ChapterPDF Available

Racist and Sexist Figleaves

September 2020

In book: Routledge Handbook of Social and Political Philosophy of Language
Publisher: Routledge

Authors:

The University of Waterloo (also University of Sheffield)

In the United States—which has been more thoroughly studied in this regard than many countries—a norm against being racist coexists with quite widespread racial resentment among white people, at varying levels of conscious awareness. It is overwhelmingly likely that the same is true elsewhere as well. As a result, tapping into the racial resentment while not too obviously violating the anti-racism norm—for example, via dogwhistles-- has proved a highly effective electoral strategy. This has also been fairly widely studied. Another, less widely examined, technique is the figleaf—something which just barely covers a thing that you’re not supposed to show in public. Figleaves allow one to get away with what would otherwise seen as racist utterances, thereby shifting the norms of what counts as racism for those that accept the figleaf. A classic but overly simple figleaf, effective only with a limited group, would be “I’m not racist, but R”, where R is an utterance that would otherwise be seen as racist. Although readers of this paper will most likely not find this figleaf effective, it is still very widely used, and effective with some— as well will see, figleaves do not need to be all that widely successful in order to be useful. Figleaves, then, play a very important role by enabling much more blatant expressions of racial resentment than those that can be dogwhistled. There is good reason to believe that this makes them a potent and dangerous force in shifting norms. This article explains how figelaves work, and explores the application of the notion to other forms of prejudice, such as sexism. In addition, it discusses possible extensions of the concept.

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“I#have#days#where,#if#I#come#home#—#and#I#don't#want#to#sound#too#

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3.2$Statement$of$general$care$for$group$

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My#nieces#and#nephews#are#people#of#color.#Not#many#people#know#

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3.5!Mention!figleaf/!Paralipsis!

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+,$!4%5)!),%)!b$5B!&%?&!,$!-&!not!%&B-'>!e##-&('!)(!./(A$!,$F&!'()!<(/B-'>!<-),!

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"The#music,#the#service#at#the#feast,#

The#noble#gifts#for#the#great#and#small,#

The#rich#adornment#of#Theseus's#palace#.#.#.#

All#these#things#I#do#not#mention#now."!

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“I#refuse#to#call#Megyn#Kelly#a#bimbo,#because#that#would#not#

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reporter!”!

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3.6!Benevolent!sexism!and!figleaves!

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.%/)!(4!%!H=(?&!<-##!=$!=(?&I!3$')%#-)?!QK/(5B$))!RSTkV7!

C##!),-&!3%?!=$!<,?!<$!(4)$'!&$$!.$(.#$!<,(!3%B$!A$/?!(=A-(1&#?!,(&)-#$!&$2-&)!

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$2%3.#$@!<$!>$)!=(),!Hi(1!,%A$!)(!)/$%)!n<(3$'o!#-B$!&,-)I`!%'6!H8!5,$/-&,!

<(3$'7!8!<%')!)(!,$#.!<(3$'I!QO/1&$!RST\V7!!!g(&)-#$!%'6!=$'$A(#$')!&$2-&3!

<(/B!$2)/$3$#?!<$##!)(>$),$/@!6$&.-)$!),$-/!&1/4%5$!%..$%/%'5$!(4!=$-'>!-'!

)$'&-('@!%'6!),$?!%/$!(4)$'!5(3=-'$6!-'!),$!=$,%A-(/!%'6!1))$/%'5$&!(4!

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-&!%!.(<$/41#!<%?!(4!6$41&-'>!5('5$/'&!%=(1)!&$2-&37!

3.7!Condemnation!of!others’!sexism/racism!

K('6$3'-'>!/%5-&3!(/!&$2-&3!-'!&(3$('$!$#&$!5%'!&$/A$!%&!%'!$25$##$')!4->#$%4!

4(/!('$F&!(<'7!!N4)$'@!),$&$!4->#$%A$&!%/$!6-%5,/('-5@!/%),$/!),%'!(551//-'>!%#('>!

