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Ecology and conservation of a rare species: What do we know and what may we do to preserve Andean condors?
Abstract
While scientific knowledge is consistently increasing for several species of conservation concern, mitigating their population declines continues to be a great challenge globally. This is the case of the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) in South America. Scientific information on this species has increased steeply in the last years, but their population declines continue. Here, we review and analyze the scientific information available about Andean condors ecology with implications for its conservation. We also evaluate published and unpublished information about the different threats affecting their populations. Finally, we propose conservation actions based on acquired scientific knowledge, which should be of help for conservation managers and policy makers. The increase in scientific information on this species was mainly focused on subject areas as key habitats for roosting and breeding, food sources, intra and interspecific interaction, human-condor relationships, movement ecology, genetic composition, and health information. Worryingly, good demographic information is still lacking (e.g., population density, breeding success, age and sex-specific survival rates) which prevents the assessment of the population viability. The most important threats affecting condor populations that require urgent actions are poisoning with pesticides and lead contamination. Illegal shooting, impacts produced by human infrastructure and cultural threats are other threats affecting this species. There is not much scientific information on the potential effects of veterinary drugs ingestion, impacts of carnivore traps, pathogen microorganisms and disturbances produced by tourism or climbing activities. Importantly, the actual population impacts of most of the mentioned threats are still unknown. Although some basic ecological studies are still needed (e.g., demography), conservation policies should incorporate scientific knowledge acquired in the last years to produce better results and reverse population declines for this species.
... The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus), the only other extant condor species, is the most threatened vulture in South America and one of the most mobile and longest-lived bird in the world, representing a major challenge for conservation management (Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020;BirdLife International, 2023). Indeed, several parallels exist between the two extant condor species: they occupy similar habitats, exhibit comparable ecological and life-history traits, and suffer the same risks to persistence resulting in concurrent genetic footprints (Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020;Padró et al., 2020;De Panis et al., 2021;Robinson et al., 2021). ...
... The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus), the only other extant condor species, is the most threatened vulture in South America and one of the most mobile and longest-lived bird in the world, representing a major challenge for conservation management (Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020;BirdLife International, 2023). Indeed, several parallels exist between the two extant condor species: they occupy similar habitats, exhibit comparable ecological and life-history traits, and suffer the same risks to persistence resulting in concurrent genetic footprints (Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020;Padró et al., 2020;De Panis et al., 2021;Robinson et al., 2021). Although the large historical abundance and wide distributional range of Andean condors may have acted as a buffer against the negative demographic effects of anthropogenic pressures, condors have been extirpated from the Caribbean and Atlantic shores of South America in the mid-20th century, resulting in the loss of genetic variation (Padró et al., 2020). ...
... However, traditional methods such as population census are poor predictors of genetic diversity patterns and effective population sizes (Willoughby et al., 2015), which are critical to informing management plans for small populations with increased extinction risks (Frankham et al., 2014). Moreover, regional conservation efforts aimed at curbing the species' demographic decline have mainly relied on assisted translocations using condors of undeclared origin or from distant regions (Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020). For instance, the first releases in Colombia during 1989-1991 employed 22 offspring from captive condors bred in the United States (Lieberman et al., 1993), while in 2015 six juveniles from Chile were translocated to strengthen the ex-situ conservation program of the country. ...
Determining the conservation status of long-lived and highly mobile species is particularly challenging due to their long generational time and the spatio-temporal scale at which they interact with their landscape. Vultures are not only extremely vagile and long-lived but are also some of the most threatened species globally. However, the genetic status and connectivity patterns of most vulture species of the southern hemisphere remain poorly understood. Herein, we studied the patterns of neutral genetic variability in both the captive and remnant wild populations of Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) from the equatorial Andes and assessed their movement dynamic to infer current connectivity, as well as identify conservation corridors in one of the most critical areas for the conservation of the species. We found that the demographic collapse of condors in the region has severely affected their effective population size, which might lead to an extinction vortex in the near future. However, our results indicated that the captive population still harbors substantial genetic variation that could be harnessed to strengthen wild populations. Although our landscape resistance models revealed that the northern Andean corridor provides a continuum of suitable habitat for condors, our connectivity assessment identified important spatial disruptions, likely driven by anthropogenic processes. We discuss the implications of our findings to the conservation plan of Andean condors, while highlighting the importance of integrating multiple data sources to identify extinction risks in other species exhibiting high dispersal capabilities and long generational times.
... The Andean Condor is at risk of extinction in the wild and is currently listed as 'Vulnerable' by the IUCN Red List [13], with key threats being chemical contamination (e.g. [14,15]) and human persecution [16,17]. To provide shelter from the elements, humans and other predators, condors use montane caves or rock shelves on large cliffs as isolated nests or communal roosts [18][19][20]. ...
... The terrestrial prey is now, however, predominantly introduced animals such as livestock and game, which creates tensions with farmers who incorrectly believe that condors kill and/ or harm their economically valuable animals [16,17]. As a result, condors are persecuted through the use of poisoned carcasses, traps and hunting [15,16]. ...
... We measured elevated Pb and Hg concentrations within the adult or nestling faeces compared to the historical record in the guano deposit, mirroring results that indicate that Andean Condors are being poisoned with metals [15]. Trace metals in the tissues of birds are commonly excreted in feathers and eggshells, by uropygial and salt glands, and importantly, in faeces [77]. ...
Understanding how animals respond to large-scale environmental changes is difficult to achieve because monitoring data are rarely available for more than the past few decades, if at all. Here, we demonstrate how a variety of palaeoecological proxies (e.g. isotopes, geochemistry and DNA) from an Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus) guano deposit from Argentina can be used to explore breeding site fidelity and the impacts of environmental changes on avian behaviour. We found that condors used the nesting site since at least approximately 2200 years ago, with an approximately 1000-year nesting frequency slowdown from ca 1650 to 650 years before the present (yr BP). We provide evidence that the nesting slowdown coincided with a period of increased volcanic activity in the nearby Southern Volcanic Zone, which resulted in decreased availability of carrion and deterred scavenging birds. After returning to the nest site ca 650 yr BP, condor diet shifted from the carrion of native species and beached marine animals to the carrion of livestock (e.g. sheep and cattle) and exotic herbivores (e.g. red deer and European hare) introduced by European settlers. Currently, Andean Condors have elevated lead concentrations in their guano compared to the past, which is associated with human persecution linked to the shift in diet.
... The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus), an emblematic species of South America, is facing diverse threats associated with human disturbance (e.g., lead contamination, intentional poisoning, persecution and habitat loss) [33]. Despite being considered a Vulnerable species [34], almost no information exists on the movement patterns and differential range use of immature individuals (however, see [35]). ...
... The Andean condor is a large obligate scavenger that inhabits the Andes Mountain range in South America (from Venezuela to the south of Chile and Argentina) [34,41]. Condor populations have suffered a retraction in some areas, and their populations are tending to decrease [33,34,42]. Their reproductive strategy is one of the slowest among birds; they commonly lay one egg every two years, then the chick spends up to six months in the nest, and stays with its parents until 15 months of age [27,43]. ...
... In this study we describe, for the first time, the movement patterns of immature Andean condors, which are the most extensive so far reported for vultures worldwide. This highly valuable information is necessary for a better understanding of the movement ecology of the species, and its association with, for instance, anthropogenic threats [33]. It is also relevant to the design of management strategies and conservation action [35,42,80]. ...
Immature individuals move from their natal area to the area where they settle and reproduce, and this may take several years. This process is essential for long-lived species such as vultures and condors, which spend long periods as immature and move extensively. We studied the movement behavior of 26 GPS-tagged immature Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) from northwestern Patagonia throughout the immature stage, analyzing whether these patterns differed according to age, sex and season. We found that season and age influenced home range size and flight distances, the warm season being when immature condors move most; movement patterns were greater in sub-adults than in juveniles. The age effect was associated with the sex of individuals, with males increasing their home range more than females. Our results provide the first description of how immature Andean condor movement patterns are affected by internal and external factors. This information could be key to understanding condor responses to environmental change and threats at different stages during their immature phase. Until now, condor conservation efforts have not considered the areas used by dispersing individuals. Our results increase our understanding of ranging behavior during the immature stage of this threatened bird, enabling us to improve the conservation policies and management strategies designed to protect them.
... In the case of the seven species of New World vultures (Cathartidae), 43% are in decline, and the Andean (Vultur gryphus) and California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) are categorized as Vulnerable and Critically Endangered, respectively [4]. Despite the increasing concern regarding the conservation status of New World vultures, there is little information available on the factors that threaten them [4][5][6]. The Andean Condor inhabits mountain grasslands along the Andes from western Venezuela to southern Argentina and Chile, as well as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia [7,8]. ...
... Poisoning with pesticides, probably the most relevant threat for this species, is due to conflict among humans, carnivores (e.g. domestic dogs Canis lupus familiaris and pumas Puma concolor), as well as other scavenging birds [6,16]. Other anthropogenic threats affecting this species are shooting, lead contamination, electrocution, and the use of condors in traditional celebrations [17][18][19][20]. ...
... Other anthropogenic threats affecting this species are shooting, lead contamination, electrocution, and the use of condors in traditional celebrations [17][18][19][20]. Despite the increase in available scientific information pertaining to the Andean Condor, few studies have addressed the factors that threaten this species, and the impacts of these threats remain uncertain in some regions of its distribution, such as northern South America [6]. Indeed, in this geographical region, there have been no quantitative assessments conducted of the threats affecting Andean Condor populations. ...
Vultures comprise one of the most threatened groups of birds worldwide. With a total population not exceeding 6700 mature individuals, and in rapid decline across its range, the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus) is listed as a Vulnerable species in the IUCN red list. Local population extinctions and decline are of particular concern in northern South America, where no more than 340 condors may exist at present. Despite this, no quantitative assessments exist in Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela regarding the threats affecting Andean Condor populations. To address this, we compiled records of Andean Condors injured, or killed, between 1979 and 2021. We obtained data of 164 condors affected by different causes of injury, of which 83.5% were reported in Ecuador, 15.2% in Colombia, and 1.2% in Venezuela. Of the total number, 84.7% of the injured individuals died. Between 1979 and 2021, in Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela, at least 103 Andean Condors were presumably poisoned, 22 were shot, and 39 individuals were affected by other causes. The total number of individuals affected by different causes represents between 48% and 72% of the total population estimated in northern South America. Of great concern is the fact that, between 2007 and 2021, poisoning and shooting together caused the loss of 19–31% of the estimated population of condors in Ecuador, and 7–21% of the estimated population in Colombia. Given the important mortality induced by humans, environmental education programs, socio-ecological research, application of environmental laws, and management strategies based on scientific evidence to prevent and mitigate human-wildlife conflicts are urgently required for effective Andean Condor conservation in northern South America.
... The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus), an emblematic and vulnerable vulture species of South America, is experiencing population decline because of diverse human disturbances (Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020). In recent years, some populations of this species have been exposed to plastic debris in Chile, especially when foraging in rubbish dumps (Duclos et al., 2020). ...
... In contrast, when Andean condors forage in natural and semi natural areas in Argentina, within or close to protected areas, the occurrence of plastic is less common (Ballejo et al., 2021). To improve conservation policies for this species and its environment, it is important to know whether Andean condors are exposed to plastic pollution in different parts of their distribution range, as with other threats such as intentional poisoning and lead contamination (Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020;Wiemeyer et al., 2016). Moreover, given that Andean condors are apex scavengers at the top of the trophic chain, this species can serve as an indicator of plastic pollution in the environment and for other species. ...
... The Andean condor is the largest New World vulture (it can weigh up to 16 kg, wingspan 3 m), and occurs from the north of Venezuela and Colombia to the south of Argentina and Chile (Alarcón et al., 2017;Hoyo et al., 1994). It is considered Vulnerable by the IUCN because it is negatively affected by several human disturbances, such as intentional poisoning and lead contamination (Birdlife International, 2022;Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020). Condors are highly mobile (they can travel up to 350 km per day; Lambertucci et al., 2014), but they have well-established foraging territories. ...
Plastic pollution is an alarming environmental problem affecting diverse species worldwide. Scavenging birds are currently exposed to plastic due to contamination of their food sources. Here, we evaluated the ingestion of plastic by a threatened top scavenger, the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus), and the potential origin of the plastic. We analyzed the biotic (organic items from the diet) and abiotic (synthetic material) composition of regurgitated pellets in two remote areas of Peru associated with protected areas: a marine-coastal region and an Andean region. Condors consume mainly Pinnipeds and South American camelids in the marine-coastal region, and camelids and livestock in the Andean region. We found different sizes and varieties of plastic debris, with a very high frequency of occurrence (85–100%) of microplastics in pellets of both areas studied. The occurrence of microplastics differed between sites; although very high in general, the rate of occurrence and density were higher in the marine-coastal region. We also confirmed that carcasses consumed by condors in both study areas were contaminated with plastic. Therefore, plastic in Andean condors is most probably acquired through the food web in both the marine and terrestrial environments. Andean condors from Peru are highly contaminated with plastic, which may affect their health, population dynamics, and conservation. Moreover, as condors are apex scavengers, our results highlight the fact that plastic pollution in remote areas of Peru is present at different levels of the food web and in the environment. Urgent Action should be taken to reduce environmental contamination with this hazardous pollutant.
... Por lo tanto, la persecución humana generalizada de otros depredadores tope neotropicales como el Jaguar, el Puma y el Águila Arpía o carroñeros como el Cóndor Andino (Vultur gryphus) también está probablemente influenciada por una gobernanza deficiente a escala local, nacional y regional independientemente de las contribuciones percibas de estas especies y los perjuicios reales que las personas reciben de estas (e.g. Engel et al., 2016;Estrada-Pacheco et al., 2020;Giraldo-Amaya et al., 128 2021;Knox et al., 2019;Morcatty et al., 2020;Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020;Zimmermann et al., 2021;Zuluaga et al., 2021). ...
... The particular goal of environmental governance is to manage individual behaviours and collective actions in compliance with public environmental goods and related social outcomes through environmental management (i.e. the resources, plans, and actions that result from the functioning of governance; see Bennett and Satterfield, 2018). Some recent indirect evidence suggests the existence of a negative influence of poor governance at national and local levels on several human-felid, human-raptor, and human-reptile conflicts in the Neotropics (Barbar et al., 2016;Estrada-Pacheco et al., 2020;Giraldo-Amaya et al., 2021;Miranda et al., 2016;Morcatty et al., 2020;Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020;Restrepo-Cardona et al., 2020;Zimmermann et al., 2021). Thus, to ensure persistence of top predator populations in Neotropical countries, we need to have more evidence about how poor governance is influencing human-top predator conflicts across the region. ...
... Therefore, widespread human persecution to other Neotropical top predators such as the jaguar (Panthera onca), the cougar (Puma concolor), and the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja), and scavengers like the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) is also probably influenced by poor governance on the local, national, and regional scales independently of the perceived contributions of these species to people and the actual detriments received from them (e.g. Engel et al., 2016;Estrada-Pacheco et al., 2020;Giraldo-Amaya et al., 2021;Knox et al., 2019;Morcatty et al., 2020;Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020;Zimmermann et al., 2021;Zuluaga et al., 2021). ...
Humans benefit from processes/services provided by predators and scavengers in ecosystems while at the same time they may suffer conflicts/disservices from them. Therefore, the conservation of predators and scavengers can benefit from applying interdisciplinary approaches that consider and connect the processes/services and conflicts/disservices that humans may receive from these animals. Although that approach has already been used quite a bit with terrestrial predators and scavengers, there is very little interdisciplinary research on flying predators and scavengers such as raptors. This thesis seeks to explore the socio-ecological factors that affect human-raptor relationships, evaluating the particular case of the Black-and-chestnut Eagle (Spizaetus isidori) throughout its distribution, in order to propose specific conservation measures.
The first specific goal (Chapter 1) was to assess viewpoints of the experts in raptor conservation about the main ecosystem processes/services and conflicts/disservices that raptors provide to humans and to know the main strategies that experts consider effective for management these species in the wild. For this, we conducted an online survey among raptor conservation experts from which we obtained 87 responses from six continents (i.e. North America, South America, Africa, Asia, Europe and Australia). We found that the viewpoints of the experts in raptor conservation around the world are biased towards the acceptance of processes/services rather than the acceptance of conflicts/disservices that raptors provide to humans. Nocturnal raptors (i.e. owls) were considered the species that provide most ecosystem processes/services (73%, 8 of 11), followed by vultures and condors (55%, 6 of 11), finally hawks and eagles and falcons (45%, 5 of 11 each one). According to experts, hawks and eagles were involved in the highest number of conflicts/disservices (37.5%, 3 of 8), vultures and condors and owls were involved in only one (12.5%, 1 de 8), respectively, while falcons were not involved in conflicts/disservices. Additionally, experts agreed on five management strategies that they believe are effective for promoting the conservation of raptors in the wild: two of these consider the participation of several social actors (i.e. bottom-up governance) and the rest are measures taken by governments (i.e. top-down governance).
