CRAFTS AND CRAFTSMEN IN THE CHOLA EMPIRE

Abstract

The present article seeks to examine some aspects of the crafts and craftsmen pertaining to the Chola Empire (ninth to thirteenth centuries A.D). This theme is a little studied area in the history of the imperial Cholas The most important person in the Chola administration. All authority rested in his hands. He often went on tours in order to keep better touch with the administration. The king was aided and advised by a council of ministers who held office at the pleasure of the king. There was a fully developed secretariat to oversee the functioning of Central administration.

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CRAFTS AND CRAFTSMEN IN THE CHOLA EMPIRE
N. BHOOPATHI,Ph.D. Research Scholar (part – time), School of History and Tourism
Studies, Tamil Nadu Open University, No. 577, Anna Salai, Saidapet,Chennai – 600 015.
Dr. N. Dhanalakshmi, Associate Professor and Director (i/c) School of History and
Tourism Studies, Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai-15
Dr. T. Balasubramanian, Teaching Assistant, Department of History, Alagappa
University,Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu - 630 003.
Abstract
The present article seeks to examine some aspects of the crafts and craftsmen
pertaining to the Chola Empire (ninth to thirteenth centuries A.D). This theme is a little studied
area in the history of the imperial Cholas The most important person in the Chola administration.
All authority rested in his hands. He often went on tours in order to keep better touch with the
administration . The king was aided and advised by a council of ministers who held office at the
pleasure of the king. There was a fully developed secretariat to oversee the functioning of
Central administration.
Keywords: Craft history,The Chola empire, Situating the Chola Craftsmen
Introduction
Craft history as a sub – discipline, comparatively, is a new area in the domain of historical
research in the world of academic institutions. Conventional studies tended to refer to craftsmen
in a very marginal manner. Now, scholars started conducting some serious research on the craft
products and craft producers. Some select scholars in India and outside are doing so under the
influence of Marxist, subaltern and the annales schools of theoretical considerations. Notable
among them are craft and art historians like S. Settar,1 Raju Kalidos, Kalyan Kumar Dasgupta,
R.N. Misra, Thomas E. Levy, Carla Sinopoli and Jan Brouwer. 2
These authors wrote on the craft productions in different regions of the Indian sub –
continent in a selective manner. It is also significant to note that researching various aspects of
craftsmen will throw light on the economy and cultural ethos of the society in which they lived.
The Chola Empire
From the economic angle, the contribution of artisanal activity was recognizable as the
local, regional and seatrade / markets indicate. At its height of territorial expansion under the
famous Chola monarchs Raja Raja Chola I (ruled A.D. 985 – 1012) and Rajendra Chola I (ruled
A.D. 1012 – 1044) the Chola Empire included the present – day entire South India (barring
northern Kerala and northern Karnataka), Sri Lanka, and some parts of the South – East Asian
littoral states / kingdoms.3 Fortunately, the Cholas’ maritime trade and expeditions were
facilitated by their geographical reach as the Chola Empire was located between the prosperous
Gulf of Aden and the South China sea trade routes. Historians like George W. Spencer, 4
Kenneth R. Hall 5 and Vasudha Narayanan 6 are quite relevant here for their writings on the
Chola activity in these vital trade routes: economic, political and cultural impacts.
Research Objectives / Hypothesis
This study has four objectives as follows:
(i) To investigate the various categories of craft products and their production in the
Chola Empire (ninth to thirteenth centuries A.D) in the process of Urbanization.

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(ii) To understand the socio – economic and ritual status of the craftsmen and artisans in
Chola society.
(iii) To examine the social mobility of these craftsmen.
(iv) Try to situate craftsmen history into the subaltern historiography.
Historical Sources
A wide range of original sources are used in writing this article. They include the Chola
inscriptions, Copper plate records, painting, coins, monuments, the famous Chola bronzes, the
literary works, architectural texts and folklore. In addition to these categories of primary source –
material, the relevant secondary works in the form of books, journal articles and essays are used
here. Field study to museums, select temples, and craft workshops is conducted in course of the
data collection stage.
