number of people living in informal settlements is growing (currently over 1 billion), fire safety engineering research is of major importance for reducing fire occurrence, loss of life, livelihood, and property. This work studied numerically a set of thermally-thin and thermally-thick walled small-scale (1/4 scaled ISO-9705 room) compartment fires in a wind tunnel. This work aims to understand the effect of wind on the heat release rate necessary to reach the onset of flashover (HRRfo) inside the compartment by varying the wind velocity and direction (on the side or back wall). It was found that HRRfo increased with wind velocity for both wind directions for thermally-thin boundaries, while HRRfo decreased with wind velocity for thermally-thick boundaries. It was also found that the wind effect was more significant when blowing on the side wall. It was shown that those results were caused by heat transfer losses through walls and by wind-induced pressures at the doorway; the former being the driving mechanism for thermally-thin walled compartments and the later for thermally-thick bounded compartments.
The risk of fire spread in informal settlements is significant and can be analysed as a function of the spatial arrangement of dwellings. Spatial metrics representing density and shape of dwellings are proposed as a method to identify settlements at high risk of fire spread. LiDAR data is used to map dwelling roofs for informal settlements in the City of Cape Town, South Africa. The LiDAR roof dataset is validated against a visually interpreted dataset digitised from 6 cm resolution aerial photography and is found to have an overall completeness and correctness accuracy of greater than 75% with systematic underrepresentation of roofs in the LiDAR dataset. Correlation analysis of metrics derived from the LiDAR dataset and the reference dataset indicates that only the edge density and landscape density metrics could be applied with confidence to all the settlements. These two metrics are then applied to the informal settlements of Kosovo and Imizamo Yethu. A high landscape density in combination with a low edge density is found to be indicative of fire spread risk. This study represents a first step in the development of spatial metrics for understanding informal settlement fire spread risk.
Increasing global urbanisation is leading to a rise in the number of people living in informal settlements, challenging our ability to achieve sustainable development goals. As a consequence of high building density, inadequate building methods and flammable building materials, informal settlements are highly vulnerable to the devastating impacts of fire. Databases on historic fire occurrence, location and extent are scarce, especially in the Global South. This paper explores the potential for remote sensing technologies to fill this gap. Two case studies in Cape Town representing fire of different extent and build back characteristics, are used to demonstrate that Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 data can be used to detect known historic informal settlement fire. A pixel based approach applied to Sentinel-2 band 2 reflectance and Sentinel 1 backscatter and interferometry are highlighted. The concept of spatial autocorrelation is explored with both Sentinel-2 and 1 data showing that a 3 x 3 pixel standard deviation kernel and hotspot analysis can complement the pixel approach. Further research is required to test these methods within a time series change detection algorithm to identify unknown historic informal settlement fires. .
Informal settlements are where a significant proportion of urban population find shelter in the cities of the Global South. In some cities, this settlement type is the norm and urban residence are forced into these areas due to a lack of formal housing capacity. Housing tenure in the informal sector is tenuous and the most vulnerable of this group are those who find rental housing in the sector. The idea of a slumlord within this context is one of exploitation and abuse, this study explores the slumlord tenant relationship within informal settlements in Gauteng, South Africa. The study found that there is a symbiotic relationship between landlords and tenants where the informal economy fills a gap in the low income market. While there are issues of exploitation within the informal rental market, this large, unregulated and growing sector points to a significant need for more low cost housing within the formal sector.
Fires cause over 300,000 deaths annually worldwide and leave millions more with permanent injuries: some 95% of these deaths are in low- and middle-income countries. Burn injury risk is strongly associated with low-income and informal (or slum) settlements, which are growing rapidly in an urbanising world. Fire policy and mitigation strategies in poorer countries are constrained by inadequate data on incidence, impacts, and causes, which is mainly due to a lack of capacity and resources for data collection, analysis, and modelling. As a first step towards overcoming such challenges, this project reviewed the literature on the subject to assess the potential of a range of methods and tools for identifying, assessing, and addressing fire risk in low-income and informal settlements; the process was supported by an expert workshop at University College London in May 2016. We suggest that community-based risk and vulnerability assessment methods, which are widely used in disaster risk reduction, could be adapted to urban fire risk assessment, and could be enhanced by advances in crowdsourcing and citizen science for geospatial data creation and collection. To assist urban planners, emergency managers, and community organisations who are working in resource-constrained settings to identify and assess relevant fire risk factors, we also suggest an improved analytical framework based on the Haddon Matrix.
