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129
ARKEOLOJİ VE SANAT | 161: MAYIS-AĞUSTOS 2019
Early Byzantine Churches
in Olympos*
Seçkin Evcim – Gökçen Kurtuluş Öztaşkın
Asst. Prof., Ordu University History of Art Department. Orcid no: 0000-0003-2082-
1247, seckinevcim@gmail.com – Asst. Prof. Pamukkale University History of Art
Department. Orcid no: 0000-0002-6471-7460, gokcenko@gmail.com
OLYMPOS’TAKİ ERKEN BİZANS KİLİSELERİ
Öz
Olympos, kent merkezinde bugüne kadar tespit edilen dokuz kilisesiyle Erken Bizans Dönemi dinî
mimarisine yönelik araştırmalar içinde önemli bir konuma sahiptir. Bununla birlikte bu zamana kadar
bu kiliselerden genel kent tanıtımları içinde bahsedilmiş, yalnızca üçü birbirlerinden bağımsız olarak
yayımlanan çalışmalara konu olmuştur. Son yıllarda Anadolu’nun Ege ve Akdeniz bölgelerinin Erken
Bizans arkeolojisine olan akademik ilginin artması ve Olympos’ta yapılan arkeolojik çalışmalarla kili-
selere ait verilerin çoğalması, bu makalenin yazılması ihtiyacını doğurmuştur. Çalışmamızın amacı
Olympos’taki Erken Bizans Dönemi kiliselerini toplu hâlde tanıtmak ve değerlendirmektir. Bu amaç
doğrultusunda öncelikle her bir kilise numaralandırılmış ve başlıca özellikleriyle tanıtılmıştır. Olympos
kiliseleri yapısal ve dekoratif özellikleriyle Doğu Akdeniz’den Adriyatik kıyılarına uzanan geniş coğrafya
içinde değerlendirilebilecekleri gibi, kendine has özellikler de barındırmaktadır. Değerlendirme, kilise-
lerin Geç Antik Dönem'deki kentsel dönüşüm içindeki yerleri ve buna bağlı işlev önerileriyle başlar.
Daha sonra yapısal ve mekânsal özelikler ile inşa teknikleri ve dekorasyon unsurları değerlendirilerek
Olympos kiliselerinin Erken Bizans Dönemi dinî mimarisi içindeki yerleri anahatlarıyla belirlenir. Buna
göre Olympos kiliselerinin 5. yüzyılın ikinci yarısı ve 6. yüzyıl ortaları arasında Roma Dönemi kent doku-
suna paralel olarak inşa edildikleri ve şehrin Hıristiyanlaştırılması sürecine uygun olarak düzenlendikleri
sonucuna ulaşılmaktadır.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Olympos, Lykia, Erken Hıristiyanlık, Erken Bizans, Kilise, Mimari.
Abstract
Owing to the presence of the nine churches located in its city centre, Olympos has a great impor-
tance regarding Early Byzantine religious architecture studies. However, only three of these nine
churches have been subject to individually published researches until the present day, while the oth-
ers have only been mentioned within the general publications introducing the city as a whole. The
increasing academic interest in the Early Byzantine Archaeology of the Aegean and Mediterranean
regions of Asia Minor together with the growth of data collected from the archaeological excava-
tions carried out at Olympos brought forth the need to write this paper. The aim of this paper is
to collectively present and evaluate Early Byzantine churches in Olympos. In line with this aim, each
church was assigned a number and its general characteristics presented. Although these churches
may be evaluated within a vast geography spanning from Eastern Mediterranean to the Adriatic Sea
in terms of structural and decorative features, they also carry unique characteristics. In the conclu-
sions chapter, firstly the status of the churches during the urban transformation in Late Antiquity and
related function suggestions are discussed. After that, the structural and spatial features, construc-
tion techniques and decoration elements are evaluated and the place of the Olympos churches in the
Early Byzantine period outlined. Accordingly, it is concluded that the churches of Olympos were built
sometime between the second half of the 5th century and the middle of the 6th century in coher-
ence with the Olympos’ Roman era town layout and configured appropriately to Christianization
process of the city.
Keywords: Olympos, Lycia, Early Christianity, Early Byzantine, Church, Architecture.
In memory of our friend and
Olympos team member
Sinan Sertel…
* Araştırma Makalesi. Makale geliş tarihi: 05.07.2019; Makale kabul tarihi: 07.08.2019
EARLY BYZANTINE CHURCHES IN OLYMPOS | Seçkin Evcim – Gökçen Kurtuluş Öztaşkın
130
Fig. 1: Olmypos city plan and locations of the churches.
The ancient city of Olympos is located in a deep valley on the western
coast of the Bay of Antalya (Fig. 1). Founded in the Hellenistic Period,
Olympos was one of the six major cities of the Lycian League (Strabo,
Geography, XIV.3.3). It was evicted from the League around the turn of the 2nd to the 1st
century BCE on the grounds of its support to the pirate chief Zeniketes, but later resumed
its role as one of the important members of the League during the Roman Imperial Period
(Uğurlu 2007: 84-85; Özer 2013: 215-218). The earliest records on the Christianity in Olympos
come from Methodius who is known to have lived between the second half of the 3rd
century CE and the first quarter of the 4th century CE. Referred to as a saint and martyr,
Methodius is considered to be the first bishop of Olympos and earliest known bishop of
Lycia (Patterson 1997: 17-19; Olcay Uçkan and Kayapınar 2015: 536-539). Other recorded
bishops of the city include Aristocritus who was present at the Council of Ephesus in 431
CE, Anatolius who is mentioned in a letter sent by the Metropolis of Myra to Emperor Leo
I and Ioannes who took part in the Constantinople Synods of 518 and 520 CE. A bishop of
Olympos called Anania/Anianos or Ioannes has been identified on a lead seal dated to the
late 6th century-early 7th century CE (Hellenkemper and Hild 2004: 758). In addition, the
name Bishop Theophiletos can be read on a slab dated to the late 5th century-early 6th
century CE which was uncovered during archaeological excavations (Sertel 2019: 194-195).
In the Notitiae Episcopatuum from the 6th to the 9th centuries, the city is registered as an
episcopal centre dependent on the Metropolis of Myra (Mommsen 1866: 66, 111, 174, 189;
Darrouzes 1981: 209, 223, 237, 256; Hild 2004: 16).
Buildings that constitute the urban texture spread out along both sides of the creek (Akçay
/ Olympos Creek) which extends through a deep valley that flows into the Mediterranean in
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the east. The valley that determines the boundaries of the settlement originates at Kavışık
Pass (Kavışık Boğazı) which forms a natural, narrow pass at the west. While the steep slopes
of Sepet Ridge (Sepet Sırtı) rise on the south, Mount Omurga (Omurga Dağı) rises on the
north. Ruins that belong to the city can also be observed on Cape Yeremeci (Yeremeci
Burnu, also known as Cape Çamlı - Çamlı Burun), which is the eastern continuation of Sepet
Ridge, and on Yolmacı Ridge (Yolmacı Sırtı), a continuation of Mount Omurga, which nar-
rows down the valley just before it opens out to the sea.
The Hellenistic settlement was founded on the southern side of the valley. The borders
of the Hellenistic settlement can be determined by the city walls built using polygonal
masonry which start from the rocky cliff on the western slope of the Roman theatre and
extend eastwards along the creek. The city grew during the Roman Period by expanding on
both sides of the valley. The harbour was the focal point in the planning of the city during
this period and, populated with public buildings, the South City may be regarded as the
centre of daily life. The North City, on the other hand, included sanctuaries, mausoleums
and other religious structures. During the Roman Period, North City Harbour Street was
the main artery that stretched across the city on an east-west axis. The street in the north
side which runs parallel to Harbour Street, extending from the necropolis on the west, all
the way to the temenos of the Roman temple has been defined as Necropolis Street. The
North City Harbour Street intersects with the north-south oriented Bridge Street and the
two sides of the city are connected with a triple arch bridge situated on this street. In the
south side, the Bridge Street first opens out to a large square and then extends southwards
before intersecting with the east-west oriented South City Harbour Street. Theatre Street
constitutes another important axis which runs parallel to Harbour Street in the southern
part of the South City. It is understood that the urban texture was divided into insulae with
street and alleys that intersect at right angles and that it had a hippodamic plan developed
in accordance with planning and building programme (Olcay Uçkan et al. 2017: 9-14).
The urban texture of Early Byzantine Olympos largely shaped by the Roman Period street
layout and topography. New buildings were built based on changing needs and existing
structures which had become dysfunctional were repurposed. During this period, public
buildings were built in the north side of the city in addition to the existing religious build-
ings and residential areas were created around the Necropolis Street. Sites on Yolmacı
Ridge and Cape Yeremeci were opened to settlement also during this period. It is under-
stood that the construction works were intensified throughout the 5th and 6th centuries.
Nine churches have been identified in the city, which gained a Christian identity thanks to
the Early Byzantine Period urban development. Olympos is known to have an extensive ter-
ritorium, yet it is remarkable that as a medium sized settlement that cannot be regarded as
an important religious centre, it has nine churches.
Previous publications have used various denominations based on numbers and/or special
names for the churches in the city. However, this paper has assigned numbers to all churches
starting from the one closest to the western entrance of the city and proceeding in a clock-
wise sequence. Churches have also been assigned names in order to simplify the narration
and establish an association with other publications. Church descriptions indicate all the dif-
ferent names given to them in previous publications in order to avoid potential confusion.
Other than the churches and their annexes included in this study, the city of Olympos also
features small-scale buildings with semi-circular exedras on their eastern sides. Among them
are structures which were possibly used as chapels based on their dimensions and their
location within the building complex they belong to. The space with apsis located in sector
S6-IX has been mentioned as “Church (K4)” in two excavation reports (Olcay Uçkan 2007:
50; Olcay Uçkan 2008a: 74). It is thought that the space in sector S7-VII was a chapel due to
it belonging to the episcopal residence (Öztaşkın G. K. 2017: 57). Although it is possible to
suggest that these small-scaled structures had religious functions, they have been excluded
from this paper since it is unclear whether they were specifically used as churches. Some
spaces with exedras are in fact tricliniums, or reception rooms found in civic residences in
Late Antiquity (S6-VII).