Research Methodology
The research methodology followed here include a systematic analysis and synthesis of the
above mentioned historical sources and then formulated into two major frame works of ‘Crafts
and Craftsmen’ on one hand and ‘the view from below’ (Subaltern approach) on the other. The
data is collated and corroborated in order to classify and made a reliable use of it in tune with the
stated objectives in mind. Both the elements of chronology and theme/s are intertwined to
present a historical narrative of the topic under discussion.
Situating the Chola Craftsmen
These were many social groups living in the Chola Empire. The Craftsmen and artisans
were one such group engaged in the creative artistic activity serving the needs of an expanding
territorial sovereignty of the imperial Chola monarchs. In other words, they were basically non –
agrarian production groups catering to the needs of both the rural and urban environments. The
state imposed taxes and cesses on the artisans and the revenue proceedings were deposited in the
treasury (Karuvulam). The epigraphic records inform us that these existed a group of five
craftsmen collectively called as the Kammalar: the goldsmiths (tattan), brass smiths (kannan),
blacksmiths (Karuman/Kolan), carpenters (tachchan) and sculptors (silpis).7 They were also
called the Vishwakarma craftsmen, as they worshipped Him and claimed descent from Lord
Vishwakarma, the divine architect of the Gods and Goddesses as enumerated in the Hindu
mythology and Puranas. Further these craftsmen were labelled as the ‘Viswakarma Kula’8 and
‘Viswakarma Kulaja’9 indicating their caste, which is an important social institution10 in India.
On the other side of the spectrum, we have the weavers, potters, oil – pressers, the architects, the
practioners of water crafts and other craftsmen.
Textiles and Weavers
Clothing is one of the three essential needs of the human beings next to food and shelter.
Thus, textile industry developed through the Ages. Hand-weaving/loom has been discernable.
The textiles and weavers were quite visible in the Chola – era inscriptions and literary texts. The
region of Kanchipuram11 has been the outstanding centre of cotton and silk weaving and the
reputation still continues. Tribhuvanam, Arni,12 Tirupparkkadal, Virinchipuram, Woraiyur,
Tirupati, Kalahasti, Gugai, Madurai, Salem, Sulur, Venkatagiri, Dharmavaram, Kumbakonam,
Thanjavur and Vridhachalam were the other important centre of textile production 13 in the Chola
Empire. Cotton was locally available, whereas raw silk came from outside and even overseas!
The weavers paid certain specific taxes to the officials of the Chola Government at
Kanchipuram and its sub – region. The tax on looms (tari arai) was one such example. The
evidence for this comes from the reign of the Chola king Vijayakantagopala14 in the village of
Tirupputkuli. As an arrangement of ‘antarayam’ or intermediate local cess, each weaver should

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contribute a sari from each loom called the tari pudavai 15 as part of the state’s due to the temple.
Along with these taxes, per kadamai was also leived.
R. Tirumalai, the epigraphist – historian, along with other earlier scholars, has noted that the
Madras Museum Copper Plates of Uttama Chola (tenth Century) describe the importance of
merchants and weavers (saliyar) in the early medieval economy of Kanchipuram and in the
taxation structure mediated by the nagaram or market centre during the late tenth century A.D.16
Curiously, one stone inscription allows us to look more closely at the working of the taxation
system in the merchants quarter of Kanchi Managar (city). This Chola royal order and an
agreement by all merchants and weavers, traders and various citizens transferred Katamai, that
is, land duties to the temple, as well as cesses on weaving / weavers’ looms called as the saliyar
vari. 17 In view of Kanchipuram’s long association with cloth, these references to merchants and
weavers are very significant. The Cholas were the major clientele of fabrics.
Traditionally speaking, the weaving communities lived outside the village because the
bleaching of cloth creates stench. The urban space created during the Pallava and Chola periods
encouraged the weavers to migrate to the slowly – emerging Temple Towns. The fine quality
woven silk sarees were called as the saliyar pattu and Devanga pattu 18 named after the weaving
communities under discussion in this section.