<-),!%!./(=#$3%)-5!1))$/%'5$!+/13.!(44$/$6!('$!(4!),$&$!4->#$%A$&!<,$'!,$!

5/-)-5-X$6!C')('-'!:5%#-%F&!/$3%/B&!('!%44-/3%)-A$!%5)-('*!

8!),(1>,)!-)!<%&!A$/?!)(1>,!)(!),$!C4/-5%'DC3$/-5%'!5(331'-)?@!%5)1%##?_!

8!6('m)!#-B$!<,%)!,$!&%-67!d(@!8!6('m)!#-B$!<,%)!,$!&%-67!8!,$%/6!,-3@!8!<%&!

#-B$@!mW$)!3$!/$%6!-)!%>%-'m!=$5%1&$!8!%5)1%##?!&%<!-)!-'!./-')@!%'6!8m3!>(-'>!D

D!8!/$%6!%!#()!(4!&)144!DD!%'6!8m3!>(-'>@!ma,(%pm!Q:5())!RST\V7!

a,$'!),$!C55$&&!g(##?<((6!)%.$!&1/4%5$6@!+/13.!&.$')!)-3$!5('6$3'-'>!b-##!

K#-')('@!%551&-'>!,-3!(4!&$21%#!%&&%1#)@!%'6!%551&-'>!g-##%/?!K#-')('!(4!%=1&-'>!

,-&!A-5)-3&!QC&&(5-%)$6!"/$&&!RSTkV7!

Trump#over#the#weekend#said#“Bill#Clinton#has#actually#abused#

women”#and#Hillary#Clinton#“bullied,#attacked,#shamed#and#

intimidated”#her#husband’s#“victims.”#

+,-&!1))$/%'5$!&$/A$6!3(/$!),%'!('$!.1/.(&$7!!!8)!&$/A$6!)(!%&&(5-%)$!g-##%/?!

K#-')('!<-),!b-##!K#-')('F&!./(=#$3%)-5!=$,%A-(/@!%'6!-)!%551&$6!g-##%/?!K#-')('!(4!

&-3-#%/!=$,%A-(/7!!b1)!-)!%#&(;3(/$!/$#$A%')#?!4(/!(1/!.1/.(&$&!,$/$;&$/A$6!%&!

%!4->#$%4!4(/!+/13.F&!(<'!=$,%A-(1/7!

3.8!Deride!special!snowflakes,!political!correctness.!

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RSTk!Q:3-),!RSTkV7!

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%16-$'5$&7!!G$3-'-&)!%16-$'5$&!%/$!#-B$#?!)(!=$!1'3(A$6!=?!),$!.(#-)-5%#!

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<(/B&!%&!%!6-&)/%5)-('7!!b1)!-)!-&!3(/$!),%'!),%)*!4(/!&(3$('$!<,(!),-'B&!-)!-&!=%6!

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3.9!Force!figleaves

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(=A-(1&#?!/%5-&)!1))$/%'5$V!<%&7!!!C'(),$/!&(/)!(4!4->#$%4!<(/B&!6-44$/$')#?@!

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+,$!)$/3!^4(/5$!4->#$%4F!5(3$&!4/(3!%!6/%4)!.%.$/!=?!P(,'!+1//-7!!7!

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&$/A$!%&!%'!-'6-5%)(/!(/!/%5-&37

!!!

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C!4(/5$!4->#$%4!-&!%'!1))$/%'5$!),%)!41'5)-('&!)(!5,%'>$!),$!<%?!),%)!),$!%16-$'5$!

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'()!-'!4(/!),%)!J!(/!-)&!1))$/$/!-&!/%5-&)7!!:(3$!$2%3.#$&!(4!),-&!4(##(<7!

3.10$Joking,$Locker$room$talk$

C!5#%&&-5@!%'6!A$/?!.(.1#%/@!4(/5$!4->#$%4!-&!)(!4#%>!),$!5(')$2)!%&!'('D&$/-(1&7!!H8!