Surabaya is a densely populated city prone to urban fires. Fire outbreaks occur annually causing billions of dollars of damage. Kelurahan Nyamplungan is part of Ampel strategic socio-cultural area. The Kelurahan experienced recurring fires with severe physical damage. High fire risk level in Kelurahan Nyamplungan is caused by high level of vulnerability and the low community capacity. Fire risk reduction through participatory mapping is an alternative to vulnerability reduction and capacity enhancement of communities through community involvement. This public outreach attempt generated fire risk maps through overlay analysis and public perception of fire risk in their neighborhood. Most of the Kelurahan fall under level 4, meaning it has high fire risk. At the end of the participatory mapping activity, public awareness towards urban fire safety increased. The community now acknowledges their need of fire safety equipment and vigilance in activities that could potentially cause a fire outbreak.
Millennial Delhi is changing rapidly. Between 1990 and 2003, 51,461 houses were demolished in Delhi under “slum clearance” schemes. Between 2004 and 2007 alone, however, at least 45,000 homes were demolished, and since the beginning of 2007, eviction notices have been served on at least three other large settlements. Fewer than 25 per cent of the households evicted in this latter time period have received any alternative resettlement sites. These evictions represent a shift not just in degree but also in kind. They were not ordered by the city's planning agency, its municipal bodies or by the city government. Instead, each was the result of a judicial ruling. What has this emergence of the judiciary into urban planning and government meant for the urban poor? This paper analyzes the dictums of verdicts on evictions in the Delhi High Court and the Supreme Court of India from 1985 to 2006. Using these judgments, it explores the “misrecognition” of the poor that became dramatically apparent in the early 1990s and that underlies and justifies evictions. This shift is then located in the larger political, economic and aesthetic transformations that are re-configuring the politics of public interest in Indian cities.
Refugee camps are exceptional places that are left to the benevolent governing of international humanitarian agencies, and offer unique opportunities to explore the making and un-making of public authority. This article examines how certain groups of young men in a refugee camp in Tanzania manage to establish public authority by relating to ideas of a Burundian moral order, while at the same time relating to the ‘development-speak’ of international relief operations. The refugees' attempts to establish public authority are highly contested and highly politicized, clashing with the relief agencies' vision of the camp as non-political. Ironically, the young men who engage in politics in the camp are also closely linked to these relief agencies in their role as brokers between the agencies and the ‘small people’. Public authority is partly produced by the powers that are delegated to them by the agencies and partly formed in the ‘gaps' in the agencies’ system. Similarly, authority rests in part on the respect that these brokers gain from other refugees — a respect that is earned in numerous ways, including outwitting the international organizations — and in part on the recognition that they get from the very same organizations. In other words, public authority rests on complex relations between legitimacy and recognition and between sovereignty and governmentality.
Fires that result in a large number of deaths and injuries are quite common in India, presenting many complex emergency management challenges. While significant improvement in disaster management has been noted in recent years, full integration of government emergency management initiatives at the provincial level is still in its infancy. This article presents the findings of a study of a school fire in India that resulted in the deaths of 93 children. The effective provincial level management of this fire, in the absence of a well-defined disaster management plan, was quite encouraging and provides guidance for other disaster managers in the country.
The purpose of the study was to analyze the factors leading to the tragedy, the response of the stakeholders, the relief and rehabilitation support provided to the affected families, and the perceptions of the affected parents regarding their level of satisfaction with the management of this disaster. Extensive visits were made to the damaged school, schools where the rescued and evacuated children were relocated, affected households, injured children, various stakeholders and institutions playing a significant role in managing the incident, and nongovernment organizations working in the field. The study methodology included structured interviews to determine the parents' level of satisfaction with the different elements of the response, participant observations, intensive interaction with the members of the affected families, and focused group discussion with different relevant government officials.
The findings indicate a high level of parent and stakeholder satisfaction in the majority of response and relief efforts associated with the disaster. Also reinforced were the importance of adherence to school safety regulations; the role of effective relief and rehabilitation; public-private partnership in disaster management; and the importance of media management, humanitarian assistance during crisis management and response, gender sensitivity in relief and rehabilitation, and services provided to reduce mental health risks for the injured children and families who lost their children in the incident.
While the participants in the study perceived the management of the disaster as highly satisfactory, several disaster management elements, particularly disaster mental health services, require further attention at all levels.