Jewellery and Goldsmiths
The people in the Chola Age believed that wearing jewels is auspicious. Intricate gold work
was done by the perumtattan (literally, ‘great goldsmith’) and his team. Epigraphic evidence
indicate that the Chola monarchs and their family members, nobles, bureaucrats and affluent
merchants spent lot of money on the making of gold, diamond and pearls ornaments. 19 They
were meant for individual use and also for gifting to the deities of the temples. The Brahadisvara
at Thanjavur built by Raja Raja Chola I is a case in point. 20 There was a categorization of
goldsmithy. At the lower level was the small – time tattan who worked on a piece – wage and
lived at the subsistence level, catering to a customer – determined market. The other one was the
affluent perumtattan, who enjoyed the royal commissioning of the jewellery, and lived in leading
urban centres like Thanjavur, Kanchipuram and Chidambaram. The jewels crafted include the
crowns (makutas), the ear lopes (makarakundalas), the necklaces (kantabharana), the girdles,
finger rings, anklets and other varieties.
Darshan of the Divine: Chola Bronzes
What is Chola bronze all about? The metal – workers / coppersmiths cast the Bronze images
of the Hindu Gods and Goddesses for worshipping in the temples under the patronage of the
Chola rulers, queens and others. Such images are called the Chola bronzes by the art historians.
In addition, the bronze images of the royal sovereigns and his family members, those of the 63
shaivate hymnodists (Nayanmars) and the 12 Vaishnava hymnodists (Alvars) were also made by
specialist craftsmen at Swamimalai, 21 Tiruvengadu, 22 Kilur 23 and Kanchipuram. The bronze
image of Queen Sembian Mahadevi is a good example.24 Each Chola bronze is a unique craft
product and cannot be replicated. Lost – wax model is followed in their making. The outstanding
merit is that these images are used as the processional deities during temple festivals. 25 The
Nataraja icon has been an inspiring art figure of all times. 26
The Sculptor’s Craft
There was an outburst of temple – building activity under the Chola kings as well as their
queens, nobles and military commanders.The sculptors (Silpis) carved beautiful images in stone
of the divinities, kings, queens and a score of other figures. Among hundreds of temples built in
the Kaveri River deltaic region 27 and other parts of the vast Chola Empire, three can be pointed

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out as outstanding examples: the Brahadisvara at Thanjavur (of Raja Raja Chola I), the
Brahadisvara at Gangaikondacholapuram (Rajendra I) and the Airavatisvara at Darasuram
(Rajaraja II). The Darasuram temple near Kumbakonam, was designed in the shape of a chariot
drawn by the prancing horses and has an exquisite panel around the main shrine of the testing
episodes of siva with the nayanmars in tune with Sekkilars Periyapuranam. 28 The chief architect
(Sthapati) or the Silpacharya supervised the temple – building projects, which surely would have
employed a sizeable number of artisans for the sculpting work. The royal patrons paid the
sculptors in the form of residential plots, land, grain and occasionally gift – money. 29 The
architectural texts like the Narada Silpasastra, the Vastusashtras and the Pratima Lakshana
were followed by the architects. Even today the sculpting traditions are alive in the Tamil
country and beyond.
The Chariot – Makers
The craftsmen and artisans made two types of chariots. One for the king’s use during the
war; and the other (ter /ratham) is the temple – car drawn by the devotees during the annual
festivals of the prominent deities like Siva, Vishnu, Kamakshi Amman, Ganapati and Lord
Murugan. The art historian Raju Kalidos contributed an excellent monograph on the temple –
chariot traditions and works in the Tamil country. 30 The ula (procession) of the Gods was
followed by that of the Chola Kings. 31 High quality wood was used in the Chariot – making by
the artisans called the rathakarars. 32 Exquisite carvings of almost all divine figures were
minutely carved. The bronze images were decked with sumptous jewels and carried in the ter in
the four cardinal streets around the temple. The Tiruvarur ter is a classic example.