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132
Church 1
Church 1 is in sector S5-IX, on the north bank of the creek (Figs 2-3). The initial fieldwork
related to church was carried out in 2007 under the name “Church 4 (S5/IX-k4)” (Olcay
Uçkan 2008b: 55-56; Olcay Uçkan et al. 2009: 379-380). A hypothesis of reconstruction has
been proposed based on data obtained from survey and trial excavations performed during
2007 campaign (Demirel Gökalp and Yıldırım 2010: 370-376). Subsequent studies adopted
the name “Half Basilica” for this church, but it is currently called the “Necropolis Church”
due to its location close to the burial areas1.
The church is located immediately behind the remains of a large retaining wall at the
western entrance of the ancient city. To its northeast lies a building complex defined as the
“Entrance Complex” and the North Necropolis is located on its north-northwest. The church
was constructed on an alluvial layer on the edge of the stream bed. Based on information
obtained from the local people, a large part of the building was destroyed during a flood
that occurred in January 19692. This information consistent with meteorological records,
furthermore, it has been confirmed by a movie. In the Turkish-German co-production movie
“Camp der Verdammten”3 which was mostly set in Olympos in 1961, the church appears
Fig. 3: Church 1, from north.
Fig. 2: Plan of Church 1.
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in good condition except for the south wall (von Theumer 1962: min. 61:10-61:32 and min.
62:18-64:41).
What remains of the building today is the north aisle, the north wall which stands up to
the gallery floor level, the north annex, a part of the pastophorion on northeast corner and
the north wall of the atrium. According to available data, Church 1 is a three-aisled basilica
with an atrium and annexes. In the 1961 feature film, the church has a projecting semi-
circular apse with a central aperture large enough to hold a triple window arrangement. A
doorway to the pastophorion is located on the north of the apse, but there is no doorway
on the south. Footage from the film reveals the existence of a wide nave portal with lintel
and jamb underneath a discharging arch built with the alternating bricks and stones and
L-shaped piers in the atrium (von Theumer 1962: min. 61:10, min. 63:12). The north aisle
stylobate was revealed during excavations and it has been discovered that the aisle has an
opus tessellatum floor mosaic (Fig. 20a). Studies have identified the doorways of the pasto-
phorion and that at least one space was added to the west of the atrium.
The north aisle is 15.5 m long and 2.5 m wide. At the west end of the aisle, there is a
doorway providing access from the atrium. Aisle separated from the nave by five columns
of which only the stylobate and four in-situ Attic bases have survived to the present day.
Low rubble walls have been found between the column bases which could be associated
with the high barrier arrangement. The uncovered part of the floor mosaic of north aisle
contains a square panel confined by borders decorated with swastika meanders and knot
motifs on the north and south. The panel features a flower motif with four pointed leaves
surrounded by four peltae placed in the corners (Olcay Uçkan et al. 2009: 380, fig. 5; Demirel
Gökalp and Yıldırım 2010: 376, fig. 17).
There are two doorways and four windows between the aisle and the north annex. The
windows, which are arranged in a 1-2-1 order with two of them located between the
doorways, are placed relatively low. Built with alternating brick and stone voussoirs, the
arches of the 1st and 3rd window counting from the west remain intact. Beam holes are
seen above these openings on the inner face of the wall at a height of 4.55 m, indicating
that the church had galleries. The pastophorion is accessed through a doorway located at
the east end of the aisle. A large part of the pastophorion has not survived, however, it is
evident that it has a trapezoidal plan from the angle of the east wall.
Atrium is 12.7 m long, however the width is uncertain. A space was added to its west and it
is evident that there was an arched doorway between the atrium and this space. The strati-
graphic section caused by flood reveals opus tessellatum floor mosaic which extends along
the north wing of the atrium. The L-shaped piers seen in the film “Camp der Verdammten”
reveals that the atrium had a roofed arcade. The wide doorway with a jamb located close
the middle of the north wall of the atrium must have been used as the main entrance of
the church. A single L-shaped pier located in the area to the north of the entrance and the
remains of a corresponding buttress on the exterior surface of the atrium wall indicate the
existence of a portico in front of the entrance. Access to the north annex was also provided
through this portico.
The north annex is the same length as the north aisle (15.5 m) and 3.2 m wide on average.
The east wall and the arched entrance to its west have survived to the present day. Its long
north wall has mostly collapsed; however, the condition of the remains gives the impression
that it had an external arcade-like form with wide arched openings. The two doorways and
four windows mentioned in the description of the north wall lie to the south of the space,
between itself and the north aisle.
The walls of the building made of mortared rubble, river cobbles and large rough tooled
stones on the corners with use of tile and brick fragments as gap filling materials. Arches are
built of alternating brick and stone. The pottery, fragments of architectural sculpture and
mosaic found during cleaning and trial excavations carried out in the building are dated to
the 5th-6th centuries CE (Olcay Uçkan et al. 2009: 380; Demirel Gökalp and Yıldırım 2010:
376-377; Öztaşkın and Sertel 2017b: 87, lev. 5 - kat. no. 57; Evcim and Uzun 2017: 124, lev.
3 - cat. no. 26-29).
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134
Church 2 (Episcopal Church)
The church is in sector S7-VII, in the North City (Figs 4-5). The church and its annexes consti-
tute the centre buildings of the episcopeion (Episcopal Palace). Located at the intersection
of the two main streets of the North City, the episcopeion was built by means of involving
the Roman temple and its temenos (Öztaşkın G. K. 2017).
The church was first presented in 2001 (Olcay 2001: 355-356) and the data obtained through
the excavations have been published on a regular basis since. In these subsequent publica-
tions the church was called “Basilica A” “Church A”, “Church 2 (k3)” and “KK3” while the
baptistery was referred to as “Church B” and “KK4”4.
The church is a three-aisled basilica with transept. Together with Church 4, it is one of
the two basilicas with transept in the city. The narthex is 23,5x4,4 m and has an entrance
from the south in order to be in close proximity to the main entrance of the Episcopeion.
The naos is accessed through doors on the axis of nave and each aisle. Repurposed Roman
period blocks were used in the lintels and jambs of the door of the nave. The naos is 17.2
m wide and 34.2 m long including the apse. The nave is 9.14 m wide while the aisles are
3.4 m wide. Aisles were separated from nave by rows of columns, understood that eight
on each side. Low rubble walls have been found between the Attic B type column bases
in the western part of the north stylobate which could be associated with the high barrier
arrangement (Öztaşkın and Sertel 2017a). The T and L-shaped piers indicate that the tran-
sept was in the shape of abbreviated version of cross transept. The transept is 11.35 m wide
and 27.1 m long. There are two doorways on the north wall of the transept which open
Fig. 4: Plan of Church 2 (Episcopal Church).
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EARLY BYZANTINE CHURCHES IN OLYMPOS | Seçkin Evcim – Gökçen Kurtuluş Öztaşkın
out to the spaces in this direction. Limited by the П shaped templon, the bema is 0.25 m
higher than the floor of the naos. The wall on the east of the church apse is the east wall
of the Roman temenos. This wall created pastophoria which are connected to each other
from behind the apse. Pastophoria open out to the aisles with a doorway each. There is a
small vaulted space with niches on its walls connected to the northeast pastophorion. The
naos walls have been preserved up to a height of ca 5.15 m. Three window openings can
be observed on the south wall of the transept. It is understood that triple window arrange-
ment in the projecting semi-circular apse.
Data obtained during the excavations suggest that the aisles were arranged with galleries
housing different capital types on the upper and lower columns. The Corinthian and Ionic-
impost capitals were found together during the excavations (Olcay Uçkan and Öztaşkın G.
K. 2017a: 192). The beam holes located at a height of 4.94 m on the south wall indicates
the level of the gallery. However, clear data is unavailable on the entire height of the walls.
The current heights of the windows and doorways indicate that the galleries only continue
along the western wings of the transept arms.
The nave is covered with opus sectile mosaics while the aisles are covered with rectangular
limestone slabs. The east-west oriented panels separated with white bands are observed
on the surviving opus sectile flooring identified around the templon (Fig. 20c). The central
panel features rhomboid pieces placed to create chevron patterns. The panels situated to
the north and south of the central panel are symmetrical with each other. The panels on
either side of the central panel feature rows of triangles placed in opposite directions. Six-
pointed star motifs can be seen on the last panels on the north and south. The areas on
the north and south of the templon are also arranged symmetrically. These parts feature
a geometric arrangement in which square pieces intersect in the corners and the gaps in
between are filled with smaller sized squares and triangles.
A triconch and a rectangular planned annexe are located to the south of the church.
The interior of the triconch is 5.55x4.45 m while the rectangular space is 13.3x5.4 m. The
triconch connects to the south aisle with a 2.18 m wide doorway. The exedras in three
directions are 2.2 wide and 0.9 m deep. There are arched small semi-circular niches in the
northeast and southeast corners. The triconch is covered with a sandstone dome with a
pendentive transitions.
The access to the rectangular annex is through the narthex. The annex has windows that
overlook the church and the corridor to the south. The corridor which starts from the pas-
Fig. 5: Church 2 (Episcopal Church), from west.
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136
sage that also opens to the narthex lines the entire southern walls of the church and con-
nects to the southeast pastophorion and the episcopal residence in an eastward.
A large three-aisled baptistery with a vestibulum is located on the north of the church. The
vestibulum accessed through the narthex has been arranged with impluvium and porticos
in three directions. There is a fountain with a five-niched arrangement on the west wall.