<%&!('#?!E(B-'>I!(/!H8!<%&!=$-'>!-/('-5I!%/$!$2)/$3$#?!.(.1#%/!4->#$%A$&!4(/!

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QW%'>)('!RSTZV!!=1)!<-),!-3.(/)%')!6-44$/$'5$&7!!G-/&)@!-)!-&!6('$!=?!),$!&%3$!

.$/&('@!/%),$/!),%'!%&!%!/$&-&)%')!%5)-('!=?!&(3$('$!<,(!<%')&!)(!5,%'>$!),$!

&.$$5,!%5)7!!C'6!&$5('6@!<,$'!6('$!6$#-=$/%)$#?@!-)!-&!>$'$/%##?!3$%')!)(!5,%'>$!

),$!perception!(4!),$!&.$$5,!%5)!=?!),(&$!<,(!3->,)!(=E$5)@!<,-#$!#$%A-'>!-'!.#%5$!

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<(/B!QRSRSV!('!undoing!),-'>&!<-),!<(/6&7!!+,-&!<(/B!4(51&$&!('!4-/&)!.$/&('%#!

$44(/)&!)(!5,%'>$!%!&.$$5,!%5)!),%)!('$!,%&!%#/$%6?!3%6$7!

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C55$&&!g(##?<((6!)%.$!&1/4%5$67!!a,$'!),$!/$A$#%)-('!(4!),$&$!)%.$&!#$6!)(!%'!

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It#was#locker#room#talk,#as#I#told#you.#That#was#locker#room#talk.#

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people,#for#my#family,#for#the#people#of#this#country.#And#

certainly,#I'm#not#proud#of#it.#But#that#was#something#that#

happened,!

+,-&!-&!3$%')!)(!<(/B!%&!%!4->#$%4@!=?!/$A$%#-'>!4->#$%4!)(!=$!&(3$),-'>!(),$/!),%'!

%!&$/-(1&!%&&$/)-('7!!C'6!4(/!&(3$@!),-&!5#$%/#?!<(/B$6;%4)$/!%##!+/13.!<%&!

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1))$/%'5$!&,(1#6!=$!&$$'!%&!^#(5B$/!/((3!)%#BF7!N'$!$2%3.#$!QM/$>(/?!RSTkV*!!

“On#one#side#is#graphic#talk,”#says#Brendon#Ayanbadejo,#who#

spent#a#decade#in#the#NFL#and#won#a#Super#Bowl#with#the#2012#

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everyone’s#having#a#good#time#talking#about#it.#No#one#is#talking#

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+,-&!/$&.('&$!&,(<&!%'!$44(/)!)(!5,%##$'>$!%!4->#$%4!=?!01$&)-('-'>!-)&!)/1),*!-4!

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A$/-6-5%#!4->#$%A$&@!8!6(!'()!),-'B!-)!-&!'$5$&&%/?!)(!)%B$!%!&)%'6!('!),$!5(//$5)!

6$4-'-)-('!(4!/%5-&3!-'!(/6$/!)(!1'6$/&)%'6!,(<!/%5-%#!4->#$%A$&!<(/B7!!j$&.-)$!

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),%)!),$!3-3-5B/?!6$4$'&$!5%'!&$/A$!%&!%!4->#$%47!

3.12$Overall$Incoherence$

j('%#6!+/13.!3%B$&!1&$!(4!%!/%/$#?!1&$6!&(/)!(4!6-%5,/('-5!4->#$%4@!('$!),%)!

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I#was#in#public#school#during#desegregation,”#he#said#during#a#

news#conference,#at#which#his#discomfort#discussing#race#

showed#at#times.#“I#have#a#lot#of#African-American#friends#

that#I#went#to#school#with,#played#ball#with,#and#I#suspect#I’ve#

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Speaking of ‘violence’: Figleaf use in sexualized violence contexts

Article

May 2024

Madeleine Kenyon

In this project, I develop the concept of a sexualized violence figleaf, a speech mechanism often used in sexualized violence discourse to dismiss or characterize assault as some other kind of thing: a misunderstanding, a change of heart by the victim, a mischaracterization of the perpetrator, or any other number of things which are not rape, or violence. Sexualized violence figleaves are an extension of Jennifer Saul's work on racial and gender figleaves, as the underlying mechanics of the utterance track those of Saul's figleaves. In other words, I am developing a figleaf variant, showing that this conceptual tool is useful for analysing utterances beyond racist, sexist, and conspiracist speech, upon which Saul focuses. Rather, bringing figleaves into the realm of sexualized violence discourse illuminates features of the discourse which are often obscured by the prevalence of strong social intuitions about rapists and their corresponding character.