The second specific goal (Chapter 2) was to assess the home range, mortality and habitat selection of the Black-and-chestnut-Eagle during natal dispersal in fragmented landscapes of tropical and subtropical Andean Montane Forests. We captured six fledglings in four nests (three in Colombia and one in Argentina) of three populations of the species, which were equipped with GPS transmitters with data download via GSM cell phone network (i.e. GPS/GSM loggers). From 20 months of age, mortality was very high (67%, 4 of 6), so we restricted the analyses to the first year of natal dispersal (i.e. between 8 and 20 months of age). We found that the home range of juveniles in the first year of natal dispersal is large (media ~996 km2; DE ± 606; rango = 294-2130 km2). During the process of natal dispersal, juveniles move through fragmented landscapes where, they consistently selected areas with a higher percentage of forest cover, higher slopes and medium altitudes with respect to availability. Although juveniles show some level of tolerance for moving through fragmented habitat, the mortality rate was very high. It is therefore suggested that in order to maintain viable populations and the key ecosystem processes/services provided by this top predator in the tropical and subtropical Andean forests of South America, we need to mitigate the causes of non-natural mortality.
The third specific goal (Chapter 3) was to examine the socio-ecological context that exacerbates the human-eagle conflict in rural communities of the eastern Andes of Colombia. We conducted 172 surveys in 20 rural communities and estimated the proportion of forest cover on each rural community (i.e. amount of remaining native forest), human density, and annual losses of domestic birds due to the Black-and-chestnut Eagle, among other socio-demographic parameters (i.e. economic activity, domestic fowl ownership, age, education, gender, etc.). We found that tolerance decreases when forest cover, human density, and annual losses of domestic birds are greater. This can make the Black-and-chestnut Eagle more vulnerable to extirpation in rural communities where forest remnants are larger. The integration of socio-ecological information allowed us to identify the rural communities with higher human-eagle conflict and thus where the conservation measures should be implemented.
The fourth specific goal (Chapter 4) was to analyze how the contributions of the Black-and-chestnut Eagle to people (perceived and real) and governance (national and local) affect the human-top predator conflict with this species in the Neotropics. The ultimate goal of governance is to manage individual behaviors and collective actions for the sustainable use of natural resources through environmental management. For this reason, this is a factor of great importance to managing human-predator conflicts. We conducted 282 surveys in rural communities around 27 nesting sites of the species in Colombia and Ecuador. We found that people's tolerance towards the eagle was negatively related to detriments (perceived and real) and disapproval of governance at the local level, but there was no influence of governance at the country level. Less than a half (40%) of interviewees disapproved of governance management at the local level. A high percentage of people showed high tolerance towards the eagle (41.13%), followed by people with a neutral position (35.46%) and finally those who indicated a low tolerance (23.41%). However, we documented human persecution of the Black-and-chestnut Eagle in most of the sampled nests (59%, 16 of 27) and in all of the assessed geographic jurisdictions. Our results suggest that systems with poor governance in other Neotropical countries, could also be negatively affecting human-predator conflicts there.
In general, each thesis chapter sought to address different socio-ecological factors that affect human-raptor relationships. These factors have historically been best known to terrestrial predators but are very little known in raptors. Therefore, the main contribution of this thesis is to provide new evidence on the importance of implementing interdisciplinary approaches to address conflicts involving raptors as the main aerial predators and scavengers in terrestrial systems. These approaches, considering the multiplicity of socio-ecological factors that interact in human-raptor relationships, increase our ability to inform decision-making and implementation of management measures, therefore, they are essential if we are to develop and implement effective conservation policies for these species in the Anthropocene.
... The Andean condor is the largest New World vulture (weight up to almost 16 kg, wingspan 3 m) [27,28]. This species inhabits throughout the Andes Mountains, from the north of Venezuela and Colombia to the south of Argentina and Chile [28,29]. It is listed in CITES Appendix I, classified worldwide as Vulnerable by the IUCN red list [30]. ...
... They forage particularly in the Patagonian steppe, avoiding urbanized sites such as roads, slaughterhouses, and rubbish dumps [13,34,35]. This species is facing different threats associated with human activities in Argentina and throughout their entire distribution range [29,36,37]. For instance, intentional poisoning, lead contamination, and collision with power lines, among others, are common threats present in Argentina, producing injuries in some individuals, which have to be admitted for rehabilitation at specialized rehabilitation centers, such as Buenos Aires Zoo [36][37][38] Figure S1). ...
... Moreover, our results are relevant considering the current situation of the threatened Andean condor. This species has populations exploiting anthropogenic food subsidies from rubbish dumps in central Chile, but also Argentina, which could produce diverse health alterations, particularly colonization by dangerous pathogens, which in turn could affect population health [29,65]. ...
Wild bird species have commonly been implicated as potential vectors of pathogens to other species, humans included. However, the habitat where birds live could influence the probability to acquire these pathogens. Here, we evaluated if the characteristics of the environment used by obligate scavenging birds (vultures) influence their colonization by zoonotic pathogens. For this, we particularly focused on Salmonella spp., a zoonotic pathogen commonly present in bird species. The occurrence of this bacteria was evaluated in free ranging Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) using natural environments from Argentina and compared with those obtained from condors under human care. In addition, we compared our results with those reported for other wild vultures using natural and anthropized environments at a global scale. We did not find Salmonella spp. in samples of wild condors. Captive condor samples presented Salmonella spp. with an occurrence of 2.8%, and one isolate of Meticilin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, among other potential pathogenic microorganisms. Moreover, some species of free ranging vultures from diverse geographical areas using anthropized environments tend to present higher occurrences of Salmonella spp. These results highlight the importance of pristine ecosystems to protect vultures’ health toward pathogenic microorganisms that can produce disease in these birds, but also in other species. We call for more studies evaluating differences in occurrence of zoonotic pathogens in vultures according to the quality of the environment they use. Even when vultures have not been implicated in zoonotic pathogen spread, our results add information to evaluate potential events of pathogen spillover between vultures and from these birds to other species.
... The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) is an iconic and declining species exemplifying the great challenge we face to halt the loss of biodiversity in an increasing time pressure. To collate the available information on this species and help practitioners and policymakers working with it, Plaza and Lambertucci (2020) presented an updated review of the scientific knowledge on the Andean condor, commented threats to their populations and proposed scientific evidence-based conservation actions. ...
... We also believe that Andean condor conservation planningbesides relying on policymakers' predisposition to base their decisions in scientific knowledgeshould propose concrete conservation measures that actually close the gap between policymakers and scientific knowledge, facilitate evidence-based decision making and have the potential to yield tangible and measurable impacts (Williams et al., 2020). Plaza and Lambertucci (2020) propose several useful and logical conservation actions for the Andean condor. However we argue that while these actions can be readily understood and adopted by Andean condor specialists, they could hardly be implemented by policymakers and stakeholders in due time unless they are made more specific and digestible for these actors (Williams et al., 2020). ...
... The need for conservation intervention to be oriented and supported by science (e.g. Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020;Williams et al., 2020) and the precarious situation of threatened species, such as the Andean condor, compels researchers to act quickly and propose solutions that are straightforwardly applicable (Ballejo et al., 2020). Thus we think that Andean condor researchers must go further and guide in the whole process from studying the species' threats to the application of conservation solutions, i.e. diagnosing proximal and ultimate causes of threats, and proposing, designing, implementing, monitoring and testing conservation intervention and progress (Williams et al., 2020). ...
... Little information is available on the breeding biology of New World vultures (Cathartidae), which restricts the development of efficient conservation actions (Santangeli et al., 2022). One such species is the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus), inhabiting paramos and montane forests throughout the Andes (Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001;Lambertucci, 2007;Plaza & Lambertucci 2020). Its global population does not exceed 6700 adult individuals, and it is in decline throughout its distribution range and, therefore listed as Vulnerable (Birdlife International, 2023). ...
... Although there has been a recent increase in the availability of scientific information on the population biology of the Andean Condor, specific knowledge of its breeding behavior remains scarce (Plaza & Lambertucci 2020). This study aimed to (1) analyze the timing of egg-laying in wildborn Andean Condors, (2) evaluate the parental care of three pairs of condors and provide a record of the species' interactions with other raptors and mammals during the nestlingrearing season, and (3) examine the breeding success of an Andean Condor pair in a 10-year period in Ecuador. ...
Little information exists on the breeding behavior of the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus). Its global population, estimated at 6700 adult individuals, is declining throughout its distribution range. With less than 150 condors, the Endangered condor population in Ecuador is of conservation concern. This study aimed to analyze the breeding behavior of wild-born Andean Condors in Ecuador. Between 2009 and 2021, we monitored 22 egg-laying attempts in eight Andean Condor nests, evaluated the parental care of three breeding pairs of condors and recorded the species' interactions with other raptors and mammals during the nestling-rearing season, and examined the breeding success of an Andean Condor pair during a decade of monitoring. Our breeding records indicated that Andean Condor lay eggs throughout the year, and 16 nestlings spent between six and 10 months in the nest before making their first flights. We found differences in the length of time that the parents remain with the nestling, and described agonistic encounters between condors and other raptors and a Spectacled Bear (Tremarctos ornatus) in the condor nesting areas. The breeding success of the monitored condor pair was 0.88 nestlings per clutch, and the female laid an egg on average every 15 months. Considering the small size of the Andean Condor population in Ecuador, studies on the breeding behavior of wild-born condors are a high research priority to assess population trends and prevent extinction. Specifically, we recommend further research on parental care, breeding success, nestling survivorship, and nesting phenology. Beyond the importance of the protected area system, strategic planning of key areas for the maintenance of condor populations in the northern Andes must encompass the evaluation of new potential protected areas that offer direct benefits to these birds. These should include nesting sites in human-dominated landscapes such as rural Andean areas.
... Due to anthropogenic threats such as habitat degradation, poisoning with pesticides, lead intoxication, illegal capture, free-ranging dogs and shooting [21,[82][83][84], Andean Condors and California Condors, listed as Vulnerable and Critically Endangered [23], respectively, have suffered considerable population declines and geographic range contractions [85][86][87][88]. Furthermore, it is also expected that climate change will cause Black Vultures to move to higher altitudes and this will consequently increase overlap and competition with Andean Condors [89]. ...
... In this scenario, the risk of extinction of the Andean Condor would increase, since its populations are competitively excluded by Black Vultures [90,91]. It is fundamental to develop conservation strategies focused on Andean Condors and California Condors, as well as on Black Vultures [84,92]. The protection of these three species could allow the preservation of unique phenotypic and ecological traits that may lead to more stable biological systems [93,94]. ...
The New World Vultures (Cathartidae) include seven species of obligate scavengers that, despite their ecological relevance, present critical information gaps around their evolutionary history and conservation. Insights into their phylogenetic relationships in recent years has enabled the addressing of such information gaps through approaches based on phylogeny. We reconstructed the ancestral area in America of the current species using two regionalization schemes and methods:
Biogeography with Bayesian Evolutionary Analysis (BioGeoBears) and Bayesian Binary Model–Monte Carlo Markov Chains (BBM–MCMC). Then, we identified the priority species and areas for conservation by means of the Evolutionary Distinctiveness index (ED), as a proxy of the uniqueness of species according to phylogeny, and the Global Endangerment index (GE), mapping phylogenetic
diversity. We found that the ancestral area of NewWorld Vultures in America corresponds to South America, with dispersal processes that led to a recolonization of North America by Coragyps atratus, Gymnogyps californianus and Cathartes aura. We identified the Black Vulture, G. californianus and Vultur gryphus as priority species based on ED and “Evolutionary Distinct Globally Endangered” (EDGE)
indexes, and the lowlands of Amazon River basin and the Orinoco basin and some tributaries areas of the Guiana Shield were identified as the priority areas when mapping the phylogenetic diversity. This study highlights the importance of filling knowledge gaps of species of conservation concern through the integration of evolutionary and ecological information and tools and, thus, developing adequate
strategies to enhance the preservation of these species in the face of the current loss of biodiversity.
... This African vulture crisis is of particular importance to conservationists, because as obligate scavengers vultures are one of the most functionally important groups of animals on the planet owing to the irreplaceable ecosystem services they provide . Vultures play a central role in nutrient cycling and carcass removal, and they likely limit the spread of pathogenic microorganisms (Ogada et al. 2012a;Moleón et al. 2014;Pfeiffer et al. 2015;Plaza et al. 2020). ...
... However, it is classified as Critically Endangered because of an estimated average population decline of 83% over three generations . While anthropogenic factors affecting vulture populations are well-known, less is known about aspects of their life history, and specifically the factors affecting their reproduction in the wild (Bamford et al. 2009;Plaza and Lambertucci 2020;Pfeiffer et al. 2017). An improved understanding of vultures' breeding biology could benefit conservation efforts (Reading et al. 2005;Carrete et al. 2006;Margalida et al. 2008;Zuberogoitia et al. 2008). ...
Most vulture species worldwide are in decline and of conservation concern. Despite the growing attention to vultures, relatively few studies have focused on their breeding behaviour. Understanding all aspects of a species’ behaviour and its behavioural needs could help to inform conservation efforts. Behavioural studies can be enhanced with the use of an ethogram that clearly defines and describes distinct behaviours. We present the first ethogram detailing the nesting and breeding behaviours of the Critically Endangered Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus, compiled from over 400 000 nest camera photographs and from hours of direct personal observations at nests in north-eastern South Africa. We describe 28 behaviours that Hooded Vultures exhibited in and around their nests, and these fell into five discrete categories: Movement, Resting, Body Care, Social, and Nesting. We also present 34 camera trap images depicting behaviours from within each category, and discuss the uses and limitations of behaviour-recording technologies. Many of these behavioural elements may be common across vulture species, and so this ethogram may be a useful starting point for other researchers studying vultures globally.
... Guanacos declined to 2-9 percent of their pre-conquest numbers and were pushed to the more arid and isolated areas [46]. To protect sheep, persecution of pumas through hunting and the use of poison led to their extirpation and that of Andean condors (Vultur gryphus), the largest avian scavenger, from most of the steppe by the 1950s [45,47]. ...
... Similarly, pumas have recovered most of their early 20th century distribution in the steppe [52]. Some iconic wildlife species, such as Andean condors, rheas, and Andean cats (Leopardus jacobita), however, have not recovered or have continued their declines in abundance and/or distribution, and the causes for these trends are not well understood [42,47,53]. ...
Humans arrived in the Patagonia region of southern South America in the late Pleistocene period, ca. 15,000 years ago. A few centuries later, during a period of rapid warming, the megafauna went extinct in Patagonia, as well as some smaller species, like the guanaco (Lama guanicoe), in the southern portion of the region. As in other regions, extinctions probably occurred due to a combination of effects of climate and direct and indirect impacts of humans on wildlife communities. We reviewed recent archeological and genetic-based discoveries about numbers and distributions of humans and wildlife and their early interactions and used them to draw lessons for current debates among managers and scientists. Recent discoveries, for example, help us understand (1) the population limitation mechanisms and other interactions involving guanacos, livestock, forage, predators, and scavengers; (2) the magnitude of wildlife movements and the need for landscape-level planning for conservation; (3) the importance of indirect effects of human activities on wildlife communities; and (4) the compounded effects of human activities and climate change on wildlife. We believe these lessons drawn from deep time and recent history can help define new priorities for research and management and inform our conservation vision for the 21st century, a period when dramatic climate change impacts will add challenges to a region subject to a century of overgrazing and other anthropogenic pressures.
... The particular goal of environmental governance is to manage individual behaviours and collective actions in compliance with public environmental goods and related social outcomes through environmental management (i.e. the resources, plans, and actions that result from the functioning of governance; see Bennett and Satterfield, 2018). Some recent indirect evidence suggests the existence of a negative influence of poor governance at national and local levels on several human-felid, human-raptor, and human-reptile conflicts in the Neotropics (Barbar et al., 2016;Estrada-Pacheco et al., 2020;Giraldo-Amaya et al., 2021;Miranda et al., 2016;Morcatty et al., 2020;Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020;Restrepo-Cardona et al., 2020;Zimmermann et al., 2021). Thus, to ensure persistence of top predator populations in Neotropical countries, we need to have more evidence about how poor governance is influencing human-top predator conflicts across the region. ...
... Therefore, widespread human persecution to other Neotropical top predators such as the jaguar (Panthera onca), the cougar (Puma concolor), and the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja), and scavengers like the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) is also probably influenced by poor governance on the local, national, and regional scales independently of the perceived contributions of these species to people and the actual detriments received from them (e.g. Engel et al., 2016;Estrada-Pacheco et al., 2020;Giraldo-Amaya et al., 2021;Knox et al., 2019;Morcatty et al., 2020;Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020;Zimmermann et al., 2021;Zuluaga et al., 2021). ...