Brickwork decorations can be observed on the semi-domes of the fountain niches (Öztaşkın
2018: 616). The baptistery is 14.68 m long and 12.5 m wide. Aisles were separated from
nave by rows of columns. The projecting semi-circular apse of the nave houses a cruciform
baptismal font. A five-sectioned arcade shaped arrangement can be observed in the south
aisle. A doorway to the east of the south aisle giving access to the north transept arm of
the church and another doorway on the east of the north aisle connects to the other units
of the episcopeion in this direction. The floor of the nave of baptistery bears similarities to
that of the church.
The south wall of the baptistery has wall paintings that symbolise heaven with aquatic
birds on either side of a tree and imitating slab decorations. The east exedra of the triconch
planned annex features a cross adorned with precious stones inside a medallion while the
south exedra has a depiction of a peacock shown in profile (Çorağan 2017: 148-153).
The pottery and glass (Öztaşkın M. 2017; Olcay Uçkan 2017; Olcay Uçkan and Öztaşkın M.
2017), metal finds (Demirel Gökalp et al. 2017) and stone artefacts (Sertel 2019; Öztaşkın
and Sertel 2017b) found in the church are dated to the 6th century CE. The walls of the
church and annexes built of rubble and lime mortar with use of rough tooled stones on the
corners, piers and buttresses.
Church 3
The church is in sector S7-VI, in the North City (Figs 6-7). It was built on the northern part
of the 43.5x37.5 m area of a Roman building complex built using large rusticated ashlar
blocks in the peripheral walls. Cutting through the city on the north-south axis, Bridge
Street extends on the west of the area of the Roman complex. Monumental tombs lie to the
northwest and southeast of the area while a building thought to be a bath dating to Late
Antiquity lies to the east. The original function of the Roman period structure in which the
church was constructed is currently unknown.
Church 3 is three-aisled basilica with narthex and a projecting semi-circular apse. There is a
large exedra on the north, a pastophorion in the northeast and annexes in the southeast.
Archaeological excavations have been conducted on the site since 2016. The apse, bema
and entire south aisle –except the wheelbarrow path– has been completely revealed while
two thirds of the nave and parts of the northeast-southeast annexes have been excavated
(Olcay Uçkan et al. 2018: 102-106; Olcay Uçkan and Öztaşkın 2018: 86-89; Olcay Uçkan et
al. 2019: 622-627).
The Narthex is about 12x6.5 m and has entrances on the south and southwest. Remains
of the wall suggest the existence of two more spaces to the west of the narthex. Access
from the narthex to the naos is provided by a doorway each on the three aisle axes. In the
northern part of the western wall of naos, the wall thickness and masonry are different.
The north aisle entrance in this part differs from the building’s other arched openings with
its brick-work segmented arch. This part of the wall must belong to the Roman structure on
which the church was constructed.
The naos is 12.75 m wide and 20.75 m long including the apse. Aisles were separated from
nave by rows of columns, seven on each side. Most of the capitals found in the church are
badly fragmented Corinthian capitals. There are also a few Ionic capitals. Attic bases with
octagonal and square plinths, most of which are found in-situ on stylobates, have been
placed alternately according to the shape of plinths. Low rubble walls have been found
on the south aisle stylobate, extending up to the fourth column base from the west, and
appearing to be associated with the high barrier arrangement. The opus sectile floor pave-
ment of nave is mostly damaged however, the surviving parts suggest that it had an ad
quadratum texture, featuring a transverse alignment of marble tiles with dark slate grey
slates to fill the triangular gaps in between. The south aisle floor paved with opus tessel-
137
EARLY BYZANTINE CHURCHES IN OLYMPOS | Seçkin Evcim – Gökçen Kurtuluş Öztaşkın
latum mosaic. The mosaic was arranged in three panels: adjacent vertical and horizontal
opposed scales in the centre and imbricated scales in the east and west.
The bema of Church 3 measures 4.55x7.03 m. Stylobate of the templon have remained in
situ (Olcay Uçkan and Öztaşkın 2018: 87, fig. 5). The architectural sculpture fragments found
dispersed in the area suggest that it was a low templon screen. The opus sectile floor of the
bema partially preserved, featuring six-pointed stars formed by white marble hexagons and
dark slate triangles. A rectangular altar platform is located in the centre, close to the apse.
The north and south walls have one doorway each opening out to the aisles which were
positioned to correspond at the bema, however, these were blocked with stones and then
Fig. 6: Plan of Church 3.
Fig. 7: Church 3, from southwest.
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138
covered with plaster. There is a wall painting on the blocked doorway in the south wall,
but only the portion below the knees of depicted person has survived. The line of beam
holes observed on the interior of the south wall of the church, about 4.2 m above the
ground, indicate that there was a gallery above the south aisle. Aisle windows are located
right under the level of the beam holes. The north wall is collapsed to the degree that it is
impossible to deduce the existence of a gallery and the window arrangement. A large semi-
circular exedra with a diameter of 7.3 m is in the northwest of the naos, projecting from
western half of the north wall. Inside the exedra are remains of five buttresses thought to
be connected to each other with arches. The material and masonry technique used in the
exedra wall is different from the other walls of the church. Based on current observations, it
is likely that the exedra belonged to the Roman building that stood here before the church.
The theory that this space was incorporated into the church is based on the fragments of
wall painting found here in 2017 (Fig. 20e)5.
There is a single and large projecting semi-circular apse on the east wall, a doorway to the
north of the apse giving access from the north aisle to the pastophorion and a window to its
south, which was blocked later. Two mullions found during the excavations show that there
was a triple window arrangement in the apse. The material in the collapse indicates that the
semi-dome of the apse was made of sandstone and that amphora fragments were used on
the semi-dome or in it. The five-stepped synthronon of the apse was built with rough tooled
stones and paved with white limestones on the treads and a checker pattern of alternating
white limestone and dark slate on the vertical faces. Several fragments from the marble
revetment of the apse and side walls have been found scattered across the bema.
The pastophorion is accessed through a doorway at the east end of the north aisle that
lies to the north of the apse. The pastophorion has been positioned transversely to the
church axis due to the existence of other nearby buildings. The excavation of certain parts
has been completed revealing opus tessellatum mosaic floor consisting of rhombus, knots
and zig-zag motifs. There is a space (or spaces) to the south-southeast of the apse without
any passage that links it to the church naos although it is adjacent to it from the southeast.
The window located at the east end of the south aisle was filled, suggesting that the room
behind it belonged to a later phase.
Besides several architectural sculptures, carved revetments have also been found during
the excavations. Some of these are marble relief icons depicting holy persons (Olcay Uçkan
et al. 2019: 626-627, fig. 8)6. The others are frieze fragments with chasing animals in leaf
scrolls. Based on the forms, back faces and their find spots, it has been identified that they
were used as revetments positioned to face the nave at the point between the arches and
the gallery level.
Another significant group of artefacts besides the abovementioned architectural sculp-
ture, paving and revetment elements are a multitude of pottery fragments that belong
to amphorae LRA4 found inside the collapse of the semi-dome of the apse. The mortar on
most of the fragments indicates that they were used as building material. The fragments
have been dated to the last quarter of the 5th century CE (Olcay Uçkan et al. 2019: 630).
The architectural sculpture fragments and mosaic floor decorations could be dated to a
time between the second half of the 5th century and first half of the 6th century CE. 6th
century CE seems to be an appropriate date for the wall paintings. Additionally, the fact
that excavations to date have not revealed coins dating to later than 588 CE and that the
pottery and architectural elements cannot be dated to later than the 6th century CE sug-
gest that construction of the church begun in the late 5th century-early 6th century and was
used until the beginning of the 7th century before being abandoned.
Church 4
Church 4 is in sector S11-V, in the North City (Figs 8-9). Buildings that seem to have a secu-
lar function can be observed along the coastline that extends towards Çıralı/Yanartaş. The
church, which is the last of these buildings, lies underneath a rocky cliff which marks the
beginning of Çıralı Valley.
The church is surrounded by modern-day restaurants and associated units. A part of its apse
and naos walls have survived up to a height of 2.2 m above the existing fill. Certain ashlar
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blocks observed in the north of the church suggest that there could have been a Roman
period podium-like structure with krepidoma.
It is one of the two churches in the city that have transepts, the other one is Church 2. There
are four rectangular window openings in the projecting semi-circular apse. The rocky area
at the west reveals a concave structure and corresponds to the narthex. The naos is 16.8 m
wide and 42.5 m long up to the rocks and including the apse. The aisle seperations are not
visible. However, the buttress in the southern part of the east wall provides an insight to
the stylobate arrangement of the church. Based on this buttress it is possible to assume that
the church which is similar to Church 2 in its plan scheme as well as its measurements and
proportions, was built in the abbreviated version of cross transept scheme. It is not possible
to identify how access to the church. Considering the location and existing walls, it is likely
that entry the church was from the southeast or southwest.
Fig. 9: Church 4, apse.
Fig. 8: Plan of Church 4.
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There is a cross planned annex to the north of the naos measuring 4x3.7 m. The annex
connects to the south aisle with a 1.45 m wide doorway. Inside it arcosolium niches are in
three directions measuring 1.9 m in width and 0.55 m in depth. The pendentives between
the arcosolium arches can be observed in the corners of the annex which is currently full
of rubble.
A ribbon motif containing rhombuses which imitate a slab decoration can be observed in
the lower part of the apse wall; whereas the rocky surfaces that correspond to the narthex
feature paintings consisting of floral compositions (Çorağan 2017: 153-154). Finds from
inside the church include architectural sculpture artefacts which bear Early Byzantine char-
acteristics. The walls of the church and annexes built of rubble and lime mortar with use of
rough tooled stones on the corners and buttresses.
The mortar and tile remains seen on the rocky surface on the west provide insight to the
church roof. The traces belong to a double-pitched timber roof which extends in both direc-
tions from behind the central axis of the naos. Based on these traces, it is possible to calcu-
late that the rafter intersection point above the roof ridge was approximately 10 m above
the fill material inside the naos. The rafters extend at a 50-degree angle from the central
strut. The south rafter line can be observed up to 5 m from the centre. This information
demonstrates that nave and aisles were covered by a single roof. Considering the existing
heights based on the roof structure, it is possible that the aisles had galleries.