Diabolical devil’s advocates and the weaponization of illocutionary force

Article

May 2024

A standing presumption in the literature is that devil’s advocacy is an inherently beneficial argumentative move; and that those who take on this role in conversation are paradigms of argumentative virtue. Outside academic circles, however, devil’s advocacy has acquired something of a notorious reputation: real-world conversations are rife with self-proclaimed devil’s advocates who are anything but virtuous. Motivated by this observation, in this paper we offer the first in-depth exploration of non-ideal devil’s advocacy. We draw on recent analyses of two better known discursive practices—mansplaining and trolling—to illuminate some of the signature traits of vicious devil’s advocacy. Building on this comparative examination, we show that all three practices trade on a manipulation of illocutionary force; and we evaluate their respective options for securing plausible deniability.

Statistics as Figleaves

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023
Topoi

Felix Bräuer

Recently, Jennifer Saul (“Racial Figleaves, the Shifting Boundaries of the Permissible, and the Rise of Donald Trump”, 2017; “Racist and Sexist Figleaves”, 2021) has explored the use of what she calls “figleaves” in the discourse on race and gender. Following Saul, a figleaf is an utterance that, for some portion of the audience, blocks the conclusion that some other utterance, R, or the person who uttered R is racist or sexist. Such racial and gender figleaves are pernicious, says Saul, because, among other things, they can shift the boundaries of what is deemed acceptable to think or say. This paper expands on Saul’s picture in a threefold way: It is first argued that appeals to statistics can function as figleaves. It is then argued that—as far as figleaves go—there is reason to believe that statistics-as-figleaves are especially pernicious. Finally, the paper explores some strategies for counterspeech.

Challenging Authority with Argumentation: The Pragmatics of Arguments from and to Authority

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2022

Marcin Lewiński

Authority is both a pragmatic condition of much public discourse and a form of argumentative appeal routinely used in it. The goal of this contribution is to propose a new account of challenging authority in argumentative discourse that benefits from the interplay of the resources of recent speech act theory and argumentation theory. Going beyond standard approaches of the two disciplines, the paper analyzes nuanced forms of establishing and, especially, challenging discourse-related authority. Can Donald Trump advise his own scientific advisors on potential COVID-19 treatments? Addressing questions like this, the paper identifies various paradoxes of authority and the forms of authority discussed in the literature. It then distinguishes between argument from authority (or expert opinion) and argument to authority (or expert opinion) and argues that this rearranged structure mutually benefits the pragmatic account of speech act theory and the schematic account of argumentation theory in the task of better understanding and critiquing discourses such as Trump’s.

Demanding a halt to metadiscussions

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2022
Argumentation

Beth Innocenti

How do social actors get addressees to stop retreating to metadiscussions that derail ground-level discussions, and why do they expect the strategies to work? The question is of both theoretical and practical interest, especially with regard to ground-level discussions of systemic sexism and racism derailed by qualifying “not all men” and “not all white people” perform the sexist or racist actions that are the topic of discussion. I use a normative pragmatic approach to analyze two exemplary messages designed to halt retreats to metadiscussions about using “not all men” and “not all white people” qualifiers in discussions of systemic sexism and racism. I find that social actors use strategies that may at first glance appear to be out of bounds in an ideal critical discussion—e.g., demanding, shouting, cussing, sarcasm, name-calling—to cultivate a context where using not-all qualifiers becomes increasingly costly. The strategies are designed to get addressees to recognize that using not-all qualifiers is not an epistemic correction of a hasty generalization or ethical intervention to halt promulgation of stereotypes about men and white people. Instead, the strategies display that using not-all qualifiers is a fallible sign of willful hermeneutical ignorance, willful ignorance, and an attempt to reassert a measure of social dominance. These findings affirm the need to investigate the various strategies and normative materials social actors actually bring to bear to regulate disagreement.