In most Neotropical countries the proliferation of illegal firearms, limited funding, and low presence of authorities precludes effective application of top-down governance. Despite that, to our knowledge, top-down governance and top predator detriments or benefits to people (perceived and actual) have never been integrated into an empirical study of human‒top predator conflict. We hypothesize that people’s tolerance towards the black-and-chestnut eagle (Spizaetus isidori), a Neotropical top predator, will vary based on the eagle’s perceived contributions to people, actual detriments to people, people’s support of the top-down local management, and country governance. We tested our hypothesis by carrying out a closed-ended question survey in human communities around 27 eagle nesting sites in two countries (Colombia and Ecuador). People’s tolerance towards the eagle showed a negative relationship with perceived detriments, actual detriments and disapproval of the top-down local management, but there was no influence of country governance. Overall, most people showed high (41.13%) or neutral (35.46%) tolerance towards the eagle and less than a quarter (23.41%) showed low tolerance. Forty percent of people disapproved of the top-down local management. We documented human persecution of this top predator in the majority of sampled nests (59%, 16 of 27) and across all the geographical jurisdictions assessed. Our results suggest that poor governance could also negatively affect other human‒top predator conflicts in the Neotropics. To be more effective at saving top predators in the Neotropical Region, structural changes such as a better balance between bottom-up and top-down approaches and, thus, co-management among stakeholders are needed.
... Particularmente, el escudo de Colombia tiene en su timbre un cóndor de los Andes, Vultur gryphus. Esta ave posee gran importancia para el país y para la región por sus características culturales, biológicas y ecológicas a lo largo de los Andes (Plaza & Lambertucci, 2020). ...
Este artículo explora el uso de figuras animales en los símbolos y distintivos de las Fuerzas Militares de Colombia. Analiza cómo estos emblemas, provenientes de la mitología y de la fauna local, representan valores fundamentales como la nobleza, el valor y el compromiso de los soldados. Se destacan ejemplos como el cóndor de los Andes, el águila arpía, los delfines y los caballitos de mar, que reflejan tanto la biodiversidad del país como la historia y misión de las Fuerzas Armadas. Concluye que estos símbolos no solo identifican a las unidades militares, sino que también subrayan la relación estrecha entre las Fuerzas Armadas y la protección del patrimonio natural de Colombia, a la vez que destacan la gran biodiversidad del país
... This is consistent with previous studies and emphasises the necessity for concerted conservation strategies on private lands owned by ranchers, farmers, and local communities (Sáenz-Jiménez, 2020). A similarly low representation of PCAs in protected areas has been reported in Ecuador (Naveda- Rodríguez et al., 2016) and the southern distribution of condors in Argentina Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020). This situation represents a significant challenge for condor conservation, especially considering the importance of well-chosen protected areas critical for biodiversity conservation (Tittensor et al., 2014). ...
The Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus) is a globally threatened species. Its highly mobile capability presents important challenges for conservation planning, especially in extremely geographically complex regions such as Colombia, where little is known about its ecology. Over the past three decades, financial and technical conservation efforts have primarily focussed on reintroduction and local management strategies. However, these initiatives did not properly prioritize the various conservation measures undertaken. We utilized roosting locations across Colombia to identify suitable roosting distribution with high risk because of the anthropogenic impact on a Systematic Planning Tool for decision-making based on robust spatial habitat modelling to define where and how should focus the Andean condor conservation actions in the country. Specifically, we aimed to develop a conservation planning tool to facilitate spatially explicit decision-making. Our results showed that Colombia has at least 19,571.33 km2 of suitable roosting habitat for this species, but over 30% of this area is currently considered to be under conservation risk due to severe anthropogenic impacts. Considering this, we suggested different actions for each proposed area according to potential threats generated by human communities.
... The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) is the largest South American bird species belonging to the family Cathartidae (Plaza & Lambertucci, 2020). V. gryphus is distributed on both sides of the Andes, from Venezuela to Patagonia (Birdlife International, 2020). ...
Several species of ectoparasites, including chewing lice and mites are closely associated with their hosts. The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) is globally listed as vulnerable by the IUCN and its population has been steadily declining in recent decades suggesting a potential extinction of associated entomofauna. The purpose of this study was to record the species of ectoparasites infesting three individuals of Andean condor found dead in the ‘Páramo del Almorzadero’ Santander Department, Northeastern Colombia. One juvenile (male) and two adults (male and female) Andean condors received for necropsy were carefully examined for ectoparasite infestation. Specimens were collected and preserved in ethanol (70%) for taxonomic studies. Morphologic identification and morphometric records were made under light microscopy. Some specimens were also prepared for scanning electron microscopy and others were subjected to DNA extraction to amplify and obtain sequences of the cytochrome-C oxidase subunit I (COI) gene for phylogenetic analyses. Lice were collected from the juvenile condor and the adult female and identified as Falcolipeurus assesor (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) in the juvenile condor (8 females, 19 males and 8 nymphs) and the adult (1 female); Colpocephalum trichosum (Phthiraptera: Amblycera) in the juvenile (19 females, 24 males and 1 nymph) and the adult (2 females, 2 males and 3 nymphs); and Cuculiphilus zonatus (Phthiraptera: Amblycera) in the juvenile (40 females, 43 males and 15 nymphs) and the adult (1 male and 2 nymphs). Moreover, one mite collected from the juvenile condor was identified as Ancyralges cathartinus (Acari: Astigmata) (1 female). Morphometric data was obtained for the adult stages of F. assesor (6 females and 13 males), C. trichosum (9 females and 9 males) and C. zonatus (10 females and 10 males). We obtained the first DNA sequences of COI for F. assessor, and C. trichosum, where phylogenetic tree analysis showed that F. assessor is more closely related to Falcolipeurus marginalis, and C. trichosum to Colpocephalum kelloggi. This represents the first record of parasites in Andean condor from
Colombia and contributes to the knowledge of chewing lice and mites associated with an endemic and endangered bird species. Further studies on Andean condor ectoparasites should be focused on documenting host–parasite interactions and potential health impacts in these wild birds.
... impact on bird populations in general (e.g.,Cooke et al. 2020), and avoidance of roads may effectively reduce the area of usable habitat available (e.g. Andean condors,Plaza & Lambertucci 2020). Other forms of transport may be sources of disturbance such as the widespread use of helicopters. ...
High mountain habitats are globally important for biodiversity. At least 12% of birds worldwide breed at or above the treeline, many of which are endemic species or species of conservation concern. However, due to the challenges of studying mountain birds in difficult-to-access habitats, little is known about their status and trends. This book provides the first global review of the ecology, evolution, life history and conservation of high mountain birds, including comprehensive coverage of their key habitats across global mountain regions, assessments of diversity patterns along elevation gradients, and adaptations for life in the alpine zone. The main threats to mountain bird populations are also identified, including climate change, human land use and recreational activities. Written for ecologists and naturalists, this book identifies key knowledge gaps and clearly establishes the research priorities needed to increase our understanding of the ecology of mountain birds and to aid in their conservation.
... Strict regulation of pesticide use is an important tool for preventing the poisoning of Andean Condors (Plaza & Lambertucci 2020. However, considering that this conservation problem arises from complex interactions between people and wildlife, the challenges need to be addressed through social-ecological approaches. ...
... Solutions proposed in this study included both lethal and non-lethal management strategies, including selective removal of problem animals and use of dissuasive measures such as livestock guard dogs (LGDs). A need to address poison use was identified, because it presents a risk to LGDs, the protected Andan condor and other species (Márquez et al. 2013;Plaza and Lambertucci 2020). Resumed monitoring of carnivore populations could benefit decision-making of carnivore management (Redpath et al. 2017). ...
Lethal control of native carnivores as a principal management strategy can have unforseen ecological consequences and is often of questionable efficacy. Using as a case study a region where the lethal control of native puma and culpeo foxes has been incentivised via legislation for over 50 years, we examined how this policy has affected institutional narratives in the region. We conducted four key informant interviews with members of relevant institutions to establish their perspectives on carnivore management. We also examined the informational basis for the current legislative approach to predation, and identified topics for discussion surrounding legislation and its formation for decision-makers in the province. We identified a duality where two branches of gove rnment have contradictory policies regarding livestock production and carnivore management. All institutions involved in predation management in rural landscapes produced narratives supporting sustainable development, and suggested, in varying degrees, that alternatives to lethal control would be positive. Interviewees stated that modification of the existing laws require livestock producers to demand a change from policy-makers, who generally view carnivores poorly. Furthermore, there is evidence that discussions surrounding management strategies suffer from cultural bias, with rural inhabitants finding themselves marginalised from the decision-making process. We identified a need for empathy regarding the adverse situation of rural inhabitants facing the impacts of predation, and an appreciation of the role that carnivores play within their environments, so as to change the negative discourse surrounding human–carnivore interactions.
... The páramo is a distinctive ecosystem of the high Andes of Northern South America (Neill, 1999). Here, raptors stand out as a community with a high concentration of threatened species, whose populations are in persistent decline due to illegal hunting and habitat loss (Ballejo et al., 2018;Naveda-Rodríguez et al., 2016;Plaza & Lambertucci, 2020). Important threatened species in this community include Vultur gryphus (Andean Condor), Falco peregrinus (Peregrine Falcon), Falco femoralis (Aplomado Falcon) and endemics such as Phalcoboenus carunculatus (Caracara Curiquingue) (Fjeldsa & Krabbe, 1990;Freile & Restall 2018;Freile et al., 2019;Ridgely & Greenfield, 2001;Stattersfield et al., 1998). ...
Introduction: Habitat alterations result in biodiversity loss, particularly in regions with high levels of diversity and endemism. Raptors are an essential part of the functionality and stability of ecosystems and indicators of habitat quality. In the paramo grassland ecosystems in the high Andes of Northern South America, raptors contain a high concentration of threatened species. Objective: To describe the raptor community structure and determine the species associations. Methods: We made monthly raptor counts in eight transects from October 2021 to September 2022 and used a principal component analysis to determine species associations. Results: We identified 149 individuals (seven species, three families) in two communities: abundant (Carunculated Caracara, Variable Hawk, Andean Condor and Turkey Vulture; PCI = 47 %), and scarce (Cinereous Harrier, Peregrine Falcon and Aplomado Falco; PCII = 27 %). Conclusion: We provide a valid description and understanding of raptor community structure, identifying two communities and the dynamics between them. The first is characterized by an increased abundance of general-ist and regionally common species, when the abundance of these species decreases, the second community is defined, characterized by an increase in the abundance of specialist and rare species at the local scale.
RESUMEN Estructura de la comunidad de rapaces en el paisaje de páramo de los Andes ecuatorianos. Introducción: Las alteraciones del hábitat provocan la pérdida de biodiversidad, especialmente en regiones con altos niveles de diversidad y endemismo. Las aves rapaces son una parte esencial de la funcionalidad y estabili-dad de los ecosistemas, y son indicadores de la calidad del hábitat. En los ecosistemas de páramo en los Andes del norte de Sudamérica, hay una concentración de especies rapaces amenazadas.
... Reports of wildlife collisions with power lines in South America are even more scarce than those for avian electrocution. Avian collision is mentioned for a swan species in Chile (Valenzuela, 2009), harpy eagles (Aguiar- Silva et al., 2014) and two species of terns (see below) in Brazil, Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) in Argentina, Chile and Peru (Plaza & Lambertucci, 2020) and turkey vultures on high-voltage transmission lines in central Argentina (Sarasola, unpub. data). ...
Guidelines for preventing and mitigating wildlife mortality associated with electricity distribution networks
... The methodological approaches implemented in the scientific papers reviewed were: (1) bird carcass searches under power lines (e.g., Galmes et al., 2017;McNeil et al., 1985); (2) reports from wildlife rehabilitation centers or occasional records of dead or injured individuals due to power lines (e.g., Aguiar et al., 2014;Gusmão et al., 2020Gusmão et al., , 2016Hinostroza et al., 2020;Nolazco et al., 2010;Pavez and Estades, 2016;Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020a); and (3) location of tracked individuals (e.g., tagged with telemetry devices) found dead, which were complemented with records provided by farmers or NGOs (e.g., Sarasola et al., 2020). Studies that addressed the effectiveness of mitigation actions to reduce the impacts of power lines on birds and studies that evaluated the impacts produced by this threat at the population level are scarce (but see, Biasotto et al., 2017;De la Zerda and Rosselli, 2003;Galmes et al., 2017). ...
Power lines endanger birds around the world, as a large number of them are killed every year through electrocutions and collisions. This problem can have severe consequences at population level, particularly for threatened species. While this threat has been widely studied in different parts of the world, information from South America is scarce. Here, we review information from scientific and grey literature on the collision and electrocution of birds on power lines from this sub-continent. We complement this information with novel data provided by a citizen science project, electrical companies and field monitoring records. Our results show that although in South America scientific and anecdotal information on this topic is scarce, data suggests that this threat is present in many areas of this sub-continent and affects several species, some of which are seriously threatened. However, information on the most affected species, the number of individuals impacted, the most dangerous geographical areas and the effectiveness of mitigation action is scarce and mainly anecdotal. This is worrying, because South America is a hot spot of biodiversity with many threatened and endemic bird species. We urge conservationists to evaluate this problem in more detail, define areas where it is important to avoid power line installation and establish priority areas for implementation of effective mitigation actions. Scientific evidence shows that dangerous power lines require retrofitting, but this knowledge should also be applied to the new energy facilities and the establishment of national regulations, which would undoubtedly reduce the impact of this infrastructure on wildlife.
... Plastic pollution is currently one of the most serious environmental problems worldwide 51 (Rhodes, 2018). Plastic production has increased from 1950 (when mass production of The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus), an emblematic and vulnerable vulture species of 92 South America, is experiencing population decline because of diverse human 93 disturbances (Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020). In recent years, some populations of this 94 species have been exposed to plastic debris in Chile, especially when foraging in 95 rubbish dumps (Duclos et al., 2020). ...
Plastic pollution is an alarming environmental problem affecting diverse species worldwide. Scavenging birds are currently exposed to plastic due to contamination of their food sources. Here, we evaluated the ingestion of plastic by a threatened top scavenger, the Andean condor ( Vultur gryphus ). We analyzed the biotic (organic items from the diet) and abiotic (synthetic material) composition of regurgitated pellets in two remote areas of Peru associated with protected areas: a marine-coastal region and an Andean region. Condors consume mainly Pinnipeds and South American camelids in the marine-coastal region, and camelids and livestock in the Andean region. We found a very high frequency of occurrence (85-100%) of microplastic debris in pellets of both areas studied. The occurrence of microplastics differed between sites; although very high in both areas, the rate of occurrence and density were higher in the marine-coastal region. We used published information and our own data to identify possible sources of this plastic pollution in condors. We confirmed that carcasses consumed by condors in both study areas were contaminated with plastic. Therefore, plastic in Andean condors is most probably acquired through the food web in both the marine and terrestrial environments. Andean condors from Peru are highly contaminated with plastic, which may affect their health, population dynamics, and conservation. Moreover, as condors are apex scavengers, our results highlight the fact that plastic pollution in remote areas of Peru is present at different levels of the food web and in the environment. Urgent Action should be taken to reduce environmental contamination with this hazardous material.
... Lethal strategies frequently used to control feral dogs could affect wildlife in general. For example, poisoned bait targeting dogs (and also foxes) (Travaini et al. 2000) caused massive mortality in other species such as obligate scavenger birds (Plaza and Lambertucci 2020). Moreover, some predation events caused by feral dogs may be erroneously attributed to carnivores. ...
Human-wildlife interactions can be negative when the needs and behavior of wildlife negatively influence human goals, or vice-versa, and management of these interactions may lead to conflict. Here, we review information on negative interactions between humans and wildlife in South America contained in 136 scientific publications, focusing on terrestrial mammalian predators and raptors. We found that most studies were conducted in Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Colombia. The methodology most commonly used to investigate negative interactions was interviews with rural inhabitants. Studies were performed mainly on interactions involving large felids such as Panthera onca and Puma concolor, and-to a lesser extent-on other mammalian predators and raptors such as eagles or scavenger birds. The main drivers of negative interactions involved perceived or actual impacts on human economy (material) (e.g., livestock or crop losses) or were based on non-material (intangible) aspects (e.g., fear, myths, and religious beliefs). The studies showed that negative attitudes and perceptions toward terrestrial mammalian predators and raptors are widespread in South America. Although non-lethal strategies for mitigation of negative interactions have been proposed, most are not widely used and lethal controls are still very common. A multidisciplinary approach is required, based on multiple actions (e.g., improving livestock practices, running educational programs, increasing stakeholder involvement, providing farmers with solutions), which would minimize negative interactions and promote coexistence between humans and wildlife. This is key to maintaining threatened species, ecological interactions and healthy environments in the anthropized landscapes of biodiverse South America.