Church 5
Church 5 is in sector S5-III and built on a rocky cliff overlooking the coast of Olympos, where
terraces ascend towards the foothills of Sepet Ridge, north of Mount Musa (Figs 10-11). It
gives the impression of a defence structure with its northwest corner structure that looks
like a tower resting on a 30 m high cliff ascending vertically from the sea. The collapsed
upper part of the window openings of the north wall have remained in crenellation-like
look, adding to the fortification impression of the structure. Therefore, it has been referred
to as a fortress in publications from the first researchers who visited Olympos in the 19th
century up until the early 2000’s. Another mistake is based on the theory that the coastal
structures of Olympos were Genoese, leading to the denomination of this group of build-
ings, including the Church 5, as a Genoese Castle7. This structure was identified as an Early
Byzantine church during the survey carried out at Olympos in 2001. In subsequent publica-
tions, it was defined with the names “Medieval Castle-G4 Church” and “Basilica at South
Fig. 10: Plan of Church 5.
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Castle (Genoese Castle)” (Parman 2003a: 141-1428; Parman and Olcay Uçkan 2006: 589-590)
The Church is located on a rock that is aligned with the 4th terrace to the east of the area
defined as the south city hillside settlement (Olcay Uçkan et al. 2017: 18). An arched door-
way provides access from the west to the building complex that includes the church. Past
the entrance, a corridor with spaces on the north and south extends up to the naos of the
church. The northwest building is accessed through an arched doorway to the immediate
north of the corridor entrance. This building reveals a multi-storey arrangement with its
wall height and upper-storey windows. Taking into consideration its location that overlooks
the entire coastline, its loophole window on the ground floor as well as windows which
were narrowed later, it could be said that this building was used for watching. A tripartite
arrangement can be observed on the ground floor plan. The eastern room has an opening
with a lintel on corridor side. To the south of the corridor are three adjoining rooms which
appear covered with vaults. These spaces also have openings with lintels which overlook
the corridor. These structures found on either side of the corridor resemble vaulted tomb
chambers found in necropolis areas. However, it is impossible to indicate a definite function
due to the rubble fill found inside and around them. The eastern end of the corridor widens
towards to north in front of the church and serves as an anteroom. From here, the nave
and north aisle of the church is accessed with two doors to the east. There is an irregular
planned space on the north which was positioned according to the shape of the rock.
Church 5 is 17.5 m long including the apse and is on average 8.5 m wide although it widens
towards the west due to the topography. It has a single and large projecting semi-circular
apse. There is a wide window opening on the apse wall. The window possibly had a double
arch arrangement. There are traces of a north-south oriented wall on the north end of the
semi-circle of the apse. Although this wall suggests the presence of a synthronon inside the
apse, it is not impossible to make a precise definition without further excavations. There is
a doorway each on the north and south of the apse. The north doorway, which provides
access to the corner room, has a window above it. The trapezoidal northeast room which
might have been used as a pastophorion, has a rectangular niche on the west wall. It has
not been possible to verify whether a similar corner room existed on the south.
There are no traces that belong to the support system which acts as the aisle separation
inside the naos and bears the load of the roof system. The interesting feature of the naos
is that the north-south slope was terraced at the level of the north aisle separation. The
terrace which constitutes the floor of the nave ends at the north aisle line, leaving the area
Fig. 11: Church 5, from southwest.
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142
of the north aisle 1 m lower on average. The beam holes observed at the naos level on the
inner face of north wall suggests that the elevation difference was solved with wooden
flooring. The void underneath the wood floor which acted as the floor of the north aisle
was accessed with a step underneath the northeast corner room doorway and received
natural light through two loophole windows on the north wall.
The eastern half of the north wall has collapsed. There are three window openings close to
each other in the preserved section. The centre of the south wall is mostly destroyed. The
north and south walls slant outwards at points close to the naos centre and thus expand
the naos towards the west. An almost square space is located in the part of the south wall
hidden under the collapse. It is unclear whether this space was connected to the naos. An
arched doorway is found at the east end of the south wall. This doorway opens out towards
the spaces resting on the rocks which lie to the south of the building complex. The terrace
that houses the spaces accessed by a ramp beyond the door is 3 m above the naos level.
Some of the spaces with varying plans and dimensions have been created by carving into
the bedrock. There is also a rock-carved cistern in the same area.
The walls of the church built of rubble and lime mortar with use of rough tooled stones
on the corners and arches. The semi-dome of apse built with sandstones. Architectural
sculptures which could have enabled dating have not been recovered inside the church.
However, it is coherent with Olympos’ Early Byzantine buildings in terms of material and
technical characteristics. Stone chips were used as filling material on the north, south and
west walls that envelop the naos whereas brick fragments were preferred in the east wall
including the apse. Although both usages are observed on 5th and 6th century buildings at
Olympos, the difference between the walls suggests two different construction phases. The
walls of the multi-storey building located on the northwest of the building complex bear a
resemblance to the east wall of the church in its use of bricks. With regard to the use of the
balustrade with soffit that show 5th-6th century characteristics in the construction material
of the northwest corner of the multi-storey building, it could be thought that this section
was made at a later period. However, all other details regarding material and technique are
coherent with the Early Byzantine buildings of Olympos.
Church 6
Church 6 is located in sectors S5-III/IV (Figs 12-13); on the 3rd terrace of the south city hillside
settlement, 40 m west of Church 5 and 25 m above the coast. In previous studies the church
was named the “Grand Basilica” and “Grand Church-Church G3” (Atvur 1999: 15, plan 4-no.
9; Parman 2003a: 142-1439).
Fig. 12: Plan of Church 6.
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The southern hillside settlement is situated in a terraced area supported by retaining walls.
There are east-west oriented passages between the terraces and stairways allow access
between these passages. It is understood that multi-storey residences stood on the terraces
during the Roman Period (Olcay Uçkan et al. 2017: 18). The 3rd terrace of the settlement is
separated from the 2nd terrace by a 1.85 m wide passage located on the northern side of
the church. This passage, which starts on the northeast of the church at a level 4 m below,
gradually rises with separate levels before turning south to reach with a stepped connec-
tion to the space that lies to the west of the church’s atrium. This is also where the atrium
entrance is located.
On the 2nd terrace level, to the northwest of the church is a vaulted cistern with a rectan-
gular plan. A water pipe that channels the water into the cistern can be observed on the
southwest corner of the vault. The water, which was drained from the passage between
the 3rd terrace that houses the church and the 2nd terrace, reached the cistern via this pipe
extending over the vault. There is a breach doorway on the eastern wall of the cistern.
Inside, on the wall immediately to the south of the entrance, is the depiction of a cross on
the stand made with white plaster. The depiction of a ship drawn with red paint can be
observed towards the southwest corner on the west wall (Öncü and Evcim 2015: 105-106,
fig. 4).
The south wall of the church leans on rock surface, whereas the north wall extends along
retaining walls ascending towards the east due to the slope. An atrium that is approximately
13.25 m long and 10.15 m wide is located to the west of the church. The atrium was divided
into two equal parts with a retaining wall in the east-west orientation. The northern part
of the wall, which lies at a level 1.2 m lower than that of the south, is thicker than the
other walls found in the building complex and built of large rough ashlar. There are three
equal sized thick buttresses to its north, set equally apart. The space at the foundation-level
located on the northwest of the naos is also associated with this building. Ashlar stones are
rarely found inside and around the collapse of these spaces which are believed to belong
to a Roman Period residence. This indicates that the walls of these spaces were removed
during the terrace expansion in preparation for the construction of the church. The walls
which were left at a low level must have been used to support the naos and atrium floors.
Fig. 13: Church 6, from southwest
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144
The arch springers at the east and west tips, as well as the column fragments in the collapse
suggest that the atrium had an arcade along the south wall that leans on the rocky slope.
Occasional opus tessellatum floor fragments are observed in-situ in this section. There is a
fragment of a wall painting at the east end of the portico, on the wall right next to the
doorway that provides access to the naos. The wall painting was covered with plaster later.
It is unclear whether another painting was made on the new layer of plaster.
The naos, which is 17.66 m long including the apse and 10.09 m wide, is accessed through
a doorway near the southwest corner. Currently, no further doorways can be observed
since the west wall has collapsed. It is impossible to observe a columniation or stylobate
that could demonstrate the presence of a separation in this east-west oriented, rectangular
nave. The presence of white, grey and red tesserae found in the southwest of the naos
suggest that there was an opus tessellatum floor pavement. A Roman Period room and its
walls can be seen to the northwest of the nave, at an elevation lower than the church floor.
It is evident that there was one high window on either side of the projecting semi-circular
apse. On the north wall, close to the floor level there are three rectangular windows with
lintel and jamb. These were arranged to be large and low due to the impossibility of getting
natural light from the south wall. The south wall which lies on the rock surface is nearly
intact to the height of the roof level. In some places on the lower parts of the inner side of
the walls, the rock surface was left untouched. Although traces of paint can be seen on the
plastered wall, it is impossible to identify any kind of pattern or figure. The only opening
in the south wall is the door that provides access to the annex that might have been used
as a pastophorion on the southeast.
The south and west walls of the almost square planned annex built adjacent to rock surface.
Fragments of wall painting are found on either side of the doorway located on the north
wall. Although certain geometric motifs drawn in red can be distinguished, the characteris-
tics of the composition cannot be fully understood. This is mainly due to subsequent plaster
application and the chiselled notches opened to hold the plaster. There is another doorway
outwards on the east wall of the space.
The walls of the Church 6 are built of mortared rubble; rough tooled stones and reused
ashlars were used on the corners and edges of openings. Although stone chips were used
extensively as a filling material, brick and tile fragments can also be observed occasionally.