On 11 March 2017, a large fire ravaged through the Imizamo Yethu informal settlement in Cape Town, South Africa, killing four people. A total of 2194 informal dwellings were destroyed, and over 9700 people were displaced. This paper presents an analysis of the spread of the fire and factors that contributed to the conflagration. This work is based on interviews with the firefighters that responded to the incident, the disaster management incident log of the day, photographic evidence from various sources, reports in the public domain and site visits. Over 170 firefighters drawn from across the City of Cape Town's Fire and Rescue Services battled for over 13.5 h to put out one of the largest fires to have happened in a South African settlement in recent times. The efforts by firefighters to tackle the fire were hampered by several factors among them, inaccessible or narrow driveways, the absence of sufficient water supply in the area, and certain community interactions. This work is novel as in the literature there is negligible data regarding fire spread analyses in informal settlements. This has hampered the development of evidence-based responses and fire safety interventions being developed, as it is sometimes unclear how to reduce fire spread. The rate of spread during the fire is approximately calculated. By understanding fire spread rates, community interactions and suppression challenges firefighting strategies, engineering designs and municipal responses to this problem can be enhanced.
This text covers the four forms of fire: diffusion flames, smoldering, spontaneous combustion, and premixed flames. Using a quantitative approach, the text introduces the scientific principles of fire behavior, with coverage of heat transfer, ignition, flame spread, fire plumes, and heat flux as a damage variable. Cases, examples, problems, selected color illustrations and review of mathematics help students in fire safety and investigation understand fire from a scientific point of view.
This paper discusses fires in informal settlements (otherwise known as slums, ghettos, shantytowns, etc.), which are regularly ravaged by fire in South Africa. Initially an overview of the problem is presented, highlighting the factors that contribute to the frequent, large conflagrations that occur. Details have been based on research conducted in Cape Town, South Africa, although the research is applicable to settlements worldwide. Data from recent fires where up to 4500 people were left homeless is included, highlighting aspects regarding fire spread and fire dynamics. Thereafter, preliminary results from a pilot study are presented where full-scale burn tests have been carried out on informal settlement dwellings, or “shacks”. Results from (a) a smoldering fire test, (b) 25 kg/m² wood fire load test and (c) a ‘representative’ shack fire test are presented. For flaming fires it is shown that flashover in these small dwellings can occur in as little as one minute (depending on the fuel source), which is consistent with observations from professional firefighters in the field. Photoelectric smoke detectors, ionization, and rate-of-rise heat detectors were included during fire tests, to evaluate their performance in such confined spaces, as these are currently being either used or being considered for use in settlements. Activation times are reported for the different tests conducted.
In most cities today, fire has been reduced to a sporadic and isolated threat. But throughout history the constant risk of fire has left a deep and lasting imprint on almost every dimension of urban society. This volume, the first truly global study of urban conflagration, shows how fire has shaped cities throughout the modern world, from Europe to the imperial colonies, major trade entrepôts, and non-European capitals, right up to such present-day megacities as Lagos and Jakarta. Urban fire may hinder commerce or even spur it; it may break down or reinforce barriers of race, class, and ethnicity; it may serve as a pretext for state violence or provide an opportunity for displays of state benevolence. As this volume demonstrates, the many and varied attempts to master, marginalize, or manipulate fire can turn a natural and human hazard into a highly useful social and political tool. © 2012 The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. All rights reserved.
Introduction:
We aimed to describe the burden of fires in displaced persons settlements and identify interventions/innovations that might address gaps in current humanitarian guidelines.
Methods:
We performed a systematic review of: (i) academic and non-academic literature databases; and (ii) guidelines from leading humanitarian agencies/initiatives regarding fire prevention/control.
Results:
Of the 1521 records retrieved, 131 reports described settlement fires in 31 hosting countries since 1990. These incidents resulted in 487 deaths, 790 burn injuries, displacement of 382,486 individuals and destruction of 50,509 shelters. There was a 25-fold increase in the rate of settlement fires from 1990 to 2015 (0.002-0.051 per 100,000 refugees, respectively). Only 4 of the 15 leading humanitarian agencies provided recommendations about fire prevention/control strategies. Potentially useful interventions/innovations included safer stoves (e.g. solar cookers) and fire retardant shelter materials.
Conclusion:
The large and increasing number of fires in displaced persons settlements highlights the need to redress gaps in humanitarian fire prevention/control guidelines. The way forward includes: (i) developing consensus among aid agencies regarding fire prevention/control strategies; (ii) evaluating the impact of interventions/innovations on the burden of fires; and (iii) engaging agencies in a broader discussion about protecting camp residents from armed groups.