Desentrañando las interacciones negativas entre humanos, mamíferos carnívoros y rapaces en América del Sur. Las interacciones entre el ser humano y la fauna silvestre pueden ser negativas cuando las necesidades y el comportamiento de la fauna silvestre influyen negativamente en las metas de las personas, o viceversa, y manejar estas interacciones puede generar conflictos. En este artículo revisamos la información científica sobre este tipo de interacciones en 136 publicaciones realizadas en Sudamérica. Nos centramos en los mamíferos depredadores terrestres y en las aves rapaces. Encontramos que la mayoría de los estudios se realizaron en Brasil, Argentina, Chile y Colombia. La metodología más utilizada fueron las entrevistas a habitantes de zonas rurales. Los estudios se realizaron principalmente sobre interacciones con grandes félidos como Panthera onca y Puma concolor, yen menor medida-sobre otros mamíferos depredadores y aves rapaces como las águilas o las aves carroñeras. Los impulsores principales de estas interacciones fueron los impactos-percibidos o reales-sobre la economía (materiales) (e.g., pérdidas de ganado o cultivos) o aspectos no materiales (intangibles) (e.g., miedo, mitos y creencias religiosas). Los estudios mostraron que las actitudes y percepciones negativas hacia los mamíferos depredadores y las aves rapaces están muy extendidas en Sudamérica. Aunque se propusieron estrategias no letales para mitigar las interacciones negativas, la mayoría no se utiliza ampliamente y los controles letales siguen siendo muy comunes. Se requiere un enfoque multidisciplinario, basado en diversas acciones (e.g., mejorar las prácticas ganaderas, realizar programas educativos, aumentar la participación de las partes interesadas, proporcionar soluciones a los agricultores) que minimicen las interacciones negativas y promuevan la coexistencia entre los seres humanos y la fauna silvestre. Esto es clave para conservar las especies amenazadas, fomentar las interacciones ecológicas y mantener entornos saludables en los paisajes antropizados de la biodiversa Sudamérica.
... Populations of both condor species decreased until almost the extinction in high risk areas associated with human impacts. These threats include safe native wild food reductions, and the increasing use of anthropogenic food sources (Plaza and Lambertucci, 2020). In the past, before the severe declines in whale populations, strandings could have been so common that coastal ecosystem structure and function may have been different from those known today, and their effects could have even permeated inland. ...
Ecosystem services associated with cetacean strandings have been altered by humans through exploitation of wild populations during the whaling era and more recently by regulations on carcass management and disposal to abide by environmental health requirements. Here, we systematically review the scientific literature and gather data on cetacean strandings worldwide to: 1) identify the ecosystem services provided by stranded cetacean carcasses in the past and present; 2) estimate the density of cetacean strandings currently occurring in selected coastal areas around the globe, and analyse its association with human population density and regulations; and 3) identify and discuss the regulations and methods concerned with whale carcass disposal in specific regions of the world. Our literature review revealed that stranded cetacean carcasses have provided a rich and varied array of provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting ecosystem services to ancient and modern civilisations worldwide. Also, we found that the current density of stranded carcasses (mean: 0.090 strandings • year⁻¹ • km⁻¹; range: 0.001–0.978) and the disposal methods widely varied across the studied regions and countries. In addition, neither human population density nor the existence of regulations were good predictors of stranding densities. Finally, we provide recommendations for the future management of stranded cetacean carcasses, by identifying those disposal methods that minimize costs and maximize ecosystem functions and services. In particular, we encourage natural decomposition in situ whenever possible; otherwise, the present coastal management strategies could be improved by including zoning, seasonal use limitation and educational outreach depending upon the local scenario. Overall, further socio-ecological research is strongly needed to guide stranded cetacean carcass management towards enhancing the net benefits that humans and ecosystems gain from carcasses, especially considering that coastal areas become more populated, new disposal regulations are approved, and cetacean populations are recovering – and thus strandings may become more frequent.
... In addition, although most indexed works address important specific issues for the conservation, the fact that most of these endemic and threatened species are occasionally recorded in studies, bringing only this isolated information, is not enough for the planning of their conservation. Most of them have their populations reduced and are dependent on specific environments, making it a priority to produce strong knowledge about their population dynamics, genetic variability, evolutionary patterns, reproductive characteristics, biotic interactions, and abiotic tolerances (Hortal et al. 2015) to define actions efficient to the conservation of these species, improving their status and decreasing risk of extinction (Plaza and Lambertucci 2020;Buxton et al. 2021). Keywords help search engines identify the topics that papers cover and have been widely utilized to reveal the basic elements covered in the research (Su and Lee 2010). ...
Globally, about 1500 bird species are considered threatened and the overall conservation status of most species continues to deteriorate. In addition, many endemic birds that inhabit rapidly changing environments also require urgent conservation efforts. Understanding the problems faced by these species, guiding effective conservation actions, and optimizing the use of limited resource are therefore a priority. Effective conservation strategies need to be based on scientific knowledge, so systematically assessing scientific production can help identify species whose conservation may be compromised by limited knowledge. Here, we assess endemic, globally threatened landbirds in Brazil that we identified using the “Country Profiles” of the BirdLife International’s database. Scientific production, in the form of published documents, was identified using the SCOPUS bibliometric database between 1870 and 2020. We identified a total of 90 Brazilian endemic landbird species categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as threatened. Scientific production was strongly skewed, with 10 species associated with almost half (46.2%) of all published documents, and 16 species not yet associated with any published document in the database. The number of documents increased significantly from 2005. Keyword analysis indicates that published studies cover a wide range of topics, although there is a lack of information to support conservation decision-making. We conclude that more research on endemic, globally threatened landbirds in Brazil is urgently required. Lack of knowledge of these species is likely to compromise the development of effective conservation actions and we recommend greater investment in targeted research on these species.
... While the latter has been the subject of intense, and so far successful, conservation efforts to prevent its extinction through the use of reproduction programs 3,18,19 , the former continues in steep decline. Recently, the Andean condor has been classified globally as Vulnerable and is Critically Endangered in their northern distribution due to persistent human persecution 19,20 . Previous analysis using historical samples of California condors from the nineteenth century revealed that the remarkable low levels of mtDNA diversity found in extant individuals are a direct consequence of recent human action 18 . ...
The evolution of large vultures linked to mountainous habitats was accompanied by extreme physiological and behavioral specializations for energetically efficient flights. However, little is known on the genetic traits associated with the evolution of these obligate soaring scavengers. Mitochondrial DNA plays a vital role in regulating oxidative stress and energy production, and hence may be an important target of selection for flight performance. Herein, we characterized the first mitogenomes of the Andean and California condors, the world’s heaviest flying birds and the only living representatives of the Vultur and Gymnogyps genus. We reconstructed the phylogenetic relationships and evaluated possible footprints of convergent evolution associated to the life-history traits and distributional range of vultures. Our phylogenomic analyses supported the independent evolution of vultures, with the origin of Cathartidae in the early Paleogene (~ 61 Mya), and estimated the radiation of extant condors during the late Miocene (~ 11 Mya). Selection analyses indicated that vultures exhibit signals of relaxation of purifying selection relative to other accipitrimorph raptors, possibly indicating the degeneration of flapping flight ability. Overall, our results suggest that the extreme specialization of vultures for efficient soaring flight has compensated the evolution of large body sizes mitigating the selection pressure on mtDNA.
... Some evident distinctions between these groups, such as the functional hind toe, lack of syrinx, internal separation of the nostrils, or the lack of squirting behavior on the legs in OW vultures, among others [7;9], suggest that evolutionary constraints (parallel evolution sensu neo-Gouldian [53]) are not driving their overall phenotypic similarities. Moreover, NW vultures seem to be more sensitive to lead contamination than OW species [20], while the striking tolerance to Diclofenac in the Turkey vulture (> 100 times than in OW vultures) suggest that NW vultures are less vulnerable to the toxic effects of non-steroidal anti-in ammatory drugs [54]. If true, components of genetic variation of the detoxi cation metabolism have diverged between NW and OW vultures. ...
The evolution of large vultures linked to mountainous habitats was accompanied by extreme physiological and behavioral specializations for energetically efficient flights. However, little is known on the genetic traits associated with the evolution of these obligate soaring scavengers. Mitochondrial DNA plays a vital role in regulating oxidative stress and energy production, and hence may be an important target of selection for flight performance. Herein, we characterized the first mitogenomes of the Andean and California condors, the world’s heaviest flying birds and the only living representative of Vultur and Gymnogyps genus. We reconstructed the phylogenetic relationships and evaluated possible footprints of convergent evolution associated to the life-history traits and distributional range of vultures. Our phylogenomic analyses supported the independent evolution of vultures, with the origin of Cathartidae in the early Paleogene (~ 59 Mya), and estimated the radiation of extant condors during the late Miocene (~ 10 Mya). Selection analyses indicated that vultures exhibit signals of relaxation of purifying selection relative to other accipitrimorph raptors, possibly indicating the degeneration of flapping flight ability. Overall, our results suggest that the extreme specialization of vultures for efficient soaring flight has compensated the evolution of large body sizes mitigating the selection pressure on mtDNA.
... The fragmentation of the landscape prevented the daily movement of plant and animal species between breeding, feeding habitat, and migration (Rycken et al., 2020). Furthermore, fewer species are assisted by smaller habitat patches, which can only accommodate a smaller number of populations, placing them at risk of extinction (Plaza, 2020). The edge, on the other hand, has a greater impact than ever on the sustainability of native species (Kiene et al., 2020). ...
The effect of land use land cover (LULC) change is well documented, but the impact of landscape fragmentation on Ecosystem Service Value (ESV) has not been quantitatively explored yet in the study area. The present study designed to evaluate the landscape fragmentation effect of Abha watershed, Saudi Arabia, a new method was proposed by integrating the ESV with the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and landscape fragmentation model. Results of LULC dynamics showed that urban area has increased significantly by 1648.8 hectares (ha) to 6379.2 ha from 1990 to 2018. While the scrubland has covered a half (15173.6 ha) of the total study area (37001.08 ha) in 1990, but it was significantly reduced to 8907.93 ha in 2018. The calculated ESV of dense vegetation was 0.2 million dollars/year, according to the results of the integrated ESV model, but it was 2 million dollars/year using the initial coefficient in 2018. In 2018, the estimated ESV for water bodies using AHP's integrated ESV model was 7 times lower than the estimated ESV with an initial coefficient That is, a declining trend was discovered after integrating landscape fragmentation for ESV estimation in this study area.
... Unfortunately, those comments suggest that they have not carefully read our article, given that there are many recommendations that only need to be adjusted to local particularities, that cannot be developed in a review article. These local to regional recommendations can be found throughout the manuscript and are summarized in a table (see Table 1, Plaza and Lambertucci 2020). Additionally, Méndez et al. (2020) are probably not aware of Andean condor conservation programs and actions that currently exist in South America, of the results already obtained, and of the role scientists are playing on those programs in association with different stakeholders. ...
Scientists from different parts of the world have worked on understanding threats affecting vultures. In the case of the threatened Andean condor (Vultur gryphus), their ecology and threats were poorly studied until the last decade. Today, there is not only more information, but there are also several action plans for this species in different parts of their distribution range. Those plans are beginning to be based on scientific evidence and experience of scientists and diverse stakeholders, thus reducing the gap between scientific knowledge and decision-making processes. To illustrate this, we discuss here some successful results obtained by scientists, managers, policy makers and diverse stakeholders working in the conservation of Andean condors. We show some examples of how scientific evidence, and the knowledge and participation of different parties, helped to start promoting regulations for two of the main threats affecting this species, poisoning and lead contamination.
RESUMEN: En Argentina, el riesgo que los rodenticidas anticoagulantes podrían presentar para las aves ra-paces locales fue reconocido inicialmente en la década de 1980. Lamentablemente, 40 años después de esta primera señal de alarma, los rodenticidas anticoagulantes siguen siendo ampliamente utilizados en el país y en toda Sudamérica, sin haberse estudiado el problema medioambiental que estos pueden suponer. Aquí pre-sentamos una revisión práctica e integral sobre los rodenticidas anticoagulantes y la intoxicación por estos en aves rapaces. Discutimos su impacto, tanto sobre individuos como en poblaciones, como también los aspectos relacionados al manejo de animales intoxicados y a la necesidad de contar con capacidad diagnóstica en la región. La información aquí recopilada permitirá contar con contenidos relevantes, actualizados y accesibles necesarios para abordar el estudio de esta amenaza para la conservación de las aves rapaces de Argentina y de otros países de Sudamérica. Al mismo tiempo, esperamos que promueva investigaciones sobre el tema que per-mitan dar los pasos necesarios para evaluar y mitigar el riesgo que el uso de los rodenticidas anticoagulantes puede tener sobre las aves rapaces y otra fauna silvestre.
ABSTRACT: In Argentina, the risk that anticoagulant rodenticides could pose to local birds of prey was initially recognized in the 1980s. Unfortunately, 40 years after this first warning sign, anticoagulant rodenticides are still widely used in the country and throughout South America, without having studied the environmental problem that these products may cause. Here we present a practical and comprehensive review on anticoagulant rodenticides and their poisoning in birds of prey. We discuss their impact, both on individuals and their populations , the main aspects related to the management of intoxicated animals, and the need for diagnostic capacity in the region. The information collected here provides relevant, up-to-date, and accessible content necessary to address the study of this threat to the conservation of birds of prey in Argentina and other South American countries.
En Argentina, el riesgo que los rodenticidas anticoagulantes podrían presentar para las aves rapaces locales fue reconocido inicialmente en la década de 1980. Lamentablemente, 40 años después de esta primera señal de alarma, los rodenticidas anticoagulantes siguen siendo ampliamente utilizados en el país y en toda Sudamérica, sin haberse estudiado el problema medioambiental que estos pueden suponer. Aquí presentamos una revisión práctica e integral sobre los rodenticidas anticoagulantes y la intoxicación por estos en aves rapaces. Discutimos su impacto, tanto sobre individuos como en sus poblaciones, como también los aspectos relacionados al manejo de animales intoxicados y a la necesidad de contar con capacidad diagnóstica en la región. La información aquí recopilada permitirá contar con contenidos relevantes, actualizados y accesibles necesarios para abordar el estudio de esta amenaza para la conservación de las aves rapaces de Argentina y de otros países de Sudamérica. Al mismo tiempo, esperamos que promueva investigaciones sobre el tema que permitan dar los pasos necesarios para evaluar y mitigar el riesgo que el uso de los rodenticidas anticoagulantes puede tener sobre las aves rapaces y otra fauna silvestre
Energy consumed in 1950 reached 25.6 TWh with a population of 2.5 billion people, then increased almost 7 times to reach 168.5 TWh in 2020 with a population of 8 billion people, around 3 times the population in 1950. The rate of increase in energy consumption is greater than the rate of increase in human population. There has been an increase in the amount of energy consumption per capita, both globally, in Asian countries and in Indonesia. On a global average, energy consumption per capita in 1970 was 15.4 MWh, then increased to 21.1 MWh in 2020. The phenomenon of increasing the amount of energy consumption and energy consumption per capita cannot be separated from the increase in the amount of CO2 emissions released into the atmosphere. This is characterized by the linearity of the amount of CO2 emissions which gradually increases. In 1980, CO2 emissions released into the atmosphere were 5.93 tons and continue to increase along with energy consumption and per capita energy consumption will reach 37.2 tons in 2022. As a result, the earth's surface temperature increased by 0.86°C compared to the earth's surface temperature before the industrial revolution (National Centers for Environmental Information, 2022), thus causing the potential for a global climate crisis. As part of the UN and its commitment to preventing the climate crisis, Indonesia based on the initial NDC target has a commitment to reduce CO2 emissions by 29% in 2030 or by 2.87 gigatons CO2-eq independently and 41% if considering assistance and support finance, technology transfer, development and capacity building on an international scale. This target was then revised into an ENDC (Enhanced Nationally Determined Commitment) document, where Indonesia's commitment to reducing CO2 emissions increased to 31.89% independently and 43.2% if considering financial assistance and support, technology transfer, development and improvement. capacity on an international scale.
While natural protected areas are conceived for nature conservation, humans and their activities must also be considered. Conflict between the public and managers of protected areas can be minimized by regulations that clearly communicate which activities are allowed. Domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) affect threatened species and impact numerous protected areas. In this study we evaluate: (1) the accessibility and clarity of regulations regarding dog access to protected areas in Argentina, (2) the public’s knowledge of these regulations, (3) the public’s expectations of the regulations (4) which institutions people consider should act when dog aggression occurs, and (5) measures suggested by people when dog aggression occurs. Poor accessibility and clarity of regulations were associated with poor public knowledge of them; there was also an association between visited protected areas that did not mention regulations and respondents who reported not knowing whether dogs were allowed or thinking dogs were allowed. In general, the respondents supported measures to regulate dog access to protected areas and the control of problematic dogs. We discuss several aspects that lead to a lack of clarity on dog regulations in protected areas and suggest approaches that could be used to overcome this conservation problem.