In terms of material and technique, it is coherent with the 5th-6th century buildings of
Olympos. In addition, the presence of plaster covering on the wall paintings in the annex
and atrium raises the possibility of the church being used up until a later period.
Church 7
Church 7 is in sector
S6-V, in the South
City (Figs 14-15). The
building is positioned
between the harbour
buildings and the
Vespasianus Bath, close
to the creek.
The church which was
discovered during the
excavations in 2016
is a tree-aisled basil-
ica (Olcay Uçkan and
Öztaşkın G. K. 2017b:
81; Olcay Uçkan et al.
2018: 106). The nave is
6.4 m wide and 22.7 m
in length including the
projecting semi-circular
Fig. 14: Plan of Church 7.
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apse. The south wall of the church does not extend along a straight line. Consequently, the
width of the south aisle ranges from 4.3 m near the west end, 3.65 m in the centre and 3.5
m near the east end. The north aisle is 2.8 m wide. The disproportion between the aisles is
associated with the spaces located on the south of the building. However, function of these
spaces are currently unknown.
The rectangular narthex is 15.3x3.8 m in size. The west wall of the narthex is collapsed to a
great extent and it is impossible to determine how the narthex was accessed. Access to the
naos is provided by a doorway each on the three aisle axes. The apse and south wall has
been preserved to a height of about 3 m. It is understood that triple window arrangement
existed in the projecting semi-circular apse. There are doorways each on the east ends of
the aisles.
An approximately 1.5 m thick layer of rubble fill from the collapse is found by the south
wall and apse inside the naos. A layer of soil fill, which appears to be close to the ground
level, is observed in the nave. Stylobates made of reused ashlar blocks can be seen in this
area. However, there are no traces that belong to the support system which acts as the
aisle separation such as column, base, capital and architrave. The level of fill in the narthex
is higher than the naos. Two column shafts and one Corinthian capital which appear to be
reused material (spolia) can be observed inside this fill layer.
The walls of the church and annexes built of rubble and lime mortar with use of rough
tooled stones on the corners and buttresses. On the apse, an alternating masonry was cre-
ated with a band consisting of three layers of brick above the rubble stone wall. The south
wall, which can be observed at the same elevation with this layer of bricks, does not bear
any traces of an alternating masonry.
Church 8
The church is in sector S5-V, in the South City (Figs 16-17). The building is located to the
immediate west of the Roman Harbour Bath. The church is situated at the point where two
important east-west oriented streets reach the harbour (Olcay Uçkan et al. 2017: 14). The
architrave, sima blocks, columns, column bases and capitals suggest the existence of monu-
mental architecture in the area during the Roman Era (Öncü 2012: 275-276). It is thought
that the area housing the church could have been a gymnasium based on the fact that the
Fig. 15: Church 7, from northwest.
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146
church is located immediately to the
west of the bath and the presence
of numerous columns (Bayburtluoğlu
1975: 18; Atvur 1999: 16).
Originally mentioned only briefly in
1994 (Foss 1994: 43), the building
was presented with data obtained
from field surveys that took place in
2006 and subsequent years. These
publications in the form of short
reports use various names for the
church including “Harbour Basilica”
as well as “Grand Basilica”, “Church
7 (S5-V, k7)” and “K3”10.
The area which houses the church
and its annexes has a trapezoidal
rectangular shape which is bordered
by Harbour Street to the north, a
narrow street to the west and the
Harbour Bath to the east. The church
lies to the south of this trapezoidal
area with the annexes to the north.
The Roman walls were determining
factors during the construction of
the church and its annexes. All the columns, bases, capitals and the ashlar blocks are reused
material.
The church is a triple-aisled basilica. The naos is 23.6 m wide and 32.6 m long including
the projecting semi-circular apse. The nave is 10.8 m wide while the aisles are 5.5 m wide.
There are three large window openings on the apse. It is understood that the central win-
dow opening was arranged as a twin window with two arches. Aisles were separated from
nave by rows of columns standing on stylobates and connected with architraves. There
is an irregular planned rectangular pastophorion in the southeast. There are no window
Fig. 17: Church 8, apse.
Fig. 16: Plan of Church 8.
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openings on the south wall which stands to a height of 4 m. Access to the naos which lacks
a narthex is facilitated is provided by a doorway each on the three aisle axes at the west.
There are also doorways which allow access to the annexes to the north.
Based on the surviving materials of support system observed inside the naos, it is possible
to make a definition concerning the height of the church. The stylobate and column bases
are 0.3 m high. Fully measurable column height is 4.06 m, capital heights are 0.6 m and
architrave heights are 0.58 m. Therefore, it is understood that the aisle heights were 5.86 m.
The apex of the apse arch is calculated to be 10.34 m from the lowest level of the stylobate.
Remaining architectural elements suggest that there were no galleries above the aisles.
It is understood that the annexes to the north had various construction phases. However,
the lack of remaining data makes it impossible to define these phases precisely and reveal
the differences between the phases. There is an atrium with a columned portico the west
of the area where the annexes were placed in what seems to be the last phase. Atrium pro-
vides access between the church and the main street to the north. To the east of the atrium
there is an annex which is understood to have an almost square plan, a triple-aisled with a
single-apse and a pastophorion in the northeast. The eastern half of the church’s north aisle
was narrowed to give way to the south aisle of this annex during its construction. Access
from the atrium to the annex is provided by one doorway on the nave axe. The annex has
doorways that open to the church on its southeast and west end of the south aisle. There
is another doorway that opens to the outside on its east end of the south aisle. Annex has
corridors confined with peripheral walls to the north and the east. A triconch niche located
behind the apse of the annex in the eastern corridor. It is understood that the niche was
made later on the Roman wall. The existence of pipe traces on the exterior of the east wall
suggest that runoff water was collected on the semi-dome of the niche and channelled into
the niche with a groove. Closed off with a thin wall, it appears that the niche was arranged
to function as a piscina. Figural wall paintings are seen on the interior of the niche (Fig. 20f).
Paintings dated to the Early Byzantine Era reveal depictions of saints with halos carrying
candles in their hands. It appears that the depictions are possibly of St Sophia’s daughters
Agape, Piste and Elpida (Çorağan 2017: 145-148).
Considering the position of the church in relation to the street, it could be argued that the
area which houses the annexes was arranged as an atrium that was constructed at the same
time as the church. In the following phase, an almost square planned, three-aisled annex was
added to the eastern half of the atrium. The triconch niche accessible with corridors appears
to be built around the same time as or earlier than the annex. However, it is unclear whether
it existed when the atrium was originally planned. Therefore, it is possible to say that the
church and its annexes were built in at least two phases during the Early Byzantine Period.
Church 9
The church is in sector S6-VI, in the South City (Figs 18-19). Situated on the corner of the
intersection of Bridge and Harbour streets, the building has a central location. The church,
Fig. 18: Plan of Church 9.
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which is only briefly mentioned in previous publications (Hellenkemper and Hild 2004: 759),
was cleared of vegetation and rubble by the archaeological team at the beginning of the
2019 season.
A two-sectioned narthex is found on the west of the church. These 11.15 m long sections
are ca 4.6 m wide on the west and 3.5 m on the east. Sections are connected to each other
with three doorways. The western part of the narthex is reached via the Bridge Street and
the eastern part is accessed through the Harbour Street both with a door each featuring a
lintel and jamb.
Access to the naos is provided by a doorway each on the three aisle axes. The naos has a
trapezoidal rectangular plan due to the broken line of the south wall. The nave is 12.95 m
long including the projecting semi-circular of the apse. The nave is 5.7 m wide in the west
and 4.25 m in the east. The north aisle is 10.2 m long and 2.65 m wide. The south aisle
extends up to the external border of the apse. The 14.2 m long south nave is 2.1 m wide in
the west and 1.6 m in the east.
Aisles were separated from nave by rows of columns. It is understood that three columns
each were connected with brick arches. A narrow-mouthed small cistern is located to the
southwest of the nave. Stylobate of the templon have remained in situ along the central
line of the eastern columns and extends over the aisle seperation stylobates. Thus, the bema
occupies approximately one third of the nave. Trial excavations aimed at identifying the
templon have revealed fragments of slabs with crosses and a fragment of the altar table.
There is a wide window opening, possibly had a double window arrangement, on the apse
wall. Annexes are located to the northeast of the church and are accessed with a doorway
from the north aisle. The almost square planned large annexes are connected to each other
with a doorway.
Different materials and construction techniques are observed on the church walls. Rough
tooled stones were used on the west wall and on the western part of the south wall. On the
south façade, cut stones with bossage are observed to the west of the point where the wall
line is broken. The remaining walls feature regular masonry built with rubble.
The difference in materials of the walls and irregularities of the plan must be due to the
presence of remains of earlier buildings at the site. It is understood that the South City
Fig. 19: Church 9, from southwest.
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Harbour Street which was laid out during the Roman Period extends with two ninety-
degree angle corners to the south of the church (Öncü 2012: 278; Olcay Uçkan et al. 2017:
28, fig. 17). The annexes and the western half of the south wall are situated in compliance
with the street axis. However, the south wall of the naos extends along the point where the
street makes a corner. The south wall was positioned with an angle during the construction
of the church and thus the street remained in service although slightly narrower. Available
data is currently insufficient to make interpretations on the stylistic features (plan and
dimensions) and functions (residence or shop) of the earlier buildings.
Conclusions: Function, Form and Architectural Elements
Running through the centre of Olympos, Akçay Creek divides the city into two parts: The
North City and South City. Out of the nine churches broadly introduced above, four are in
the north side and five in the south side. The Roman city layout predominantly features
mausoleums and cult places including the city’s main temple in the North City; and the city’s
social and commercial centre in the South City including harbour structures, bath-gymnasi-
um, agora and theatre11. Large scale residences were added in both parts in Late Antiquity
while churches were constructed from the second half of the 5th century onwards.