What is Happening to Our Norms Against Racist Speech?

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2019

Jennifer Saul

Until recently, the accepted wisdom in the US was that overt racism would doom a national political campaign. This led to the use of covert messaging strategies like dogwhistles. Recent political events have called this wisdom into question. In this paper, I explore what has happened in recent years to our norms against racist speech, and to the ways that they are applied. I describe several mechanisms that seem to have contributed to the changes that I outline.

Undoing things with words

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2020
SYNTHESE

Laura Caponetto

Over the last five decades, philosophers of language have looked into the mechanisms for doing things with words. The same attention has not been devoted to how to undo those things, once they have been done. This paper identifies and examines three strategies to make one’s speech acts undone—namely, Annulment, Retraction, and Amendment. In annulling an act, a speaker brings to light its fatal flaws. Annulment amounts to recognizing an act as null, whereas retraction and amendment amount to making it null. Speakers employ retraction to cancel the deontic updates engendered by a given act. They instead use amendment to adjust its degree of strength. I will argue that annulling, retracting, and amending are second-order speech acts, whose felicity conditions vary with the type of illocution they operate on. Undoing is therefore conceived of as a form of doing. Furthermore, I claim that, in calling off our acts, we undo the conventional or illocutionary effects of our words while leaving intact their past causal or perlocutionary outcomes.

Racial Figleaves, the Shifting Boundaries of the Permissible, and the Rise of Donald Trump

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2017

Jennifer Saul

The rise to power of Donald Trump has been shocking in many ways. One of these was that it disrupted the preexisting consensus that overt racism would be death to a national political campaign. In this paper, I argue that Trump made use of what I call "racial figleaves"-additional utterances that provide just enough cover to give reassurance to voters who are racially resentful but don't wish to see themselves as racist. These figleaves also, I argue, play a key role in shifting our norms about what counts as racist: They bring it about that something which would previously have been seen as revealing obvious racism is now seen as the sort of thing that a nonracist might say. This gives them tremendous power to corrupt not just our political discourse but our culture more broadly.

Immigration in the Brexit campaign : Protean dogwhistles and political manipulation

Chapter

Dec 2018

Jennifer Saul

In the aftermath of the Brexit vote, there has been much discussion of whether the vote was caused by anti-immigrant sentiment or by economic factors, or by some combination of these. Often, the anti-immigrant sentiment is referred to as “racism”, and quite often “anti-immigrant” and “racist” seem to be used interchangeably. It’s a notable feature of these discussions—though not one that is actually much noted—that the immigrants against whom prejudice is directed shift from discussion to discussion: some discussions focus on prejudice against all foreigners, some against all Europeans, others against Eastern Europeans, and still others against refugees, dark-skinned foreigners, or Muslims. A key contention of mine here is that the variety of possible targets for anti-immigrant sentiment (call this “target variation”) has made this form of prejudice a particularly difficult one to effectively fight. And key to this target variation is the invocation of ever-shifting associated groups that are the target of negative sentiment about immigrants—different groups for different speakers and audiences.