Potential exposure of the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus) to pharmaceuticals is of high conservation interest, as these compounds can produce catastrophic consequences for populations of avian scavengers. Due to the extensive livestock management in most of Patagonia, we expected Andean condors to be rarely exposed to veterinary pharmaceuticals through scavenging of free-ranging livestock. Unexpectedly, we found a high prevalence (78.6 %) of pharmaceuticals in the plasma of a small sample of randomly captured condors (n = 14), of all age classes and sexes. The antibiotic enrofloxacin was detected in all 11 drug-positive condors (78.6 %). Two antibiotics and two non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) were found simultaneously or in combinations of two or three different pharmaceuticals in 3 of the 14 (21.4 %) condors: marbofloxacin and phenyl-butazone were found in a single adult female together with enrofloxacin, while flunixin meglumine was found in two adult males and also in the presence of enrofloxacin. Our study suggests that livestock grazing in the vast Patagonian region may be subject to more frequent medication than expected a priori. Today, it should not be assumed that livestock in remote, sparsely populated, or low-income areas are free of veterinary pharmaceuticals with a possible negative impact on wildlife and public health.
Background: Among the New World vultures, the Andean condor is considered one
of the most culturally and ecologically important species. However, their populations
are declining over their entire distributional range. In response, conservation
strategies have been implemented in many countries to reverse the increasing
extinction risk of this species. The initiatives rely on extensive population surveys to
gather basic information necessary to implement policies and to intervene efficiently.
Still, there is a need to standardize the surveys based on seasonality and suitable
environmental conditions throughout the species distribution. Here, we provide the
first assessment of how daily temperature, rainfall, and seasonality influence surveys
of Andean condors on a communal roost in the central Peruvian Andes.
Methods: Using an autoregressive generalized linear model, we associated
environmental variables with visual surveys of adult and young condors at three
different times of the day and three times a week between June 2014 and March 2015.
Results: We found that both adults and young Andean condors showed a threefold
reduction in the use of the communal roost after the beginning of the rainy season.
Colder and drier days (dry season) are preferable for surveying, as we expect the total
number of condors using communal roosts to reduce under rainy (rainfall = −0.53 ±
0.16) and warmer days (temperature = −0.04 ± 0.02) days. Therefore, the significant
variation in the use of roosts across seasons and hours should be carefully accounted
for in national surveys, at the risk of undermining the full potential of the communal
roost surveys. Moreover, we also found a strong bias towards immatures (about 76%)
in the adult:immature ratio and a remarkable absence of Andean condors during the wet season. These results suggest that the species might be using other unknown
communal roosts hierarchically. Such results provide key information for selecting
priority areas for conservation and selecting the best time to survey this species in the
tropical Andes. Finally, it may open a fruitful avenue for further research on the
protection of the Andean condor.
Dead animals release greenhouse gases to the atmosphere through natural decomposition or because they have to be processed by disposal methods such as composting or rendering. Obligate scavenging birds (vultures) consume dead animals and are among the most efficient terrestrial scavengers. They may therefore contribute to a considerable reduction in sources of greenhouse gases. Here, we quantify the global contribution of vultures in reducing greenhouse gas emissions by consuming organic material. First, we evaluated a scenario where all the dead animals that can be consumed by vultures every year have to be disposed of by composting, anaerobic decomposition (e.g., burial), anaerobic digestion or rendering. Second, we assessed a scenario in which dead animals are left to decompose in the environment. Current vulture populations (~134-140 million individuals) may reduce emissions of 3.03-60.70 Tg CO 2 eq. per year, depending on the disposal method implemented, without considering carcass transport to disposal plants. Alternatively, they may reduce emissions of 13.02 Tg CO 2 per year if dead animals remain in the environment. Over recent years a decline in vulture populations worldwide has led to a decrease of a 30 % in their capacity to mitigate greenhouse gases emissions. A few abundant vulture species reduce almost 98 % of the maximum emissions potentially removed worldwide by all extant vulture species over one year. This ecosystem service contributed by vultures to humans and nature cannot easily be replaced by other species, including humans. Moreover, supplanting this contribution with alternative carcass disposal methods is expensive and harmful to the environment due to emissions generated in the process. Our results highlight an important service that vultures provide worldwide, which is relevant in the current context of global warming.
Proactive approaches are typically more cost-effective than reactive ones, and this is clearly the case for biodiversity conservation. Research and conservation actions for Old World vultures typically followed large population declines, particularly in Asia and Africa. These are clear examples of reactive intensive conservation management. We here contend that there are signs of a potential upcoming continental vulture crisis in the New World. New Word vultures share many of the threats that have decimated their Old World counterparts, such as toxicosis from poisoning and lead. At the same time, we show that quantitative data on key demographic and conservation action aspects are largely lacking for many New World vultures, particularly those restricted to the Neotropics. This knowledge gap prevents us from quantifying population declines, and in turn, to design effective management actions to mitigate and prevent further declines. Essentially, if the current knowledge gaps are not filled rapidly, we will miss the opportunity to apply proactive conservation. We here propose a set of actions to prevent a potential vulture crisis in the Americas.
Correlations in the timings of vulture collapse and rapid urbanisation in South Asia have affected the benefit trade-offs concerning conservation-breeding for vulture restoration. We show how the loss of vultures 30 years ago has led to the extinction of experience amongst people in South Asia who are co-adapted to various animal species within shared landscapes. We conducted ethnography that focused on avian scavengers (vultures, kites and crows) in Delhi to unpack how salience and charisma for avian scavengers link with socio-cultural legends. Perceptions about avian scavengers were based on birds’ appearance, behaviour, and ecosystem services. Anthropomorphisation mediated human-animal co-adaptation and drove ritual feeding of commensals that opportunistically consume garbage. Conflated with ethnoecology, such human-constructed niches supported enormous animal populations in the region and drove mutual tolerance. Prior evaluations of scavengers’ niche from biophysical perspectives alone have, therefore, overlooked links between vultures and animal husbandry practices. It undermined competitive release on commensals that have responded by an increase in numbers and distribution, by taking advantage of ritual feeding and people’s affiliative attitudes. The absence of vultures limits the availability of spaces where animal husbandry can be practised . Conversely, expanding built-up spaces, overhead wires, fake news, and interference from competing scavengers will be impediments to vulture restoration. Conservation policies should examine immediate and long-term objectives of solid waste disposal, considering the odds against the attainment of the yesteryear functional ecology of vultures in South Asia. We conclude that wildlife restoration in urbanising tropical landscapes is a moving target, necessitating policies sensitive to progressive loss and/or changes in associative heritage due to shifting economic and cultural practices.
Correlations in the timings of vulture collapse and rapid urbanisation in South Asia have affected the benefit trade-offs concerning conservation-breeding for vulture restoration. We show how the loss of vultures 30 years ago has led to the extinction of experience amongst people in South Asia who are co-adapted to various animal species within shared landscapes. We conducted ethnography, involving avian scavengers (vultures, kites and crows) in Delhi, to unpack how salience and charisma for avian scavenger’s link with socio-cultural legends. Perceptions about avian scavengers were based on birds’ appearance, behaviour, and ecosystem services. Anthropomorphisation mediated human-animal co-adaptation and drove ritual feeding of commensals that opportunistically consume garbage. Conflated with ethnoecology, such human-constructed niches supported enormous animal populations in the region and drove mutual tolerance. Prior evaluations of scavengers’ niche from biophysical perspectives alone have, therefore, overlooked links between vultures and animal husbandry practices. It undermined competitive release on commensals that have responded by an increase in numbers and distribution, by taking advantage of ritual feeding and people’s affiliative attitudes. The absence of vultures limits the availability of spaces where animal husbandry can be practised . Conversely, expanding built-up spaces, overhead wires, fake news, and interference from competing scavengers will be impediments to vulture restoration. Conservation policies should examine immediate and long-term objectives of solid waste disposal, considering the odds against the attainment of former functional ecology by vultures. We conclude that wildlife restoration in urbanising tropical landscapes is a moving target, necessitating policies sensitive to progressive loss and/or changes in associative heritage due to shifting economic and cultural practices.
Correlations in the timings of vulture collapse and rapid urbanisation in South Asia have affected the benefit trade-offs concerning conservation-breeding for vulture restoration. We show how the loss of vultures 30 years ago has led to the extinction of experience amongst people in South Asia who are co-adapted to various animal species within shared landscapes. We conducted ethnography, involving avian scavengers (vultures, kites and crows) in Delhi, to unpack how salience and charisma for avian scavenger’s link with socio-cultural legends. Perceptions about avian scavengers were based on birds’ appearance, behaviour, and ecosystem services. Anthropomorphisation mediated human-animal co-adaptation and drove ritual feeding of commensals that opportunistically consume garbage. Conflated with ethnoecology, such human-constructed niches supported enormous animal populations in the region and drove mutual tolerance. Prior evaluations of scavengers’ niche from biophysical perspectives alone have, therefore, overlooked prior links between vultures and animal husbandry practices. It undermined competitive release on commensals that have responded by an increase in numbers and distribution, by taking advantage of ritual feeding and people’s affiliative attitudes. The absence of vultures limits the availability of spaces where animal husbandry can be practised . Conversely, expanding built-up spaces, overhead wires, fake news, and interference from competing scavengers will be impediments to vulture restoration. Conservation policies should examine immediate and long-term objectives of solid waste disposal, considering the odds against the attainment of former functional ecology by vultures. We conclude that wildlife restoration in urbanising tropical landscapes is a moving target, necessitating policies sensitive to progressive loss and/or changes in associative heritage due to shifting economic and cultural practices.
While genetic diversity of threatened species is a major concern of conservation biologists, historic patterns of genetic variation are often unknown. A powerful approach to assess patterns and processes of genetic erosion is via ancient DNA techniques. Herein, we analyzed mtDNA from historical samples (1800s to present) of Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus) to investigate whether contemporary low genetic variability is the result of recent human expansion and persecution, and compared this genetic history to that of California condors (Gymnogyps californianus).We then explored historic demographies for both species via coalescent simulations. We found that Andean condors have lost at least 17% of their genetic variation in the early 20th century. Unlike California condors, however, low mtDNA diversity in the Andean condor was mostly ancient, before European arrival. However, we found that both condor species shared similar demographies in that population bottlenecks were recent and co‐occurred with the introduction of livestock to the Americas and the global collapse of marine mammals. Given the combined information on genetic and demographic processes, we suggest that the protection of key habitats should be targeted for conserving extant genetic diversity and facilitate the natural recolonization of lost territories, while nuclear genomic data should be used to inform translocation plans.
· Between 1989–2013, 69 Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus) were reintroduced in eight sites in the Andes of Colombia. Due to the lack of monitoring programs, little is known about the ecology and biology of these reintroduced populations. We present the first observations on a reintroduced breeding pair. For 36 months, we examined the breeding behavior of a pair of condors in a nest cave in the central Andes of Colombia. In June 2013, we observed a chick of about 6–7 months of age in the nest cave. The most remarkable outcomes of these observations are (1) that females spend more time guarding the chick whereas (2) males focus on guarding the nest cave. While the chick was in the nest cave (80 h of observations), the female was present in the vicinity of the nest cave and attended the chick for a longer time period than the male. However, in the absence of a chick or eggs (880 h of observations), the male was observed more often in the vicinity of the nest cave than the female. Nevertheless, we found no significant differences in vigilance patterns between the sexes. Intraspecific interactions of the Andean Condor with other raptors in the area were recorded during the observation period of this study. We make some predictions on the timing of reproduction of condors based on this reintroduced pair in Colombia and compare them with those reported elsewhere. Tracking released populations of condors is essential to ensure the positive impact of reintroduction efforts. Resumen · Comportamiento reproductivo de una pareja reintroducida de Cóndor Andino (Vultur gryphus) en la cordillera Central de Colombia Entre 1989–2013, 69 individuos de Cóndor Andino (Vultur gryphus) fueron liberados en ocho núcleos de repoblación en la región andina de Colombia. Debido a la falta de seguimiento de estas liberaciones, se conoce poco sobre la biología y ecología de la especie en esos núcleos de repoblación. Presentamos la primera información de seguimiento del comportamiento reproductivo de una pareja en los núcleos de repoblación. Por un periodo de 36 meses examinamos el comportamiento reproductivo de esa pareja en un nido encontrado en la cordillera Central de Colombia. En junio de 2013 registramos la presencia de un polluelo de aproximadamente seis a siete meses de edad en el nido. Mientras el polluelo estuvo en el nido (80 h de observación), la hembra permaneció dentro de la vecindad e interactuó por más tiempo con el polluelo en comparación con el macho. En ausencia de polluelo o postura (880 h de observación), el macho permaneció dentro del territorio por un mayor número de horas en comparación con la hembra, aunque estas diferencias no fueron estadísticamente significativas. Registramos interacciones interespecíficas directas entre el Cóndor Andino y rapaces que ingresaron a su área de anidación. El seguimiento de las poblaciones de cóndor liberadas es clave para garantizar el impacto positivo de los esfuerzos de reintroducción como herramienta para la conservación.
While genetic diversity of threatened species is a major concern of conservation biologists, historic patterns of genetic variation are often unknown. A powerful approach to assess patterns and processes of genetic erosion is via ancient DNA techniques. Herein, we analyzed mtDNA from historical samples (1800s to present) of Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus) to investigate whether contemporary low genetic variability is the result of recent human expansion and persecution, and compared this genetic history to that of California condors (Gymnogyps californianus).We then explored historic demographies for both species via coalescent simulations. We found that Andean condors have lost at least 17% of their genetic variation in the early 20th century. Unlike California condors, however, low mtDNA diversity in the Andean condor was mostly ancient, before European arrival. However, we found that both condor species shared similar demographies in that population bottlenecks were recent and co‐occurred with the introduction of livestock to the Americas and the global collapse of marine mammals. Given the combined information on genetic and demographic processes, we suggest that the protection of key habitats should be targeted for conserving extant genetic diversity and facilitate the natural recolonization of lost territories, while nuclear genomic data should be used to inform translocation plans.
Significance
Flapping flight is extremely costly for large birds, yet little is known about the conditions that force them to flap. We attached custom-made “flight recorders” to Andean condors, the world’s heaviest soaring birds, documenting every single wingbeat and when and how individuals gained altitude. Remarkably, condors flapped for only 1% of their flight time, specifically during takeoff and when close to the ground. This is particularly striking as the birds were immature. Thus, our results demonstrate that even inexperienced birds can cover vast distances over land without flapping. Overall, this can help explain how extinct birds with twice the wingspan of condors could have flown.
Geothermal activities (e.g., volcanic eruptions) represent one of the most important natural sources of metal emissions (heavy metals and metalloids). They can be one of the main risks for the ecosystems in regions like North of Argentiniean Patagonia, a sparsely populated area, close to an extensive network of active volcanoes on the Andes Range. The 2011 eruption of the Puyehue-Cordon Caulle volcanic complex (PCCVC) has been the largest volcanic event of the last decades. The effects of exposure to ashes on wildlife and humans have been sparsely studied, and only one biomonitoring study has used higher trophic species. The exposure to metals of the species in Patagonia has been poorly studied. The main objectives of our study were to assess metal screening and to evaluate a possible relation between the levels of metals in the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) population and the volcanic activity of the area. We investigated the effects of the eruption of the PCCVC in 2011, using samples of molt primary feathers of the Andean condor, collected in nine roosts around Bariloche, Argentina (maximum distance 85 km). Data available suggest the molt of the primary feathers of the Andean condor has a duration of 6 years. We carried out sampling before (2007, 2009) and after (2017) the volcanic eruption (2011). The feathers sampled in 2017 should have been developed in 2011–2012, reflecting the environmental situation of the period immediately following the eruption of the PCCVC. For the first time, we have screened metals in 48 molted primary feathers of Andean condor, showing the levels of 9 metals and metalloids (Si, Cr, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Cd, Pb, Hg). Si, Zn, As, and Cd showed higher levels in the feathers sampled after the eruption. The levels of Cr and Pb (although apparently not related to the volcanic eruption) in some samples are compatible with potential adverse effects in living organisms. The screening results represent an important database (the first for this species) that can be used in in future studies for comparative purposes.
Highlights
•We present the first database of metals in condor feathers, which may be useful for future studies.
•Volcanic eruptions might represent an important source of metal and metalloid emissions in this area.
•The Andean condor from Argentine Patagonia could be affected by volcanic activity in the area.
•Andean condor feathers may be good biomonitoring units of this contamination.
•Pb pollution does not seem to be related to the volcano’s eruption.
I report human-caused mortality of Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus) in Peru and number of individuals used in Yawar Fiesta celebrations from data collected between 2000 and 2017. From 2014 to 2017, 8 (7 adults and 1 juvenile) Andean Condors were killed and 5 were permanently injured due to poisoning and shooting in central and south Peru. Another 4 individuals were released after being rehabilitated. In all, 40 different individuals (14 males, 20 females, and 6 not determined) were used for Yawar Fiesta celebrations; 96% of these celebrations were held in the Apurimac department in southern Peru. One individual died and 3 were seriously injured after being trampled by bulls during celebrations. Direct and indirect poisoning was the highest cause of mortality in this country. However, given that Yawar Fiesta celebrations are not monitored by government officials and/or researchers, mortality of Andean Condors is higher than reported here. Yawar Fiesta celebrations might have altered the Andean Condor's population structure in the southern Peruvian Andes. In order to guarantee Andean Condor conservation in Peru, local and national government authorities should regulate and forbid the use of Andean Condors in Yawar Fiesta celebrations, while population size and structure of Andean Condors in Apurimac should be assessed.