The Painting Art
The surviving painting work during the Chola regime, though in smaller measure, indicates
the ingenuinety of the painters. At the imperial city of Thanjavur the Chola artists depicted the
human and divine figures in the circumambulatory passage (tiruchittramblam) of the famed
Rajarajesvaram (the Brahadisvara temple) constructed by Rajaraja I around A.D. 1010. These
fine frescoes in the inner walls of this passage have the encoded metaphorical meanings. For
instance, the historian R. Champakalakshmi analysed, among other things, an interesting panel
here which portrays a seated figure (Lord Siva in the guise of an old man) whisking palm – leaf
in front of a group of servile people.33 This illustration is a telling depiction of the power or
documents in Chola polity and society. There was some kind of urge among the landholders
(kaniyalar), particularly the Brahmanas, for securing the royal charters granting superior rights
over productive land in the Thanjavur Kaveri deltaic region of lush – green rice fields, coconuts
groves and banana plantations.
The Chola icon of Tripurantaka (the destroyer of the three cities / forts, i.e., Lord Siva), was
very dear to the Emperor Rajaraja I. It has an iconographic episode. 34 The image of Tripurantaka
is so beautiful and imposing as it is known as Tripurantaka is so beautiful and imposing as it is
known as Tanjai Alagar in the Tamil epigraphs. 35 One of the major innovations of the Chola
period was a combination of architectural design with iconographic themes in an aesthetically
pleasing form, in the Sivan temples which glorified him as the Tripurantaka. The painted form is
so radiant, energetic and grand. The painting of the cosmic dancer, Nataraja (called as the
Atavallan/Atalarasar in the Chola temple inscriptions). Recently, ancient Chola frescoes were
discovered by the team commissioned by the Archaeological survey of India while working on a
mural at the gigantic Sri Varadaraja Perumal temple at Kanchipuram. 36
Status of the Craftsmen

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There existed a social differentiation among the various categories of craftsmen. For instance,
the weavers were placed above the artisans in social hierarchy. The rural craftsmen were less
privileged in comparison with their urban counterparts. The economic status differed in terms of
income and properties. Ritually also the scale varied. While some weaving communities donated
gifts to the temple, others have to maintain their sustainability. Thus, the temple honours were
bestowed according to the donations made and social status. Especially the Master- Craftsmen
enjoyed several privileges and commanded good respect in Chola society. How about the
worship of Vishwakarma? The face – colour theory is relevant here. The Tamil text
Vishwakarma Puranam extolled that Lord Vishwakarma had five faces representing the three
smiths and the two non – smiths. In fact, according to the text, the colour of their faces were also
symbolic of their crafts – gold for goldsmith, copper or brass for the copper smith, black for the
blacksmith, stony colour for the mason and a wooden face for the carpenter. This is an origin
myth.37
Craft Activity and Urbanization
The theme of urbanization is to be dealt with in its manifold aspects in the process of
discussing the quasi - rural character of towns in the Chola territory. Here, we are concerned with
temple – towns (tirumadaivilagam). 38 The role of craftsmen and the kaikkola weavers and the
kammalar along with that of the many powerful mercantile guilds was substantial in this
historical context. The weavers were settled in temple towns and other artisans also settled in the
allotted streets and catered to the ritual needs of the temple. Significantly, both the Hindu
religious monastery (matha) 39 and the temple became the employers of these craftsmen. A
variety of craft products were also sold in the market place / centre called nagaram,40 near or on
the outskirts of the leading temple – towns like Chidambaram, Thanjavur, Kumbakonam,
Kanchipuram, Tirupati, Kalahasti and Perunagar. The speciality of Kanchipuram, Tirupati,
Kalahasti and Perunagar. The speciality of Kanchipuram has been a multi – temple centre. Thus,
the craftsmen played an important role in the expansion of the temple towns.