Published with ProVention Consortium, UNDP and UN-Habitat 'This excellent book is essential reading for those concerned with urban risk and its reduction in Africa, the most rapidly urbanizing region of the world.' Professor Jo Beall, Development Studies Institute, London School of Economics 'At last a book that recognizes the impacts of disasters on Africa's 350 million urban dwellers, including the many disasters that get overlooked and go unrecorded. But also a book that, through careful case studies, shows what creates disaster risk and what local measures can be taken to address it.' David Satterthwaite, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). 'This innovative volume combines the latest conceptualisations of urban disaster risk and vulnerability with case studies from across the African continent on how existing and innovative information can inform efforts to address the problems. Coverage ranges from the major catastrophes of news headlines to small, everyday disasters with which poor urban residents have to cope in their survival strategies. Written by international authorities and local specialists, this extremely useful book should find a place in the hands of academics and practitioners alike.' Professor David Simon, Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London This is a one-of-a-kind book packed with original research and offering an innovative way of thinking about the reduction of risk in rapidly urbanizing cities across the globe. It is a must-have for professionals, researchers and policy makers. The book addresses four inter-related themes critical for urban risk reduction: environment; livehood; urban governance and the generation of urban risks. Its focus is on Africa, the most rapidly urbanizing world region, but it illustrates global processes. Part one reviews development, urbanization and disaster risk in Africa as a whole, identifies state-of-the-art practices and policies for building urban resilience and provides a tool kit for urban risk reduction. It also presents a powerful conceptual framework to analyse and compare disaster risk and resilience in different cities and communities. Part two presents detailed case studies from Algeria, Ghana, Senegal, Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa illustrating vulnerability to hazards ranging from earthquake to shack fire, environmental health hazards, traffic hazards and flooding. Part three looks to the future and outlines a vision for a safer urban Africa based on achieving gains in human security through inclusive governance and investment in the creative capacities of Africa's urban dwellers. With foreword by Anna Tibaijuka, Executive Director, UN-HABITAT
Rapid urbanisation in the South has contributed to the growth of informal housing on a large scale. South Africa’s experience is somewhat unusual in that the growth of informality appears to have taken the form of backyard shacks in established townships rather than free-standing shacks in squatter settlements. This is potentially important for household well-being (e.g. better access to services) and for the efficient functioning of urban areas. The paper develops a framework for assessing the impacts and applies it to the country’s leading metropolitan region, Gauteng. It finds that people are slightly better-off in backyards than in shacks elsewhere, although the wider benefits for urban areas are equivocal. In some respects backyard shacks are a stopgap for poor households desperate for somewhere to live. In other respects they represent a kind of prototype solution to the urban housing crisis. The government could do more to improve basic dwelling conditions and to relieve the extra pressure on local services.
Although the uses and gratifications approach lacks a single general theory, it is not inherently atheoretical, and the author suggests how progress can be made in dealing with four conceptual issues facing this tradition: the nature of the "active" audience; the role of gratification orientations in mediating effects; the social origins of media needs and uses; and the interest shared with students of popular culture in perceptions of and cognitions about mass media content formed by audience members.
Hospital-based studies have suggested that fire-related deaths might be a neglected public-health issue in India. However, no national estimates of these deaths exist and the only numbers reported in published literature come from the Indian police. We combined multiple health datasets to assess the extent of the problem.
We computed age-sex-specific fire-related mortality fractions nationally using a death registration system based on medically certified causes of death in urban areas and a verbal autopsy based sample survey for rural populations. We combined these data with all-cause mortality estimates based on the sample registration system and the population census. We adjusted for ill-defined injury categories that might contain misclassified fire-related deaths, and estimated the proportion of suicides due to self-immolation when deaths were reported by external causes.
We estimated over 163 000 fire-related deaths in 2001 in India, which is about 2% of all deaths. This number was six times that reported by police. About 106 000 of these deaths occurred in women, mostly between 15 and 34 years of age. This age-sex pattern was consistent across multiple local studies, and the average ratio of fire-related deaths of young women to young men was 3:1.
The high frequency of fire-related deaths in young women suggests that these deaths share common causes, including kitchen accidents, self-immolation, and different forms of domestic violence. Identification of populations at risk and description of structural determinants from existing data sources are urgently needed so that interventions can be rapidly implemented.
Lao Urban Fire Risk Assessment Mapping in Vientiane Capital
- K Aphaylath
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Zaatari: a camp and not a city
- J Crisp
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Investigating Energy Usage Among Low Income Households and Implications for Fire Risk
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