Two of the four churches in the North City are transept basilicas. One of these, the Church
2 (Episcopal Church) is the cathedral of the Episcopal Palace which is situated inside the
temenos area of the Roman temple12. Excavations carried out in the temple naos, in the
side rooms and around the pronaos which is between the temple and the church indicate
that the temple was standing and was even used together with the Episcopal Church until
at least the 7th century CE13. The other transept basilica (Church 4) is located on the coast,
outside the city centre. Considering that it was built adjacent to a cave and the presence
of a large-scale Roman building remains immediately to its north, it can be deduced that
Church 4 was built on a pagan cult site just like Church 2. Evidently, Church 3 is also located
on a site of importance within the Roman layout of the city. Investigations have been car-
ried out at this site indicates that a part of the church (the north exedra) was adapted from
the former structure14. The function of this exedra is not clear yet, but it is likely to be used
as tomb or relic chamber. Among all the churches in Olympos, Church 1 is the only one to
have been built on empty land and currently there are no observable finds confirming its
relation with a pagan cult building as explained above. On the other hand, based on its
close proximity to the necropolis sites which started to be used in the Roman Period and
remained in use throughout the Early Byzantine period, Church 1 could be considered as a
part of the cult building that evolved from pagan to Christian in the north side of the city.
Besides cult site associations, arrangements like aisle separations, annexes / ancillary spaces
and galleries aimed at physically separating the congregation which are only seen in Church
1, 2 and 3 in the north side of Olympos strengthen our opinions concerning the religious
landscape of the North City.
Three of the five churches in the South City are in the harbour or around the main street
leading to it. Being in the harbour, positioned next to the Roman baths, Church 7 is at a
prime location regarding the Christianisation process of Roman port cities15. There are no
clear indications suggesting that it was converted from a former building, however, some
fragmented columns and capitals are probably spolia. The horizontal band of brick courses
seen in the apse wall is common in Roman walls in Olympos. Church 8 lies immediately to
the west of the Harbour Bath. The spolia material in the church indicates that a monumental
Roman building previously existed at that location16. As the church with the largest naos in
Olympos, Church 8 not only served the worship needs of the local population and visitors
in the southern side, which was the centre of commercial activity and daily life, it also ful-
filled the function of a monumental building that represented the city. Harbour Street, the
main artery of the south city extends on the north of the church. The atrium of the complex
was positioned on the north accordingly and it is possible that a part of main street colla-
nade was preserved to give the church a monumental façade17. Another church located on
Harbour Street is Church 9. It has access from Harbour Street and Bridge Street which cuts
it vertically, but even so, it is a small church lacking monumental character. Even though
it resembles a house church at first sight, the fact that it is accessed only from the streets
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increase the likelihood of it being a parish church. Located on the border of the settlement,
at the east end of the South City, Churches 5 and 6 were constructed on terraces inside the
hillside layout probably created in Late Antiquity which providing high visibility from the
sea (see endnote 14). Church 5 was built on a spot where a building, possibly a terrace villa,
formerly stood, partly using existing walls. This is why it appears to be a parish church sur-
rounded by residential buildings similar to Church 9. Located on the upper terrace, Church 6
was either constructed by partially utilising the former building or reached its current condi-
tion in two phases. An important feature that sets this church apart from the others is that it
has adjacent chambers on the west. This area has not been excavated yet but based on the
vaulted ceilings they are very likely to be tomb chambers. If they are in fact tombs, then it
could be said that this was a funerary church belonging to the group of people buried here.
As can be seen, the churches of Olympos were positioned and functionalised in coherence
with the sacred and secular space separation of the Roman period urbanisation. While
elements of religious representation, liturgy and cult are more prominent in the churches
of the North City, the location and features of South City churches were determined by
the Christianisation of the urban space and the needs of the community. This emphasises
the significance of physical evidence provided by urban development and transformation
while establishing a foundation for the theories about the transition from paganism to
Christianity, from Roman to Byzantine.
The dimensions and proportions of the churches are different due to the Roman period
buildings and layout. In regard to naos dimensions, Churches 2, 4 and 8 could be classified
as large-sized buildings. Church 9 is the only one that could be regarded as a small-sized
building with its naos measuring less than 15 m. The remaining churches may be regarded
as middle-sized buildings18.
There is no consistency among the churches in terms of aisles and nave proportions. The
following proportions have been calculated in churches with in situ stylobates: 1/2.7 for
Church 2, 1/3 for Church 3 and 1/2 for Church 8. In Churches 7 and 9, which have visible
stylobates, widths are different due to the presence of earlier buildings. Widths cannot be
determined in the other churches. However, considering apse widths and calculations based
on average values, it is understood that the proportions are close to 1/3. In coherence with
the wider Lycian Region, apse and nave widths are closer in all churches.
All churches are three-aisled basilicas. Although there are no visible traces of the support
system inside the Churches 5 and 6, it could be said that they both three-aisled basilicas
based on their proportions. It has been understood that aisles were separated from nave by
rows of columns in all churches. In church 8 differs from all other churches in Olympos due
to the amount of spolia, columns are connected to each other with architraves, whereas in
all other churches with arches. Considering that there are no vault or dome ruins, timber
roof systems seem to be as the only possibility for the all churches. For three-aisled timber-
roofed basilicas, the entire naos could have been covered with a double-pitched roof or,
a double-pitched roof over the nave and a lower mono-pitched roof over the aisles. It’s
understood that the entire naos in Church 4 was covered with a double-pitched roof, due
to the visible rafter lines on the rocks to its west. The design of the roof systems in other
churches is unclear. However, it is possible to make certain suggestions for some of the
churches based on dimensions and clerestory arrangements. Considering proportions, it is
thought that the naos of Church 1 was covered with a double-pitched roof (Demirel Gökalp
and Yıldırım 2010: 375). Churches 5 and 6 have large window openings on their northern
façades. Considering the dimensions of these churches, it is likely that they were also cov-
ered with a double-pitched roof. In Churches 2 and 8 there are no windows visible on the
naos walls that have been preserved at high elevations. The nave in these churches must
have been kept at a higher elevation than the aisles due to the need for light.
Churches 2 and 4 are the two basilicas with transepts in the city. The transepts were in
the shape of an abbreviated version of cross transept within the typology created accord-
ing to stylistic characteristics that reflect on the plan (Krautheimer 1969). Other than plan
characteristics, a different typology suggestion has been made for basilicas with transept
based on the roof system. This suggestion is based on the height of the transept, nave and
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the relation between them. The publication discussed Olympos Church 2 however, a flawed
plan was proposed based on insufficient data prior to the excavations (Grossmann 2008:
101, abb. 4).
Transept is a transverse unit of a basilica, lying across the aisle alignment, located in
front of the apse and include the bema. Churches with transepts were common in the
Mediterranean basin and the Balkans during the 4th to 6th centuries CE. Basilicas with an
abbreviated version of cross transept, similar to the ones in Olympos have been identified
in Patara and Tlos within the Lycia (Ceylan and Erdoğan 2016; Korkut 2015: 42-47). The pro-
portions and stylobate arrangement at the Xanthos West Church indicate that this church
also had an abbreviated version of cross transept (Varkıvanç 2013: 68, fig. 10). Purely from
an architectural design perspective, it is evident that transepts were designed to create a
wide space around the bema for various purposes. It is believed that this space created by
the transept may have been needed for a number of reasons including; forming a memo-
rial space associated with the saint/martyr cult, providing a wide area for the congregation
for donations during liturgy or organizing the movements of the clergy and the crowded
congregation during the ceremonies. Even if the symbolic or liturgical purposes were to
be disregarded, it is evident that the transept gave the building a monumental character
(Ceylan and Erdoğan 2019: 353-354).
In Olympos churches, annexes connected with naos vary in terms of plan, size and func-
tion. Of the two basilicas with transept, Church 2 has a triconch annex accessed from the
south aisle, whereas Church 4 has a cross planned annex accessed from the north aisle.
In addition to these, there is a semi-circular annex to the north of Church 3 and a square
annex to the south of Church 6. In Byzantine Architecture, annexes connected with naos
were used as baptisteries, skeuphylakia or tomb structures such as martyrion, mausoleion
or reliquary. In the Lycia region, it’s frequent that the annexes of the churches are burial
places (Niewöhner 2008: 80-81; Aydın 2006: 36-37). In fact that, considering the location,
dimension and plan characteristics of the annexes in Olympos, it is possible to consider
them as tomb structures. This demonstrates that, in the case of Olympos, transepts were
preferred to incorporate a degree of monumentality which emphasised the tombs. The
accesability of the tombs through the aisles confirms that the transept facilitated an order
for the crowded congregation moving inside the building during visits/commemorations
and liturgical ceremonies.
Churches 1, 2 and 3 have low rubble walls between the column bases on the aisle stylobates.
These walls, which have the same characteristics, have been found on the western section
of north stylobates in Churches 1 and 2, and on the western section of the south stylobate
in Church 3. Evaluating these walls in conjunction with the slab elevation obtained from
Churches 2 and 3, it is understood that they belong to the high barrier arrangements.
Although movement between the aisles and the nave were frequently restricted by barriers
in Early Byzantine churches, it is rare to come across barriers that prevents view as well as
passage. Standing 1.7 m tall arrangements that prevent both view and passage are catego-
rised as “High Nave Barriers” (Peschlow 2006: 61-66). From written sources it is understood
that the congregation separated into groups based on age, gender, status, penance pay-
ment or catechumen (Mango 1986: 6, 24-25). Catechumens were the group of people who
had not yet been baptised but were undergoing an education for the divine laws. They
were allowed to listen to the service but not to observe. Catechumens would wait in the
aisles during the service and were taken outside prior to the communion (Mathews 1971:
125-129; Taft 1991). Therefore, the areas created inside Churches 1, 2 and 3 in Olympos
using high barriers may be defined as catechumenon.