Anthropogenic food subsidies and waste disposals have become a new food resource for wildlife, including the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus), a situation that implies benefits and health risks. To increase understanding of Andean Condor feeding habits in the most anthropized area in Chile, we analyzed 280 pellets collected during 2016 from one roost in the Metropolitan Region, central Chile. We identified the main diagnostic elements microscopically and expressed them as percentage of occurrence (percentage of each item in relation to all pellets). We found 12 prey categories (including mammals, birds, and plant material) and 9 waste categories. Condors fed mainly on mammals (99%); livestock was their main feeding source (52%), followed by native (22%) and exotic wild species (19%). Birds were detected less frequently (8%). We found a high occurrence of waste (31%), of which plastic remains were the main item (27%). According to our results, landfills serve as a complementary food source for condors, probably a low-quality but easily accessible, and which exposes them to a variety of health and mortality risks. Despite the fact that Andean Condors can reach distant places in foraging flights to find food resources, a high proportion of the population is attracted to rubbish dumps and landfills. Despite the spatio-temporal limitations of our results, this is the first record that describes and quantifies a high presence of waste as a component of the Andean Condor diet. We recommend a more comprehensive study to assess their feeding habits and habitat preferences in a broader spatio-temporal context, and to determine the possible impact of the use of waste disposals on Andean Condor populations. Resumen · Evidencia de alto consumo de basura por el Cóndor Andino (Vultur gryphus) en un ambiente antropizado de Chile Los subsidios antropogénicos y sitios de disposición de basura se han convertido en una nueva fuente de alimentación para la fauna, incluido el Cóndor Andino (Vultur gryphus), lo que implica beneficios y riesgos. Con el fin de estudiar los hábitos alimenticios del cóndor andino en un área altamente antropizada, analizamos 280 egagrópilas colectadas durante 2016 en un dormidero de la Región Metropolitana, en Chile central. Identificamos microscópicamente los principales elementos diagnósticos y los expresamos como porcentaje de ocurrencia (porcentaje de cada ítem respecto del total de pellet). Encontramos 12 ítems dietarios (incluyendo mamíferos, aves y materia vegetal) y 9 ítems de basura. Los cóndores se alimentaron principalmente de mamíferos (99%); el ganado fue la principal fuente de alimento (52%), se-guido por especies silvestres nativas (22%) y exóticas (19%), mientras que las aves estuvieron escasamente representadas (8%). Encontramos una alta ocurrencia de basura (31%), de la cual los restos de plástico fueron el principal ítem (27%). De acuerdo a nuestros resultados, los basurales sirven como una fuente complementaria de alimentación para los cóndores, probablemente de baja calidad, pero de fácil acceso, y que los expone a una variedad de riesgos de mortalidad y para su salud. Aunque el Cóndor Andino puede alcanzar lugares distantes en sus vuelos de forrajeo, una alta proporción de su población es atraída a vertederos y rellenos sanitaros. A pesar de las limitaciones espacio-temporales de nuestros resultados, este es el primer registro que describe y cuantifica la alta presencia de basura como componente de la dieta del Cóndor Andino. Recomendamos ampliar el estudio para evaluar sus hábitos alimentarios y preferencias de hábitat en un contexto espacial y temporal amplio y poder determinar el posible impacto del uso de basurales en poblaciones de Cóndor Andino.
La educación ambiental y la participación comunitaria hacen parte de las líneas estratégicas establecidas para la conservación del Cóndor Andino en Colombia. Sin embargo, son pocos los esfuerzos que involucran a las comunidades en procesos de conservación de la especie. Este trabajo planteó evaluar las actitudes y el conocimiento de niños y adultos acerca del Cóndor Andino. Se realizaron actividades de educación ambiental con niños de escuelas rurales para sensibilizar y reconocer la importancia natural y cultural de esta especie. Para los adultos, se desarrolló un taller de árbol de problemas con el fin de abordar el conflicto Cóndor-humano y se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas con productores de la región. Hubo una gran variedad de elementos biológicos, ecológicos y culturales que los niños vincularon con el Cóndor. Los niños creen que este se alimenta de animales vivos y complementan con carroña. Esto genera que no se valore la importancia ecológica que esta especie tiene en el páramo, ni su trascendencia para la gente. Por su parte, los productores de las zonas altas del páramo vincularon a la especie con más elementos que los de zonas bajas. El perjuicio identificado es la pérdida de animales domésticos a causa del Cóndor. Alrededor de esta problemática se identificaron causas y efectos resaltando la falta de asistencia técnica y la pérdida económica, respectivamente. A pesar del señalamiento de dichos perjuicios, la perspectiva general de los entrevistados frente a la especie es positiva. Es importante desarrollar actividades de educación ambiental no solo en niños sino también en adultos, evaluar la efectividad de las estrategias de educación ambiental y vincular experiencias y conocimientos de la comunidad para crear lazos afectivos que incidan en la conservación del Cóndor Andino. Finalmente, es pertinente generar puentes de comunicación con entidades afines para fortalecer prácticas de manejo de animales domésticos.
We characterized DNA sequence variation in the mitochondrial control region and 12S ribosomal subunit for a sample of Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus) representing populations distributed throughout the species' extensive geographic range (Colombia to central Argentina and Chile). Domains II and III of the control region along with part of the 12S gene were sequenced from 38 individuals (956 base pairs in 30 individuals and 430–824 base pairs for an additional 8 individuals sampled from museum specimens), and Domain I was sequenced from five of these birds (400 base pairs). We identified a total of five haplotypes based on four variable sites distributed over Domains II and III of the control region and the 12S gene. An additional variable site was identified in Domain I. All changes were transitions and no more than three sites differed between any two individuals. Variation in the control region of condors was lower than for most other birds analyzed for these loci. Although low genetic variability is often associated with endangered megafauna, the condor example is notable because the species still maintains a substantial geographic range. Thus, low genetic variability may occur even in megafauna whose ranges have not been severely reduced over recent centuries. Our results therefore suggest that genetic data from geographically widespread megafauna provide important baseline data for assessing the relationship between genetic variability and its causes in other endangered species.
Baja Variabilidad Genética en Poblaciones de Vultur gryphus con Amplia Distribución Geográfica
Resumen. Caracterizamos la variación de la secuencia de ADN en la región de control mitocondrial y la subunidad ribosomal 12S en una muestra de Vultur gryphus representativa de poblaciones distribuidas a lo largo del extenso rango geográfico de la especie (Colombia, hasta el centro de Argentina y Chile). Los dominios II y III de la región de control, junto con parte del gen 12S, fueron secuenciados en 38 individuos (956 pares de base en 30 individuos y 430–824 pares de base para una muestra adicional de 8 especímenes de museo), y el dominio I fue secuenciado en 5 de estas aves (400 pares de base). Identificamos un total de cinco haplotipos basados en cuatro sitios variables en los dominios II y III de la región de control y el gen 12S. Un sitio variable adicional fue identificado en el dominio I. Todos los cambios fueron transiciones y entre dos individuos cualesquiera no variaron más de 3 sitios. La variación en la región de control de los cóndores fue más baja que para la mayoría de las aves analizadas para estos mismos loci. Aunque la baja variabilidad genética es a menudo asociada con megafauna en peligro de extinción, el ejemplo del cóndor es notable porque la especie aún mantiene un rango geográfico substancial. Así, la baja variabilidad genética se puede dar incluso en la megafauna cuya dispersión no haya sido sujeta a severas reducciones en los ultimos siglos. Por lo tanto, nuestros resultados sugieren que los datos genéticos de rapaces con amplia distribución geográfica y de otra megafauna proveen de importante información de base para evaluar la relación existente entre la variabilidad genética y sus causas en otra megafauna en peligro.
The late Quaternary megafauna extinctions reshaped species assemblages, yet we know little about how extant obligate scavengers responded to this abrupt ecological change. To explore whether obligate scavengers persisted by depending on contemporary community linkages or via foraging flexibility, we tested the importance of the trophic interaction between pumas (Puma concolor) and native camelids (Vicugna vicugna and Lama guanicoe) for the persistence of Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) in southern South America, and compared the demographic history of three vultures in different continents. We sequenced and compiled mtDNA to reconstruct past population dynamics. Our results suggest that Andean condors increased in population size >10 KYA, whereas vicuñas and pumas showed stable populations and guanacos a recent (<10 KYA) demographic expansion, suggesting independent trajectories between species. Further, vultures showed positive demographic trends: white-backed vultures (Gyps africanus) increased in population size, matching attenuated community changes in Africa, and California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) exhibited a steep demographic expansion ~20 KYA largely concurrent with North American megafaunal extinctions. Our results suggest that dietary plasticity of extant vulture lineages allowed them to thrive despite historical environmental changes. This dietary flexibility, however, is now detrimental as it enhances risk to toxicological compounds harbored by modern carrion resources.
Social living can be facilitated by cooperative advantages, yet also incurs in important competitive interactions, leading to complex patterns of spatial genetic structure. Vultures provide a valuable example of complex social animals, with potential conflicts between cooperative and competitive behaviors. Yet, little is known about the socio-genetic structure of this guild because of the inherent difficulties of sampling highly mobile species with large geographical ranges. Herein, we genotyped 300 non-invasive samples from Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) with microsatellite markers to investigate the social dynamics in this highly vagile vulture that possess a despotic social system and communal roosting behavior. We explored the role of age and sex in the dispersion and relatedness patterns of the Andean condor across the central region of Argentina. We provided evidence of age-biased dispersal, supporting the idea that immature condors are largely nomadic using temporary roosting sites during exploratory flights. Our results also insinuated that sex-biased dispersal is age-dependent, with male-biased dispersal during the early life stage, suggesting habitat exclusion by adult male despotic competition. Finally, our kinship analysis showed that regional clusters are composed of highly related adults, indicating the retention of intergenerational family members. Collectively, these results demonstrate that kin associations are driven by adult philopatry, and possibly maintained by fitness benefits of social cooperation for this species.
Significance statement
An important question in behavioral ecology is how and when does group living affect population structure and space use. We show that adult Andean condors exhibit philopatric behavior, resulting in kin structuring patterns. Family coalitions may facilitate cooperative strategies to locate and secure costly resources, resulting in indirect fitness benefits. However, immature individuals seem to be excluded from adult territories due to despotic competition or because of an innate exploratory behavior, resulting in a scattered distribution pattern. Understanding the genetic consequences of social dynamics not only increase our knowledge of the behavioral ecology of elusive wide-ranging species, but is also essential in wildlife monitoring to design effective genetic sampling.
Although drones are becoming very common in the skies, most concerns about their use are not focused on their possible impact on wildlife. We used the information available from the scientific literature on the effects of drones on wildlife and complement it with Internet (YouTube) information to evaluate whether recreational activities using drones produce behavioural responses from wildlife. Scientific papers specifically evaluating the effects of drones on wildlife are scarce but increasing. Nonetheless, we found abundant videos in which many species from different taxonomic groups and multiple countries presented behavioural responses to drone overflights. Furthermore, 26% of the species that were disturbed are included in one of the International Union for Conservation of Nature categories of threat. We found that wildlife that use aerial and terrestrial habitats are more likely to show a behavioural response than those occupying aquatic habitats. The Internet is becoming a source of evidence of disturbances to wildlife that should be considered, particularly for recreational activities. We advocate for the use of technology, but argue that funding and effort should be devoted to evaluating drone impacts on wildlife. We call for educational programmes for laypeople who use drones for recreation and for more research and regulations on their use in sensitive wildlife areas.
Despite its cultural importance as a key component of the Andean landscape, some perceptions of rural inhabitants towards the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus Linnaeus, 1758) persist, as they relate to the possible predation of domestic animals such as sheep and cattle. These perceptions are compounded by only a basic knowledge of the natural history of the species and have resulted in the historical persecution of the condors by the local peasant communities. We studied the variation of traditional knowledge about the Andean condor diet; comparing responses of adult women and adult men and adults and young people. We described the perceptions of rural farmers towards V. gryphus in Caldas and Tolima, Central Andes of Colombia. Adult men demonstrated a more detailed knowledge of the types of food of V. gryphus compared to adult women; but both adult men and women responded more accurately than both sexes of young people. Overall, the perceptions towards the condors were mostly positive. It is likely that the greater knowledge of adult men corresponds to the time they spend outdoors tending their crops and animals, while the younger generation receive their information through popular media, such as television, magazines and books, as well as educational materials. It is important to incorporate the gender perspective into conservation initiatives and educational programs to effectively protect the remaining endangered populations of condors in Colombia.
This article calls on scientists, managers and organizations focused on vulture conservation to promote and use standardized monitoring programs based on sampling of molted feathers. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Attributes such as sex, age and pigmentation of individuals could correspond to the competitive skills they use to access resources and, consequently, determine their social status when a hierarchy of dominance is established. We analysed patterns of social dominance in relation to sex, age and, for the first time, according to face pigmentation in a large scavenger bird species, the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus). This species displays extreme sexual dimorphism, with males being up to 50% heavier than females. Associated to this, strong hierarchical relationships characterize foraging, roosting and breeding. We recorded agonistic interactions within condor groups while foraging through video recordings in experimental stations. We corroborated a strong despotism by the adult males to the rest of the categories. More interestingly we found this despotism was also expressed by most pigmented birds; juvenile females being completely subordinated and, at the same time, not expressing pigmentation. Importantly, when condors of equal sex and age category fought, the more pigmented individuals were successful. Our results highlight that pigmentation, besides sex and age, is an attribute that also corresponds with social status in the Andean condor, making its hierarchical system more complex.
The Andean Condor Vultur gryphus is a globally threatened and declining species. Problems of surveying Andean Condor populations using traditional survey methods are particularly acute in Bolivia, largely because only few roosts are known there. However, similar to other vulture species, Andean Condors aggregate at animal carcasses, and are individually recognisable due to unique morphological characteristics (size and shape of male crests and pattern of wing coloration). This provided us with an opportunity to use a capture‐recapture (‘sighting‐resighting’) modelling framework to estimate the size and structure of an Andean Condor population in Bolivia using photographs of individuals taken at observer‐established feeding stations. Between July and December 2014, twenty‐eight feeding stations were established in five different zones throughout the eastern Andean region of Bolivia, where perched and flying Andean Condors were photographed. Between 1 and 57 (mean = 20.2 ± 14.6 SD) Andean Condors were recorded visiting each feeding station and we were able to identify 456 different individuals, comprising 134 adult males, 40 sub‐adult males, 79 juvenile males, 80 adult females, 30 sub‐adult females and 93 juvenile females. Open population capture‐recapture models produced population estimates ranging from 52 ± 14 (SE) individuals to 678 ± 269 individuals across the five zones, giving a summed total of 1388 ± 413 individuals, which is roughly 20% of the estimated Andean Condor global population. Future trials of this method need to explicitly consider knowledge of Andean Condor movements and home ranges, habitat preferences when selecting suitable sites as feeding stations, juvenile movements and other behaviours. Sighting‐resighting methods have considerable potential to increase accuracy of surveys of Andean Condors and other bird species with unique individual morphological characteristics.
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Raptors provide critical ecosystem services, yet there is currently no systematic, global synthesis of their conservation status or threats. We review the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List to examine the conservation status, distributions, threats, and conservation recommendations for all 557 raptor species. We further assess the significance of Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs) for raptor conservation. We also determine which countries contain the most species listed under the Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (Raptors MoU). Raptors, especially Old World vultures, are more threatened than birds in general. Eighteen percent of raptors are threatened with extinction and 52% of raptors have declining global populations. South and Southeast Asia have the highest richness and the largest number of threatened raptor species. By country, Indonesia has the highest richness of raptor species (119) and most declining species (63). China and Russia contain the most Raptors MoU species, although they are not yet signatories to the agreement. Raptor species that require forest are more likely to be threatened and declining than those that do not. Agriculture and logging are the most frequently identified threats, although poisoning is especially detrimental to Old World vultures. Of the 10 most important IBAs for raptors, six are in Nepal. Highest priority conservation actions to protect raptors include preventing mortality and conserving key sites and priority habitats. Improved long-term monitoring would allow for conservation to be appropriately targeted and effectiveness of interventions to be assessed.