How Propaganda Works

Book

May 2015

Jason Stanley

The race card: Campaign strategy, implicit messages, and the norm of equality

Book

Jan 2017

Tali Mendelberg

Did George Bush’s use of the Willie Horton story during the1988 presidential campaign communicate most effectively when no one noticed its racial meaning? Do politicians routinely evoke racial stereotypes, fears, and resentments without voters’ awareness? This controversial, rigorously researched book argues that they do. Tali Mendelberg examines how and when politicians play the race card and then manage to plausibly deny doing so. In the age of equality, politicians cannot prime race with impunity due to a norm of racial equality that prohibits racist speech. Yet incentives to appeal to white voters remain strong. As a result, politicians often resort to more subtle uses of race to win elections. Mendelberg documents the development of this implicit communication across time and measures its impact on society. Drawing on a wide variety of research--including simulated television news experiments, national surveys, a comprehensive content analysis of campaign coverage, and historical inquiry--she analyzes the causes, dynamics, and consequences of racially loaded political communication. She also identifies similarities and differences among communication about race, gender, and sexual orientation in the United States and between communication about race in the United States and ethnicity in Europe, thereby contributing to a more general theory of politics. Mendelberg’s conclusion is that politicians--including many current state governors--continue to play the race card, using terms like “welfare” and “crime” to manipulate white voters’ sentiments without overtly violating egalitarian norms. But she offers some good news: implicitly racial messages lose their appeal, even among their target audience, when their content is exposed.

Down girl: The logic of misogyny

Book

Jan 2017

K. Manne

What is misogyny? And (why) is it still occurring? This book explores the logic of misogyny, conceived in terms of the hostilities women face because they are living in a man’s world, or one that has been until recently. It shows how misogyny may persist in cultures in which its existence is routinely denied-including the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom, which are often alleged to be post-patriarchal. Not so, Down Girl argues. Misogyny has rather taken particular forms following the advent of legal equality, obligating women to be moral “givers,” and validating a sense of entitlement among her privileged male counterparts. Many of rape culture’s manifestations are canvassed-from the ubiquitous entreaty “Smile, sweetheart!” to Donald Trump’s boasts of grabbing women by the “pussy,” which came to light during his successful 2016 presidential campaign; from the Isla Vista killings in California to the police officer in Oklahoma who preyed on African American women with criminal records, sexually assaulting them in the knowledge they would have little legal recourse; from the conservative anti-abortion movement to online mobbings of women in public life, deterring the participation therein of all but the most privileged and well-protected. It is argued on this basis that misogyny often takes the form of taking from her what she is (falsely) held to owe him, and preventing her from competing for positions of masculine-coded power and authority. And he, in turn, may be held to owe her little.

Code Words in Political Discourse

Article

Oct 2017

Justin Donald Khoo

I argue that code words like "inner city" do not semantically encode hidden or implicit meanings, and offer an account of how they nonetheless manage to bring about the surprising effects discussed in Mendelberg 2001, White 2007, and Stanley 2015 (among others).

The Everyday Language of White Racism

Article

Feb 2009

Jane H. Hill

In The Everyday Language of White Racism, Jane H. Hill provides an incisive analysis of everyday language to reveal the underlying racist stereotypes that continue to circulate in American culture. Provides a detailed background on the theory of race and racism. Reveals how racializing discourse-talk and text that produces and reproduces ideas about races and assigns people to them-facilitates a victim-blaming logic. Integrates a broad and interdisciplinary range of literature from sociology, social psychology, justice studies, critical legal studies, philosophy, literature, and other disciplines that have studied racism, as well as material from anthropology and sociolinguistics. Part of the Blackwell Studies in Discourse and Culture Series.

Beyond Belief: Pragmatics in Hate Speech and Pornography1

Article

May 2012

Rae Langton

Pragmatics can shed light on racial hate speech and pornography, but only if we bring it down to earth. Five models for hate speech and pornography are distinguished: a conditioning model, an imitation model, an argument model, a speech act model, and its descendant, the pragmatic model. A speech act model distinguishes illocutionary and perlocutionary dimensions of speech: e.g. hate speech can incite, and cause, hatred and violence. The pragmatic model tries to capture these dimensions via an account of accommodation. It can indeed illuminate racial hate speech and pornography, but only with amendments that go 'beyond belief'. Lewis and Stalnaker showed how 'score' or 'common ground' of conversation accommodates to moves speakers make, and the hearer's belief adjusts accordingly. This picture needs extending to make sense of hate speech and pornography: we need to allow for the accommodation of other attitudes, such as desire and hate.

Racist and Sexist Figleaves

Abstract

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