The actions of the catechumens during the ritual allow us tocomment on the northern
annex of Church 1.This Church is the only building without narthex among the church-
eswith high nave barrier inOlympos.The northern annex of thechurch is connected to
the northaisle with two doorways. When these elements are taken into consideration, it
can be suggested that the northern annex of the church is the area where the catechumens
pass before the communion and wait until the end of the ritual. Similarannexes that are
accessed through thepassageto thenorthof the atrium and connectedto the northaisle
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via doorways, are considered as catechumenon in Sardis EA and Kourion Episcopal Church
(Buchwald 2015: 37; Megaw 2007a: 25-27).
There are three buildings with atrium among the churches of Olympos. The atrium of
Church 1 is to the west side of the building. The entrance of the atrium was provided from
the north to reach to the North City Harbour Street. The atrium of the Church 8 is located
to the north of the building. The main entrance of the atrium was provided from the north
to the South City Harbour Street. The atrium of the Church 6 is to the west of the building.
The entrance of the atrium was provided via doorway to the south-west, leading to the
staircase of the street to the west of the building. In all three churches, it is seen that the
location and entrances of the atriums are arranged according to existing layout. Churches
with atrium do not have narthexes, while other churches have narthexes to the west.19 The
main purpose of using atrium and narthex in churches is to put in order the entries and
exits of congregation during liturgical ceremonies (Johnson 1991; Curcic 1991). The main
reason why the atrium and narthex are not used together in Olympos churches is the lack
of enough vacancy in the city. It isobservedthat the churches whichsettledon the Roman
period layout haveindividualplans wereappliedaccordingto the suitability of theparcel-
ling of the insulaein thecity.
There is a three-aisled baptistery to the north of Church 2. Baptisteries with similar plan are
rarely encountered. The baptisteries of Susita Hippos Episcopal Church (Mlynarczyk 2011:
254-255), Paros Katapoliani Church (Krautheimer 1986: 254) and Cyprus Kourion Episcopal
Church (Megaw 2007b: 107-118) are the samples of three-aisled buildings. The baptistery of
Church 2 in Olympos is connected to the narthex from the vestibulum and the naos with the
doorway in the east. Withthislocation, ithasadesignsuitable for themotionof catechu-
mens inbaptismal rite (Ristow 1998: 81-85). The baptistery is the largest building among
the baptisteries in the Lycia region are between 35 and 80 m² (Niewöhner 2008: 83-85). The
fact that the baptistery is quite large suggests that the congregation is crowdedduringthe
feasts such as Epiphany and Pentecost, and there are people coming from out of the city
to be baptized.
On the east wall of the northern annex of Church 8, there is a triconch niche. The front
of the niche was covered with a thin wall to form a piscina. In the semi-dome of the
niche contain wall paintings. The water pipe arrangements on the facade show that the
rainwaterswerecollectedfrom bothsidesof thesemi-dome of the triconchandbroughtinto
thenichewith awaterchannel. With this special arrangement, one can suggest that the
building has been used as hagiasma20. In Orthodox Christianity, especially through historical
sources, it is understood that the hagiasma is an important building type. However, quanta-
tive of buildings that retain the characteristics of architectural establishment is quite rare
for early periods.
Materials and construction techniques of Olympos’ churches help narrow down the dating
and although they show differences that benefit the determination of construction phases,
there are sufficient common features to help specify their general characteristics.
In most cases, church walls were constructed with irregular masonry technique (opus incer-
tum) using rough tooled stone, river cobble and rubble. It has been observed that stone
chips, brick and tile fragments have occasionally been used to fill the gaps between the
stones. Irregular masonry which begins from the foundation was evened out at certain
intervals with flat river cobbles and small rubble stones aligned horizontally and irregu-
lar masonry continued above these collapse prevention bands. Reused ashlar blocks are
observed in the corners, buttresses and stylobates. The apse of Church 8 is constructed
entirely of reused blocks. The concentration of river cobbles is higher in buildings closer to
the riverbed, and less in the inner parts of the city. Rubble stone obtained from the rock
on the slope is the only material used in the south city hillside churches (churches 5 and
6). This confirms that the churches were constructed quickly and economically using the
most easily accessible material. Parallel to this, bricks seem to be spolia in most cases. Bricks
placed in doorway and window arches or in alternating courses were usually in either cut
form or broken.
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Naos wall thickness is on average 78 cm in Church 4 and Church 8 and ranges between
65-70 cm in the remaining churches. Although half domes of apses are built of lightweight
sandstone as observed in the churches 3, 5 and 8, wall thickness of apses can reach up to
130 cm. The material and masonry of walls may appear poor and inefficient at first sight,
but they have survived up to 5 m in some places. Restitution studies have revealed that the
70 cm thick walls could have reached heights of up to 10 m. There are two main reasons for
this. First is the use of lime mortar containing highly effective pozzolanic binding materials.
Second is the joining method which uses a limited number of stones to tying as seen in the
churches of Olympos where the walls of two separate spaces join and also at the junction
points of buttresses and walls. This kind of toothing out method must have been preferred
to minimise damage to the structure from tension created by foundation movements or
earthquakes21.
Two types of lime mortar were used in the construction of church buildings. The first one is
the loose and crumbling mortar which composed of lime and a river sand. The second one
is compact and hard lime mortar which contains less sand than the former and was used to
fill the gaps between outer surfaces of rubble stones by letting it overflow to the face of
the wall. One of the important characteristics in the application of the second type is the
twisting lines framing the stones, drawn onto the wet mortar that overflows to the outer
surface of the wall22.
Putlog holes used to fasten the scaffolding during construction and maintenance can be
observed on the walls. There are beam holes for the floors above the aisles in Churches 1, 2
and 3 confirming the existence of galleries. These holes are quite close together in Churches
1 and 3. It has been determined that in Church 3, this additional support was required in
order to bear the load of the tessellated wood flooring.
Lintels and jambs are frequently used for the exterior doorways of the churches, but this is
rarely the case for doorways that provide passage between inner spaces. Regardless of hav-
ing lintels or not, both windows and doorways invariably have round discharging arches.
These arches are often made of rough tooled stones. The number of arches made of brick
alone is relatively low and are limited to small window or niche arches. Bricks are also used
for decorative purposes in the baptistry of the Church 2 (Episcopal Church) and peristyle-
triclinium complex as well as semi-domes of niches and on the inner face of the walls
(Öztaşkın 2018). Arches built of alternating brick and stone voussoirs are worth mentioning
in the churches of Olympos, particularly the doorway and window arches on the north wall
of Church 1 and arches in various parts of the Church 2 (Episcopal Church) (Öztaşkın 2018:
616, figs 2, 7, 9, 11). Although the arches made of alternating stones and bricks are initially
associated with the Middle Byzantine Period, this technique can be seen in Early Byzantine
buildings in Lycia, besides those dated to the Middle Byzantine Period23.
It is understood that the interior decorations of the churches in Olympos are quite rich24.
Including the Church 1-2 and 3 which excavations were carried out, all of the churches in
Olympos have various decoration elements belonging to the 5th and 6th centuries. As in
most of the time, architectural sculptures take the lead among the decorative elements.
Depending on the geological structure of the Lycia region, usually local limestone has been
used for the architectural sculpture materials. The marble finds are very rare, which are
gathered either from Roman buildings or imported. In terms of both the material used and
the motif and style feature, the architectural sculptures of the Olympos churches have the
general characteristics of the Byzantine architectural sculpture of Lycia25.
The majority of the column capitals identified in Olympos are Corinthian type; quanta-
tively it is followed by the Ion-impost capitals, which are found in the baptistery of the
Episcopal Church. Ion and composite capitals were found in small quantities (Öztaşkın and
Sertel 2017b: 80-85). Large number of Attic B type in column bases have been identified
with regard to other types (Öztaşkın and Sertel 2017b: 85-88). The parapet slabs found in
the Church 2 and Church 3, which are still under excavation, constitute the other numeri-
cally crowded group among the architectural sculptures of Olympos churches (Sertel 2019).
Although most of the slabs are made of limestone, it is seen that marble is preferred in the
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Fig. 20: Decorative elements from churches: a) North aisle floor mosaic of Church 1; b) Marble plaque from
Church 2; c) Nave floor of Church 2; d) Openwork slab and baluster from Church 3; e) Wall painting fragment
from exedra of Church 3; f) Wall painting of triconch niche north of the Church 8.
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templon screens. The number of openwork slabs is quite high, and the basic design element
is mostly intersecting circles; imbricated scale and grill are the less common patterns (Fig.
20d) (Evcim and Uzun 2017).
In the churches, wall revetments made with different coloured stones, frieze and plaque
fragments with chasing/hunting animals (Fig. 20b) and icons were found. Most of them
were found during excavations in Church 2 and 3 (Sertel 2019: 193-194; Olcay Uçkan et al.
2019: 626-627). The main examples of the stone works used on the walls are marble icons,
which include holy portraits created in incised and low relief techniques.
In Church 2-3-4-6 and 8, there are remains of figurative, floral and geometric wall paintings
(Çorağan 2017). These wall paintings show Eastern Mediterranean characteristics belonging
to the 5th-6th centuries with limited data. Among these wall paintings, especially depic-
tion of Christ and a saint broken into pieces in the exedra of Church 3 and depiction of the
saints in the triconch niche in the north of baptistery of Church 8 are noteworthy. In the
baptistery of Church 2 (Episcopal Church), there is a depiction of the garden of paradise
which has a tree of life and waterfowls around it appearing from fences on the lower level
on both sides.
*
The relations of churches with the urban texture, plan characteristics, construction tech-
niques and decoration elements show that the church construction activities in Olympos
have been started in the middle of the 5th century, the latest have been continued until the
second half of the 6th century. It is not a coincidence that this date range with the period
which the names of bishops from Olympos is known from council records; it also points to
the period that Olympos is active as a bishopric city. At the same time, this is the period of
the “church boom” in which countless churches have been built around the Aegean and
Eastern Mediterranean. It is certain that there is intense construction activity (although
explained in different ways) especially in the settlements located on the trade networks.