Conclusion
The foregoing analysis of the Chola – period craftsmen enables us to draw certain broad
conclusions. The craftsmen played an important role in temple urbanisation in Kanchipuram,
Uttaramerur, Perunagar, Thanjavur, Kumbakonam, Chidambaram, Madurai, Tiruvannamalai and
other places. Evidently, the craft production enhanced the commercial stature of Kanchipuram
under the Chola rule in the Tondaimandalam region. Then, the social, economic and ritual status
of the artisans and craftsmen differed from one group to the other. For examples, the weavers
were places above the artisans.
It is also significant to note that the social mobility was restricted to some rural artisans (such
as the potters, blacksmiths and carpenters), whereas the goldsmiths, oil – pressers, weavers and
others were induced by the royal patrons to move out to temple towns and settle there. Thus the
social mobility and migration became easier depending on the craft enterprise and need. The
worship of Lord Viswakarma became ubiquitous among the Chola artisans then and now. The
Chola Empire, in fact, provided a favourable atmosphere of artistic creativity and distinctive
style in the realm of temple arts and their associated crafts. The Chola bronzes is a case in point.
On the whole, the craftsmen were an integral part of the Chola Empire building enterprise; and
the present study is also a contribution to subaltern history of Tamil Nadu and South India.

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Acknowledgement
I wish to offer my sincere thanks to my Research Supervisor and Guide Dr. N. Dhanalakshmi,
Associate Professor and Head i/c, School of History and Tourism Studies, Tamil Nadu Open
University for her able and brilliant guidance and help in different stages of researching this
paper.
Notes and References
1. S. Settar, ‘Footprints of Artisans in History: Some Reflections on Early Artisans of
India’, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 64th session, Mysore, 2003, General
President’s Address, pp. 1 – 43.
2. Jan Brouwer, The Makers of the World: Caste, Craft and Mind of South Indian Artisans
(New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995). This is a pioneering work in the field of
anthropology of the artisans in India.
3. For a classic and outstanding scholarship on the Chola Empire, see K.A. Nilakanta Sastri,
The Colas (Madras: University of Madras Press,1955), second edn., p. 447.
4. George W. Spencer, ‘The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh – Century Ceylon’,
Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 35, No. 3, 1976, pp. 405 – 19.
5. Kenneth R. Hall, ‘The Textile Industry in Southeast Asia, 1400 – 1800’, Journal of the
Economic and Social History of the Orient,’ Vol. 39, No. 2, 1996, pp. 87 – 135.
6. Vasudha Narayanan, ‘Carving Vishnu, Creating Vaikuntha: Continuities and Ruptures
between Kanchipuram and Kambhoja’, a research paper presented in the workshop – cum
– Conference, “Royal Bhakti, Local Bhakti”, the EFEO centre at Pondicherry, August
2013.
7. South Indian Inscriptions (hereafter SII), vol. II, Nos. 4 and 5.
8. SII, vol. VI, No. 117.
9. SII, Vol. VI, No. 673. In this inscription, craftsmen, smiths and sculptors are referred to
as belonging to the ‘Vishwakarma Kula’
10. Irfan Habib, Essays in Indian History: Towards a Marxist Perception (New Delhi:
Tulika Books, 1995), Fifth reprint 2002, pp. 161 – 179.
11. Vijaya Ramaswamy, Textiles and Weavers in Medieval South India (New Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 1985), pp.1, 16, 25. This is a classic work providing a long – term
perspective on the weaving communities and their products right from the Sangam Age
to the business of the European Companies.
12. Annual Report of (South Indian) Epigraphy (here – after ARE), 365 of 1912 – 13.
13. Vijaya Ramaswamy, ‘The Genesis and Historical Role of the Master Weavers in South
Indian Textile Production’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient,
vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 294 – 325.