Lead contamination is a worldwide problem that affects the health of several bird species and can cause biodiversity loss. However, in South America there is little information about this problem and the species affected. The aim of this study is to compile existing knowledge about lead contamination in South American bird species and propose actions to mitigate this problem. Through a literature search, we found 39 scientific articles on this topic studying 68 bird species. Most studies came from Argentina and Brazil (71.7%), but also from Chile (7.7%), Venezuela (7.7%), Colombia (5.1%), Bolivia (2.6%), Ecuador (2.6%) and Peru (2.6%). Almost all the articles were published between 2001 and 2017. Waterbirds and birds of prey were the avian guilds more studied. Seventy percent of the studies show individuals with lead concentrations that exceed established thresholds levels. The few available articles suggest that lead contamination may be a continental-scale problem produced by different sources like fuels, mining, industries and hunting ammunition. However, lead ammunition seems to be an underestimated source of lead which is producing the highest toxic levels in bird species from South America. To our knowledge, there are regulations about different lead sources but not for lead ammunition in any country, except for some regions in Argentina. The progressive banning of lead from all sources and particularly from hunting ammunition is the main and most effective way to reduce the risk for wildlife. Current obstacles must be overcome through a combined effort of governments, wildlife managers and local communities. © 2018 Associação Brasileira de Ciência Ecológica e Conservação
RESUMEN.— Este trabajo explora las percepciones relacionadas con el Cóndor Andino (Vultur
gryphus) a través del conocimiento tradicional, las prácticas del habitante rural y el discurso académico
asociado a la especie. El estudio se desarrolló en cuatro áreas de las sierras centrales de
Argentina, en las provincias de Catamarca, Córdoba (Parque Nacional Quebrada del Condorito),
La Rioja y San Juan. Desde la mirada de estos actores sociales, el Cóndor Andino puede ser
valorado como una especie clave, emblemática y digna de conservar, pero también puede ser
considerada como conflictiva y que debe ser eliminada por el comportamiento cazador que le
adjudican algunos lugareños. Por medio de técnicas etnográficas se obtuvo información que
evidenció la existencia de una pluralidad en las apreciaciones vinculadas con el Cóndor Andino,
considerando los discursos locales y los provenientes del ámbito académico. Se destacan especialmente
las percepciones diferenciales referentes a sus hábitos alimentarios, encontrando un contraste
entre las narrativas en las que coinciden la percepción conservacionista de los pobladores
del parque nacional y la academia, y la mirada de los pobladores de las otras tres áreas de estudio.
Los datos sistematizados muestran la simultaneidad de percepciones asociadas a los saberes individuales
y colectivos sobre la relación entre el ser humano y el animal, identificando aspectos que
van desde los criterios asociados a la importancia biocultural y la conservación del ave, hasta su
valoración negativa por ser considerada una amenaza para la producción ganadera.
Between 1989–2013, 69 Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus) were reintroduced in eight sites in the Andes of Colombia. Due to the lack of monitoring programs, little is known about the ecology and biology of these reintroduced populations. We present the first observations on a reintroduced breeding pair. For 36 months, we examined the breeding behavior of a pair of condors in a nest cave in the central Andes of Colombia. In June 2013, we observed a chick of about 6–7 months of age in the nest cave. The most remarkable outcomes of these observations are (1) that females spend more time guarding the chick whereas (2) males focus on guarding the nest cave. While the chick was in the nest cave (80 h of observations), the female was present in the vicinity of the nest cave and attended the chick for a longer time period than the male. However, in the absence of a chick or eggs (880 h of observations), the male was observed more often in the vicinity of the nest cave than the female. Nevertheless, we found no significant differ- ences in vigilance patterns between the sexes. Intraspecific interactions of the Andean Condor with other raptors in the area were recorded during the observation period of this study. We make some predictions on the timing of reproduction of condors based on this reintroduced pair in Colombia and compare them with those reported else- where. Tracking released populations of condors is essential to ensure the positive impact of reintroduction efforts.
Over the last century, marine mammals have been dramatically reduced in the world's oceans. We examined evidence that this change caused dietary and foraging pattern shifts of the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) in Patagonia. We hypothesized that, after the decrease in marine mammals and the increase in human use of coastlines, condor diet changed to a more terrestrial diet, which in turn influenced their foraging patterns. We evaluated the diet by means of stable isotope analysis (δ13C, δ15N and δ34S) of current (last decade) and historical (1841–1933) feathers. We further evaluated the movement patterns of 23 condors using satellite tracking of individuals. Condors reduced their use of marine-derived prey in recent compared with historical times from 33 ± 13% to less than 8 ± 3% respectively; however, they still breed close to the coast. The average distance between the coast and nests was 62.5 km, but some nests were located close to the sea (less than 5 km). Therefore, some birds must travel up to 86 km from nesting sites, crossing over the mountain range to find food. The worldwide reduction in marine mammal carcasses, especially whales, may have major consequences on the foraging ecology of scavengers, as well as on the flux of marine inputs within terrestrial ecosystems.
Despite global conservation crises,widespread and poorly regulated toxic pesticides still cause preventable tragedies. Carbofuran, a carbamate pesticide, is the most implicated globally. In January,the latest and most shocking known poisoning incident in South America took place in Argentina, where a single Carbofuran baited sheep carcass set out by ranchers to combat mammalian predators killed 34 Andean condors (Vultur gryphus), a threatened, emblematic species of the Andes. This incident raised the number of Andean Condors poisoned in Argentina to at least 66 in the past 13 months. We must take urgent action to prevent future poisoning incidents.
Background
Organic waste is one of the most important anthropogenic food subsidies used by different species. However, there is little information about the health impact that rubbish dumps produce on species foraging in these sites.
Methods
We studied the effect that rubbish dumps produce on the health of a scavenging bird from the Americas, the black vulture ( Coragyps atratus ). We sampled and studied clinical and biochemical parameters in 94 adult black vultures from two different sites in North Western Patagonia, a rubbish dump and the wild steppe.
Results
We found differences in clinical and biochemical parameters between sites. Body mass was greater in individuals from the dump, whereas in the steppe there were more individuals clinically dehydrated. Biochemical parameters such as uric acid, calcium, alkaline phosphatase, glycaemia, globulins and haematocrit had higher values in individuals using the dump than in individuals from the steppe. Other biochemical parameters such as aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatine phosphokinase and urea were higher in individuals from the steppe than in individuals from the dump.
Discussion
Foraging in organic waste could be considered beneficial for black vultures because they increase body mass and parameters associated to nutritional status like calcium and haematocrit. However, foraging in dumps can also affect their health status due to nutritional problems, potential kidney damage or infections that are signalled by the higher values of glycaemia, uric acid and globulins found in individuals from the dump. Our results highlight the contrasting effects that rubbish dumps may produce on wildlife health. They are relevant to different species using these sites, and are also an additional instrument for managing waste.
Hematological and biochemical parameters are used to assess the health of birds and to support conservation plans for threatened species, such as the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus). We studied 22 captive Andean Condors from the Rehabilitation Center for Raptors of the Unión de Ornitólogos of Chile to determine reference values. We measured packed cell volume, total plasma solids, and total and differential leukocyte counts; we analyzed aspartate aminotransferase, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, creatine kinase, creatinine, calcium, inorganic phosphorus, and uric acid. We found no blood parasites and no significant differences between sexes (P > 0.05). Our results establish a baseline for hematological and serum biochemistry parameters for the Andean Condor.
Animals that share resources tend to use different foraging strategies in order to decrease potential competition. Scavenging birds using the same nutritional resources can segregate into different space and time scales. However, it has been suggested that when the species do not co-evolve to achieve such segregation competition may result. Our aim was to study the trophic niche overlap between three species of obligate scavengers, the Andean Condor Vultur gryphus , Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura and American Black Vulture Coragyps atratus , which are the main avian consumers of carcasses in north-western Patagonia. Black Vultures arrived in the area relatively recently, have expanded their distribution following human activities, and have been suggested to compete with the threatened condor. We collected pellets in communal roosts of the three species to determine their diet, and to estimate the diversity (Shannon Index) and diet similarity (Pianka overlap index). We found that the Turkey Vulture has greater niche breadth and, apart from domestic livestock, it incorporates smaller items such as fish, reptiles and a great number of birds, carnivores and mice. Although the Black Vulture diet includes arthropods, they feed primarily on introduced ungulates, overlapping more with condor diet when roosting far from urban centres. As these latter two species share the same food resource, human activities that positively affect the abundance of the Black Vulture could increase competition among them, with possible implications for the conservation of the Andean Condor.
Human-wildlife conflicts currently represent one of the main conservation problems for wildlife species around the world. Vultures have serious conservation concerns, many of which are related to people's adverse perception about them due to the belief that they prey on livestock. Our aim was to assess local perception and the factors influencing people's perception of the largest scavenging bird in South America, the Andean condor. For this, we interviewed 112 people from Valle Fértil, San Juan province, a rural area of central west Argentina. Overall, people in the area mostly have an elementary education, and their most important activity is livestock rearing. The results showed that, in general, most people perceive the Andean condor as an injurious species and, in fact, some people recognize that they still kill condors. We identified two major factors that affect this perception, the education level of villagers and their relationship with livestock ranching. Our study suggests that conservation of condors and other similar scavengers depends on education programs designed to change the negative perception people have about them. Such programs should be particularly focused on ranchers since they are the ones who have the worst perception of these scavengers. We suggest that highlighting the central ecological role of scavengers and recovering their cultural value would be fundamental to reverse their persecution and their negative perception by people.
Animals are expected to synchronize activity routines with the temporal patterns at which resources appear in nature. Accordingly, species that depend on resources showing temporally mismatched patterns should be expected to schedule routines that balance the chances of exploiting each of them. Large avian scavengers depend on carcasses which are more likely available early in the morning, but they also depend on wind resources (i.e. uplifts) to subside flight which are stronger in afternoon hours. To understand how these birds deal with this potential trade-off, we studied the daily routines of GPS-tagged individuals of the world’s largest terrestrial soaring scavenger, the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus). Andean condors vary largely in weight and show a huge sexual dimorphism that allowed us to evaluate the effect of sex and body size on their daily routines. We found that condors use an intermediate solution strategy between the best times to exploit carcasses and uplifts, with this strategy changing over the year. Bigger males scheduled earlier routines that aligned more closely with uplift availability compared to smaller females, resulting in a partial temporal segregation between sexes. Condors’ routines reflect a sexual-size dependent trade-off that may underpin ecological and sociobiological traits of the studied population.
Organic waste can be considered a food subsidy which represents an important source of energy for different species that exploit it. However, it could produce contrasting impacts, both positive and negative. We reviewed which species of terrestrial vertebrates (birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians) exploit rubbish dumps, and the impacts that waste produces on them. We analysed 159 articles including 98 species that are present in rubbish dumps. Studies come from all over the world (including Antarctica), but mainly from Europe, North America and Africa. Impacts reported on vertebrates were manly considered positive (72.6%) but around a quarter showed negative impacts. Rubbish dumps provide food resources that may improve body condition, enhance reproductive performance and abundance, improve survival rate, alter movements, and they can be an important sustenance for some endangered species. However, these places increase the risk of pathogen infections and poisoning, can be responsible for the spread of introduced-invasive species and favour conflicts between humans and animals that use them. Moreover, species that take advantage of these sites can produce negative impacts on others that do not use them. Worldwide increase in waste production makes this novel ecosystem important on shaping ecological communities. Therefore, the spatial and temporal effects of rubbish dumps on wildlife should be evaluated more deeply at a worldwide scale considering current differences in waste production from developing to developed countries.
El Cóndor Andino (Vultur gryphus) se distribuye actualmente por el oeste de América del Sur. Aunque está catalogado como una especie cercana a la amenaza e incluido en CITES I, ha sido poco estudiada y, en la actualidad, aún se desconocen muchos aspectos de su biología. En este trabajo se presenta una revisión bibliográfica sobre la biología y el estatus de conservación del Cóndor Andino, con énfasis en la información conocida para Argentina, y se proponen líneas de investigación orientadas a su conservación. Al norte de su distribución las poblaciones han sido diezmadas, en algunos casos hasta la extinción. Hacia el sur, las poblaciones aún contarían con un estatus favorable, pero existen síntomas de retracción. Esta especie posee una de las tasas reproductivas más bajas del mundo y una de las mayores tasas de supervivencia entre las aves. Las características de su comportamiento (grandes concentraciones para alimentarse y pernoctar), hacen de ella una especie muy sensible a disturbios. Esto podría causar la pérdida masiva de individuos de una población, llevándola a un estado crítico, considerando que no posee capacidad de respuesta demográfica rápida. Algunas amenazas que estaría sufriendo incluyen la matanza por considerarla una especie cazadora, la ingesta de cebos tóxicos y municiones de plomo, la colisión contra tendidos eléctricos, la cacería furtiva, la competencia por alimento y las trampas cepo, entre otras. Es necesario obtener estimaciones poblacionales, tasas de supervivencia, ponderar los factores de mortalidad, detectar áreas de importancia para la especie y determinar la disponibilidad y distribución del alimento en cada país. Las características biológicas del Cóndor Andino, junto con el desconocimiento y las amenazas humanas, generan una combinación peligrosa para su supervivencia.
The effects that microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and fungi) have on their hosts remain unexplored for most vulture species. This is especially relevant for vultures, as their diet consists of carcasses in various stages of decomposition, which are breeding grounds for potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Here we review current knowledge of bacterial, viral and mycotic microorganisms present in wild vultures. We consider their potential to cause disease in vultures and whether this poses any population‐level threats. Furthermore, we address the question of whether vultures may act as disease spreaders or mitigators. We found 76 articles concerning bacterial, viral and mycotic microorganisms present in 13 vulture species, 57 evaluating bacteria, 13 evaluating viruses and six evaluating mycotic microorganisms. These studies come from all continents where vultures are present, but mainly from Europe and North America, and the most studied species was the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus. We found that vultures are colonized by zoonotic pathogens, and even host‐specific human pathogens. Some recorded bacteria showed multi‐antibiotic resistance, especially those that can be associated with anthropogenic food subsides such as supplementary feeding stations. We found evidence that vulture health can be affected by some microorganisms, producing a wide array of clinical alterations that have the potential to influence mortality risk and fitness. We did not find clear scientific evidence that vultures play an epidemiological role spreading microorganisms to humans and other species. However, there is evidence that vultures could prevent the spread of infectious diseases through their removal of decomposing organic material. The evaluation of vulture exposure to microorganisms is of fundamental importance to design better conservation policies for this threatened group, which may serve a key role as ecosystem cleaners.
Human-wildlife conflict is an important emerging threat producing biodiversity loss around the world. It is therefore key to study people’s perceptions in order to overcome this conflict. Scavenger birds represent an interesting study case, since some people consider them beneficial but many have negative perceptions regarding their supposed potential role as livestock predators, resulting in intense conflicts with human populations. These conflicts could be responsible for harmful attitudes such as lethal control methods that affect the demography and conservation of scavenger bird populations. We studied the conflict between farmers and obligate and facultative scavenger birds in northwest Patagonia, Argentina, to ascertain whether people’s perceptions are supported by field observations. We interviewed farmers and made field observations on farms in the same area. We found that 92% of the farmers believe that scavenger birds (including both obligate and facultative) present in the study area are harmful to livestock. However, our observations show that while some harm to livestock may occur, predation events are exceptional. Field observations thus do not support people’s perceptions. We recommend the use of better livestock management and increased human presence during the birth of lambs in order to reduce the time during which scavenger birds can potentially cause harm. Our results are important for the development of better conservation policies to mitigate conflicts between farmers and scavenger birds based on scientific information, but at the same time considering local culture and perceptions.
Critical priority pathogens have globally disseminated beyond clinical settings threatening wildlife. Andean Condors are essentials for ecosystem health and functioning, but their populations are globally near threatened and declining due to anthropogenic activities. During a microbiological and genomic surveillance study of critical priority antibiotic-resistant pathogens we have identified pandemic lineages of multidrug-resistant extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli colonizing Andean Condors admitted at two wildlife rehabilitation centres in South America. Genomic analysis revealed presence of genes encoding resistance to hospital and health-care agents among international E. coli clones belonging to sequence types (STs) ST162, ST602, ST1196 and ST1485. In this regard, resistome included genes conferring resistance to clinically important cephalosporins [i.e., CTX-M-14, CTX-M-55 and CTX-M-65 extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) genes], heavy metals (arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, silver), pesticides (glyphosate), and domestic/hospital disinfectants (QACs), suggesting a link with anthropogenic environmental pollution. On other hand, presence of virulence factors, including astA gene associated with outbreak of childhood diarrhoea and extraintestinal disease in animals, were identified, whereas virulent behaviour was confirmed using the Galleria mellonella infection model. E. coli ST162, ST602, ST1196 and ST1485 have been previously identified in humans and food-producing animals worldwide, indicating that a wide resistome could contribute with rapid adaptation and dissemination of these clones at the human-animal-environment interface. Therefore, these results highlight that Andean Condors have been colonized by critical priority pathogens, becoming potential environmental reservoirs and/or vectors for dissemination of virulent and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and/or their genes, in associated ecosystems and wildlife.