14. ARE., 164 and 197 of 1916.
15. SII, vol. 8, No. 4. This record comes from Veppangulam.
16. R. Tirumalai, Collected Papers (Madras: Department of Archaeology, Government of
Tamil Nadu, 1994), pp. 296 – 98. These papers include insightful studies in South Indian
Epigraphy, history of land organization, development and accounts, and select Chola and
Pandya townships. Tirumalai’s range of historical themes is appreciable.
17. ARE., 609 of 1919.
18. ARE., 253 of 1907 – 08. This record comes from Tiruvidaimarudur in the heart of the
Kaveri delta.

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19. Vidya Dehejia, The Body Adorned: Dissolving Boundaries Between Sacred and Profane
in India’s Art (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), pp. 24 – 74.
20. SII, Vol. II, pt. 3, No. 66.
21. For a step – by – step account of the process of making a bronze image in the metal
workshops in Swamimalai, near Kumbakonam, see T.S. Subramanian, ‘Waxed
eloquence’, Frontline, vol. 27, No. 23, November 06 – 19, pp. 76 – 78.
22. Job Thomas, Tiruvengadu Bronzes (Madras: Cre – A, 1986).
23. R.K.K. Rajarajan, ‘Few Bronzes of the Virattanesvara Temple, Kilur’, Annali, vol. 67,
2007, pp. 211 – 216.
24. ARE., 481 of 1925. The bronze image of Sembiyan Mahadevi was taken out in
processions on her birthdays.
25. Ranvir Shah, ‘The Essence of Shiva’, The Hindu, Sunday, February 8, 2009, Magazine,
p.7.
26. R.C. Majumdar, Ancient India (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 9th Reprint, 2016),
p.466. The first edition of this erudite book came out in 1952 from Varanasi.
27. Padma Kaimal, ‘Early Chola Kings and Early Chola Kings: Art and the Evolution of
Kingship’, Artibus Asiae, vol. 56, No. 1/2, 1996, pp. 33 – 66.
28. J.R. Marr, ‘The Periya Puranam Frieze at Taracuram – Episodes in the Lives of Tamil
Saiva Saints’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, vol. XLII, Part 2,
1979, pp. 268 – 289.
29. ARE., 691 of 1962 – 63.
30. For an innovative wholesome study, see Raju Kalidos, Temple Cars of Medieval
Tamilaham (Madurai: Vijay Publications, 1989).
31. Daud Ali, Courtly Culture and Political Life in Early Medieval India (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 20, 32, 55 and 177. See also Gita V. Pai, ‘The
King’s Two Bodies: Vikramachola as a valiant and Virtuous King’, Paper presented in
the second Annual Tamil Conference at the Institute for South Asia studies, University of
California, Berkeley, USA, April 22 – 23, 2006.
32. SII, vol. XVII, No. 603. This piece of evidence from Tiruvarur, near the coastal – town
of Nagapattinam.
33. R. Champakalakshmi, ‘New Light on the Cola Frescoes of Tanjore,’ Journal of Indian
History, Golden Jubilee volume, 1973, pp. 349 – 59.
34. D. Dayalan, ‘Hymns of Nayanmars and the Tripurantaka Episode in Big Temple,
Thanjavur’, in C. Marghabandhu, K.S. Ramachandran, A.P. Sagar and D.K. Sinha ed.
Indian Archaeological Heritage: Shri K.V. Soundara Rajan Festschrift (Delhi: Agam
Kala Prakashan, 1991) pp. 445 – 47.
35. Epigraphia Indica, vol. XXII, the Larger Leiden Copper Plates, verse 24, p. 256.
36. NDTV, Tamil Nadu, Press Trust of India, updated 23 September 2015. The report titled
“Ancient Chola Frescoes Unearthed at Kanchipuram shrine”.
37. Visvakarma Puranam (in the Tamil language) Mackenzie Manuscripts, Wilson
Collection, No. 72. This is a hand – written manuscript being preserved in the India
Office, London. Colonel Colin Mackenzie was the first Surveyor – General of India.
38. ARE., 162 of 1956 – 7.
39. ARE., III of 19129 – 30.
40. SII, vol. XXVI, No. 276.