Mobile species face an array of human threats across political boundaries, and their protection relies on identifying and prioritizing areas for conservation. Large avian scavengers are one of the widest ranging and most threatened species globally, and efforts to preserve them have come to the forefront of wildlife management. Vultures require access to functionally distinct habitats for roosting, foraging and flying, yet behavior-specific habitat modelling has been overlooked in management planning. Herein, we developed a spatial prioritization model for the threatened Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) that integrates activity-specific habitat selection across heterogeneous landscapes. We tracked 35 individuals in two regions of Argentina and Chile differing in topography and vegetation composition, and analyzed how landscape covariates influence where condors roost, forage and fly, while accounting for individual differences. We found that individuals responded differently to environmental covariates during each behavior, and identified regional differences for some covariates dependent on behavioral state. We also found important individual differences in habitat selection between birds inhabiting each region. We combined these results into an ensemble spatial prioritization model, and found that most areas of high priority for Andean condor conservation are not under protection. The strategic implementation of conservation measures in these priority areas could have important implications for the recovery of this species. Our study illustrates the value of integrating behavioral- and individual-specific habitat analyses into spatial conservation planning, and points to opportunities for effective management of threatened vultures.
Highlights
• Pesticide poisoning is currently the greatest threat to the Andean condor.
• Poisonings affect adult condors more than immature ones.
• The most commonly used poison is Carbofuran, and to a lesser extent Palation.
• Condor poisonings have reached alarming levels that could lead to extinction.
Lead contamination is a global problem affecting a large number of bird species around the world. Among the different avian guilds, vultures and facultative scavengers are particularly threatened by this toxic metal. However, little information is available about differences in exposure to this metal for sympatric vulture species that share food resources. We compared blood lead concentrations of two closely related sympatric obligate scavenger species, the abundant Black Vulture Coragyps astratus and the threatened Andean Condor Vultur gryphus in north‐western Patagonia, Argentina. We sampled 28 Andean Condors and 29 Black Vultures trapped foraging in the same area in the steppe. We also sampled 16 Black Vultures foraging in a rubbish dump to determine if there were differences in lead contamination among foraging sites. Andean Condors had significantly higher mean blood lead concentrations than Black Vultures. There was no difference in lead concentrations between Black Vultures trapped in the steppe and in the rubbish dump. The prevalence and probability of lead concentrations above the threshold level (20 µg/dL) was higher for Andean Condors than for Black Vultures, potentially producing different effects on their health. This disparity in lead contamination may be due to differences in their foraging habits or in their susceptibility to this toxic metal. Overall, our results suggest caution in using an abundant surrogate species to infer lead contamination in a closely related but harder to sample species.
Volcanic eruptions produce health changes in animals that may be associated with emitted gases and deposited ashes. We evaluated whether the Puyehue–Cordón Caulle volcanic eruption in 2011 produced health changes in the threatened Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus) living in the area most affected by the eruption, northwestern Patagonia. We studied clinical and biochemical parameters of condors examined before and after the eruption. We also examined concentrations of different metals and metalloids in the blood of individuals sampled after the eruption. The most common clinical abnormality associated with the eruptive process was irritating pharyngitis. In condors sampled after the eruption, blood concentrations of albumin, calcium, carotenoids, and total proteins decreased to levels under the reference values reported for this species. We found different chemical elements in the blood of these condors after the eruption, such as arsenic and cadmium, with the potential to produce health impacts. Thus, the health of Andean Condors was affected in different ways by the eruption; remaining in the affected area appears to have been costly. However, in comparison to other animal species, the health impacts were not as strong and were mainly related to food shortages due to the decrease in availability of livestock carcasses linked to the eruption. This suggests that condors dealt relatively well with this massive event. Future research is needed to evaluate if the health changes we found reduce the survival of this species, and if the cost of inhabiting volcanic areas has any ecological or evolutionary influence on the condor’s life history.
The study of wildlife health greatly contributes to understanding population dynamics and detecting conservation threats. The determination of the different fractions of plasma proteins (proteinogram) is an important laboratory tool to study wildlife health. The aim of this study was to characterize protein electrophoresis in wild Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) from north-western Patagonia and to evaluate differences according to age and sex classes. Once reference values of wild, apparently healthy individuals, were established, we compared these values to those of individuals received at the Buenos Aires Zoo in Argentina for rehabilitation due to various health problems. Reference proteinograms from wild Andean condors differed only in the α 1 and β 2-fractions between sex categories. Males showed higher concentrations of these protein fractions than females. We found clear differences between wild birds and rehabilitating individuals. Total proteins, globulins, α 1-globulins, total α-globulins, β 2-globulins, total β-globulins, and γ-globulins were significantly higher in rehabilitating than in wild individuals, whereas albumin, α 2, and β1-globulins were similar between these groups. The albumin/globulin ratio, as a general indicator of health, was significantly lower in rehabilitating than in wild individuals. The results indicate the effects on different protein fractions of pathologic processes occurring in individuals undergoing rehabilitation. Our results provide useful insights, contributing to improving diagnoses and prognoses in this species. This information may also be useful to assess the health status of Andean condors in studies of wild populations and for comparisons with other bird species.
The framing of environmental conservation has been changing, mainly towards a reconciliation between human needs and nature conservation. A major challenge of biosphere reserves (BRs) is the integration of biodiversity conservation and the sustainable development of local communities. Although these areas are large, they are often not large enough to contain the movements of wide-ranging species. We studied immature Andean condor ( Vultur gryphus ) movements to evaluate their habitat use in relation to protected areas (PAs). We particularly aimed to determine whether BRs significantly increase the protection of this wide-ranging species. We analysed the movement overlap of 26 GPS-tagged birds with the PAs of Patagonia, and we evaluated preferences for particular landscape categories with a use–availability design. Condors were mainly located in unprotected areas (56.4%), whereas 26.4% of locations were within International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) PAs and 17.2% of locations were in BRs (not including IUCN PAs). When compared to availability, birds preferred BRs over other areas, highlighting the importance of BRs in protecting species that forage in humanized areas. However, the lack of controls and management policies expose condors to several threats, such as poisoning and persecution, in both private lands and BRs. Implementing strict management practices for BRs will help to conserve wide-ranging scavengers that feed in humanized areas.
We examined how Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus) segregate by sex and age in summer and autumn at a communal roost in the Patagonian Andes. Preferred roosting places received earlier sun at sunrise (summer) and later sun at sunset (autumn); sheltered crevices were also selected. Individuals strongly competed for preferred places: adults dominated juveniles and within each age class males dominated females. Although individuals preferred roosting places independent of their dominance status, fighting and subsequent relocating led to a defined social structure at the roost. Sunny exposures may allow occupants to maximize time available for foraging, plumage care, and maintenance, and to avoid cold stress. Irregularity in the spatial distribution and aggregation patterns of Andean Condors may be the result of requirements for roosting. Availability of adequate roost places should be considered in conservation programs.
Estructura Social en Dormideros de Vultur gryphus: Efectos de la Edad, Sexo y Estación
Resumen. Examinamos la segregación de individuos de Vultur gryphus en un dormidero communal en los Andes patagónicos con relación a la edad, el sexo y la estación del año. Los lugares preferidos para dormir fueron aquellos que recibieron la luz del sol más temprano al amanecer (verano) o temprano al amanecer y tarde al anochecer (otoño). Las oquedades abrigadas fueron también seleccionadas. Las aves compitieron por los lugares preferidos: los adultos dominaron a los jóvenes, mientras que dentro de cada clase de edad dominaron los machos. Aunque los lugares preferidos eran seleccionados inicialmente por aves de cualquier sexo y edad, las peleas y recolocaciones subsiguientes dieron lugar a una estructuración social en el dormidero. La preferencia por exposiciones soleadas puede reportar ventajas en la maximización del número de horas disponible para volar en busca de alimento, en el cuidado y mantenimiento del plumaje y en la reducción del estrés térmico derivado de las bajas temperaturas. Los requerimientos asociados a los dormideros pueden determinar patrones irregulares en la distribución y agregación de la especie a lo largo de su área de distribución. La disponibilidad de dormideros adecuados debe ser considerada en programas de conservación.
Despite its importance for ecosystem and human health, the cleaning service provided by scavenging birds is frequently disregarded. We evaluated this ecosystem service provided by a migratory species at a continental scale, estimating the amount of annual organic material removal, and the cost of artificially replacing the service. Road surveys conducted between 2005 and 2011, indicated an abundance of Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura) of nearly 9,000 birds along 27,658 km (22,127 km2), suggesting that the total global population could approximate 13 million birds. The calculated individual food intake (252 g/day) suggests that the surveyed population remove 1,000 tons of organic material per year –a monetized service of more than 500,000 USD, that could reach 700 million USD per year for the global population. Movement data from 22 tagged birds showed that the ecosystem service is maximized at the breeding and wintering areas, where Turkey Vultures spend most of the year (74–92% of time). The huge amount of organic material removed by Turkey Vultures at a continental scale, and the economic relevance of their service, highlight the importance of widespread and abundant populations of scavenging birds and their significant role in protecting the health of the environment and human wellbeing.
Probably the most important threat currently affecting vultures worldwide is exposure to pesticides, both accidentally and through deliberate abuse. This is of special concern since around 70% of vulture species are threatened by human activities. However, information about this threat is sparse and geographically biased. We compiled existing knowledge about pesticide exposure in vulture species globally, providing unifying criteria to mitigate this problem with a joint global effort. Most information available about accidental exposure to pesticides in vultures is related to organochlorine pesticides. Non-lethal exposure to these compounds occurs on every continent that vultures inhabit. While concentrations of organochlorine pesticides reported in different samples appear to be too low to produce health impacts, some studies show vultures with levels compatible with health impacts. In addition, there are some reports of vultures contaminated accidentally by anticoagulant rodenticides and external antiparasitic drugs used in veterinary practices. Deliberate abuse of pesticides to poison wildlife also occurs on every continent where vultures live, affecting most (78%) vulture species. However, little information is available for some regions of America, Asia and Europe. The exact number of vultures killed due to deliberate poisoning with pesticides is not well known, but the available figures are alarming (e.g. up to 500 individuals in a single event). The most widely used pesticides affecting vulture populations, and associated with deliberate poisoning, are carbamates and organophosphorus compounds. Of particular concern is the fact that massive poisoning events with these compounds occur, in some cases, within protected areas. This suggests that if this situation is not reversed, some vulture populations could disappear. A combination of measures such as banning pesticides, controlling their distribution-acquisition and environmental education could produce better results that banning pesticides alone. If poisoning with pesticides is not stopped, this threatened avian group could inadvertently go extinct very soon.
Different bacteria are present in rubbish dumps used as food resources by various bird species. Birds may be good indicators of the presence of zoonotic diseases in these sites since they can be infected with zoonotic pathogens by foraging on organic waste, and can also act as carriers. We studied if foraging in rubbish dumps increases the occurrence of Salmonella spp. and Chlamydia psittaci in American black vultures (Coragyps atratus) from northwest Patagonia. We compared these pathogens isolated from or detected in cloacae and oropharynx swabs in two different groups of black vultures: individuals trapped in (1) the Patagonian wild steppe, and (2) in a rubbish dump. We found that black vultures are colonized by Salmonella spp. (particularly Salmonella enterica serotypes Typhi, Paratyphi A, Salmonella enterica subsp. arizonae) and Chlamydia psittaci. Interestingly, there were differences in the prevalence of Salmonella spp., especially Salmonella Typhi, between individuals foraging in the rubbish dump and the steppe, but not in the prevalence of Chlamydia psittaci. Although it is unknown until now, the pathogens isolated or detected from black vultures could impact their health status but could also have health impacts in other bird species and even humans. In fact, Salmonella Typhi can cause severe disease in humans leading to death. Our results are globally relevant given that bacterial infections from rubbish dumps could affect different species exploiting these sites around the world. There is a need to better control pathogens in rubbish dumps to avoid the risk of infecting wildlife, which could act as potential dispersers and reservoirs of these pathogens.
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Vultures and condors (hereafter vultures) make up one the most threatened avian guilds in the world due to a variety of human-mediated impacts and disturbances. In fact, 70% of vulture species are currently suffering impacted by significant conservation threats, with lead contamination being particularly important. Unfortunately, lead contamination in vulture species remains poorly studied in many regions of the world. We reviewed the existing scientific knowledge about this threat to vultures. We found 62 scientific articles studying lead contamination in vultures. Seventy-two percent of these articles were from North America and Europe, with the rest corresponding to Asia (13%), South America (8%), and Africa (7%). Most (92%) were published recently (2001–2018). Published articles included information on 13 vulture species out of a total of 23 from both the Old (9) and New World (4). Eighty-eight percent of the articles showed individuals with lead concentrations above threshold levels in some tissues sampled, with New World (Cathartidae) vultures more affected than Old World vultures (Accipitridae). The most suspected but rarely probed source of lead was lead ammunition, but other sources such as pollution or industry were also reported. It is concerning that lead contamination is considered a major threat for just 8% (2/23) of the vulture species categorized by the IUCN Red list. Our review shows that lead contamination is an important threat for several vulture species worldwide, but remains undiagnosed and not well-recognized in some species and geographical areas. The effect of this contaminant on vulture demography is not well known but merits particular attention since it may be leading to population declines in several species.
Aim
Evaluating the patterns of genetic variation and population connectivity is fundamental to effectively designing and implementing conservation strategies for threatened species. However, connectivity patterns in highly mobile vertebrates, and especially in avian species, are often overlooked as it is generally assumed to be driven by demographic panmixia or isolation by distance. Herein, we investigated the genetic structure and patterns of connectivity across four biomes in a highly vagile bird, the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus).
Location
Four major Neotropical biomes of Argentina (>300,000 km²): Puna, Monte, Chaco and Patagonia.
Methods
We genotyped 13 polymorphic microsatellite loci plus one sex‐determining gene in 300 moulted feathers from 13 roosting sites in the core of species distributional range. We quantified levels of genetic differentiation, population structure, effective gene flow, genetic diversity and assessed sex‐biased dispersal events.
Results
We detected genetic structure with a moderate differentiation between the north (Puna and Chaco) and south (Patagonia) regions with a contact zone in the central area (Monte). We observed a spatial pattern of genetic patches with higher levels of gene flow along the Andes range. Although we found no indication of bottlenecks or inbreeding, we observed larger effective population sizes in the south compared to the northern region.
Main conclusions
Our study revealed that, despite the high dispersal potential of condors, demographic panmixia is not consolidated, even in the core of this species range. Our analyses further suggest that gene flow rate is modulated by topographic features, as condors may disperse more following the natural updrafts and lifts along the Andean mountains. Conservation initiatives should prioritize the protection of the Andean corridor to maintain connectivity between the apparent source from Patagonia to the northern biomes.
Wild birds have repeatedly been highlighted as vectors in the dissemination of livestock and human pathogens. Here, the occurrence, serotypes and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella were assessed in adult Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus), to test the hypothesis that infection is associated with the consumption of swine carcasses provided at supplementary feeding stations (SFSs). Faeces of year-round resident griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) were also tested to assess whether infection was acquired in the breeding grounds of both species or in the African wintering quarters of Egyptian vultures. Depending on the shedding rate criteria considered, the occurrence of infection in Egyptian vultures varied between the three consecutive sampling days in a range with a minimum of 23%–41% and a maximum of 64%–92% of individuals (n = 11–14 individuals, 27–39 faeces). The occurrence in the single sampling of griffon vultures was 61% of faeces (n = 18). Vultures mostly fed on pig carcasses, which together with their predominant infection with multiresistant serotypes (mostly the monophasic 4,12:i:- variant resistant to aminopenicillins, aminoglycosides and tetracyclines) typically found in pigs from Spain, strongly supports a carcass-to-vulture transmission and cross-infection routes at SFSs. Efforts are encouraged to avoid discarding carcasses of pigs with Salmonella at SFSs established for the conservation of threatened scavengers. This could contribute to reducing the long-distance transmission of resistant pathogens with an impact on livestock and human health while avoiding infection risk and its effects on wildlife.
The analysis of factors that determine the distribution of top-scavengers at large scales can provide clues to understanding important ecological processes and may be useful in establishing conservation and management strategies. Here, we conducted a large-scale survey to study the distribution of the threatened Andean Condor Vultur gryphus in relation to environmental factors in southern Patagonia. This area has undergone the settlement of livestock and the introduction of exotic wildlife, although to a lesser extent than in the condor's distribution in northern Patagonia. The aim of this study was to determine the relevance of different factors such as the availability of food resources, the availability of suitable nesting and roosting places and the presence of humans on large-scale condor distribution. Our results show that the presence of meadows was the primary factor shaping Andean Condor distribution, despite the fact that this habitat occupies only 4% of the Patagonian landscapes. However, this habitat has a high probability of herbivores presence, thus condors seem to optimize their searching. The availability of nesting and roosting cliffs also contributed to explaining the observed distributions. Our results suggest that condor distribution in southern Patagonia is a compromise between the spatial locations of two low-frequency habitats, meadows and cliffs. A successful condor conservation strategy in southern Patagonia should include the protection of these habitats and the regulation of farming expansion, including the recovery of meadows.