It is remarkable that nine churches, the two of them are with transept, were constructed in
Olympos, which is a city of about 20 hectares with a long coastline up to Church 4. At first
glance, it can be thought that this construction activity in Olympos shows the “prosperity
of Lycia in Late Antiquity”, but in our opinion, there are two main reasons for this situa-
tion. One of these reasons is that the bishoprics is strongly organized in order to get rid of
the pagan identity of the city and its environment as soon as possible and, based on the
knowledge that Olympos has a large territory, it is the inclination of the Christians who are
scattered in this territory to support the Christianization of the city for both spiritual and
worldly reasons. As of the 5th century, it is observed that organization of the bishoprics
became more stable and accelerated the process of Christianization. Also, in the 5th cen-
tury, the cult of relics and martyrdom became widespread and influenced activity about
construction of new churches. Some settlements (eg. Myra) have risen with pilgrim visits;
there are six churches in Andriake that is the port of Myra. This is a competitive period
including the pilgrimage economy may have encouraged the construction of churches. For
this reason, there are interrelated answers to show that the number of churches initially
thought to be excessive is reasonable in Olympos.
As mentioned above, the church construction activities in Olympos seem to have ended
in the middle of the 6th century. It is known that the disasters and epidemics in the 6th
century have affected the coastal settlements severely. Upon this, the Sassanid invasions
began before the opportunity to recover, followed by the Arab raids, and the development
of the Lycian coastal settlements in Late Antiquity almost completely ceased in the 7th cen-
tury. Archaeological evidence reveals that many settlements were abandoned during and
after the Arab invasions. Studies conducted at Olympos provide this evidence that the city
was largely abandoned at the second half of the 7th century latest; any trace of collective
life and construction activities which belongs to the following periods have not yet been
determined. Olympos city is like a time capsule comes from Early Byzantine Era with this
condition. As a coastal city presents the urban transformation from Roman to Byzantine /
pagan to Christian in a readable way, it will be of increasing importance with the informa-
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156
tion it gives about Early Byzantine church construction activities, church architecture and
liturgical practices.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of Culture and Tourism, Antalya
Museum and Anadolu University for their permissions and support to Olympos Excavations.
We are also thankful to our sponsors for contrubutions. And finally, we would like to
express our deep gratitude to the chairman of Olympos Excavations Prof. Dr. B. Yelda Uçkan
and all team members.
Note: All photographs and drawings used in this paper belongs to archive of Olympos
Excavations.
NOTES
1 The name “Half Basilica” originates from the fact that only the north part of the church still
survives. For studies which refer to this name see: Olcay Uçkan et al. 2011: 82; Öztaşkın G. K. and
Öztaşkın M. 2012: 332, fn.13. In one study the church is referred to as the “North Necropolis
Church”, see: Demirel Gökalp et al. 2017: 167.
2 This information correlates with Turkish State Meteorological Service data indicating record
precipitation levels for the year 1969: https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-
istatistik.aspx?m=ANTALYA.
3 Branded as the first colour cinemascope Turkish film, it was screened in Turkey with the name
“Cehennemde Buluşalım” (Let’s Meet in Hell).
4 “Area A” was referred to the Episcopeion and the church was called “Basilica A” (Parman
2003a: 139-141, Parman 2003b: 43), “Church A” (Parman and Olcay Uçkan 2006: 591-592; Parman
et al. 2006: 77-84; Olcay Uçkan 2011: 77-78; Olcay Uçkan et al. 2011: 83-85; Olcay Uçkan 2012a:
243; Olcay Uçkan 2012b: 78-79), “Church 2 (k3)” (Olcay Uçkan et al. 2009: 374-377) and “KK3”
(Olcay Uçkan 2010: 68-69) while the baptistery was referred to as “Church B” (Olcay 2001: 356;
Parman and Olcay Uçkan 2006: 592; Parman et al. 2006: 77-84) and “KK4” (Olcay Uçkan 2010:
68-69) in subsequent publications. Likewise, the mentioned names were displayed on the city
plans featured in subsequent studies (Olcay Uçkan et al. 2006: 126; Olcay Uçkan 2007: 49, Olcay
Uçkan et al. 2007: 131; Olcay Uçkan 2008a: 77).
5 From the two figures in matching fragments, the larger one has been determined as Christ
based on its depictive characteristics and cruciform nimbus (Olcay Uçkan et al. 2019: 623, fig. 5).
6 One of them depicts St. Paul according to name written on icon (Olcay Uçkan et al. 2019: 626-
627, fig. 8). The number of icon fragments has increased in recent excavations, but they have not
yet been published, at the time of writing this paper.
7 The first western traveller who paid a personal visit to Olympos was Captain Beaufort who
interpreted the buildings on the rocks including Church 5 as defence structures (Beaufort 1818:
44). C. Fellows, who visited the site in 1840, misinterpreted the coastal structures and referred to
them as a Genoese settlement (Fellows 1841: 214). E. Forbes and T. A. B. Spratt came to Olympos
in 1842 and, possibly influenced by Fellows, recorded the structures on the site that houses the
church as well as the structures on the Acropolis as Genoese fortifications (Spratt and Forbes
1847: 192). The idea that the structures were part of a medieval castle continued during the 20th
century (Bayburtluoğlu 1975: 17, city plan-no. 7). The church and surrounding structures were
named as a Medieval Castle also in the first archaeological studies in the city (Atvur 1999: 15, city
plan 4-no. 10)
8 Brief description of the church was written by V. Macit Tekinalp under the heading “Ortaçağ
Kalesi-G4 Kilisesi” (Medieval Castle-Church G4).
9 Brief description of the church was written by V. Macit Tekinalp under the heading “Büyük
Kilise-G3 Kilisesi” (Grand Basilica-Church G3).
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10 The church was called “Great Basilica” (Demirel Gökalp and Yıldırım 2009), “Harbour Basilica”
(Parman and Olcay Uçkan 2006: 593; Parman et al. 2006: 85-86; Olcay Uçkan et al. 2006: 126;
Olcay Uçkan et al. 2007: 131, Olcay Uçkan 2009: 60; Olcay Uçkan 2010: 70-71; Olcay Uçkan et al.
2011: 80-83), “K3” (Olcay Uçkan 2007: 49-50; Olcay Uçkan 2008a: 75) and “Church 7 (S5-V,k7)”
(Olcay Uçkan et al. 2009: 378-379) in subsequent publications.
11 For the Roman urban structure of Olympos see: Olcay Uçkan et al. 2017: 10-14.
12 Churches built into the temenos of a temple called “temenos-churches”. See: Bayliss 2004:
35, 44-46. For “indirect conversion” of temples see also: Talloen and Vercauteren 2011: 363-368.
13 Very similar situation is mentioned between 5-6th century church and Leto Temple in Letoon
Sanctuary. Leto Temple was used as an auxiliary structure of the church until its destruction in the
7th century (Metzger 1966: 111; des Courtils 2003: 153; Cavalier 2012: 4024-4025).
14 Both transept basilicas feature spaces that may be defined as memorial chambers (relic chapel,
martyrion, mausoleion etc.). We guess that the large exedra of Church 3 that was adapted from
a Roman structure could be a burial chamber for clergymen or even a martyrion. It is common
for churches constructed on or inside pagan shrines to be associated with the relic cult. These
kinds of spaces, which we can also associate with relic or martyr cults, can be found in these three
churches in the north section where the Roman religious set-up of the city was located.
15 Being situated on network hubs (for example, seaport) and/or visibility seem to have been
important for the earliest churches site selections; see: Sweetman 2017: 240-243. For the locations
of Late Antique churches in Lycia see: Sweetman 2017: 229-237. Olympos Church 5 and 6, which
are 25-30 meters above sea level and easily visible from the open sea, can also be mentioned in
this context.
16 Because of its position next to the Great Bath, may be considered there was a palaestra before
the church. However, due to situated in the section where the main street reaches to harbour,
it can also be considered that this area should have an agora. There are many churches built (or
converted from existing buildings) on the edges of agoras in Late Antiquity (Lavan 2006: 234-
236).
17 For the churches positioned along main axes of the Roman urban texture, see: Jacobs 2014:
268-275.
18 With an average size of 17x25 m the churches of Andriake are considered among the
middle-sized churches of Lycia. Based on naos dimensions Alakilise (14.7x19.2 m), Doğu Asarcık
(13.25x19.95 m), Pınara (13.55x17.9 m), Kyaneai B (14x19 m) and Kyaneai E (15.5x19.5 m) are
among the other churches could listed as middle-sized examples. Patara City Basilica (33x43.5 m),
Xanthos East Church (30x39.7 m), Limyra Episcopal Church (25x40 m) and the first phase of Myra
St Nikolaos Church (25x40 m) are the largest churches of Lycia.
19 Churches with an atrium and any narthex are common in Lycia. These churches are: Alakilise,
Devekuyusu, Güceymen Hill, Andriake B and D, Aperlae Lower and Church on Karaada, Belceğiz
Sea Camp, Belceğiz Sun City, Fethiye Kumburnu, Karacaören Beach, Gemiler Coast, Letoon
Monastery, Tlos City Church, Patara City Basilica.
20 Hagiasma is the term used to define the water sources that are accepted as sacred and
believed to be healing and the buildings have been constructed on these water springs. There is
any common architectural order in the Hagiasma. Dimensions and plans vary. They may be con-
nected to a building or constructed individually. The water can be supplied from a spring such as
a well or may be deposited in a chamber by leaking or dripping (Karakaya 2002: 35-36).
21 The Xanthos Acropolis Basilica, which has similar joining method, mortar and walls surviving
to a high level, is noteworthy due to its resemblance to churches in Olympos in terms of material
and technique. For Xanthos Acropolis Basilica see: Canbilen et al. 1996.
22 Similar masonry and mortar usage can be seen in the 6th century Churches of Gemiler Ada
and Karacaören Ada (Masuda 1995), Melanippe Harbor Basilica (Zäh 2003: 631), Tlos City’s
Basilica (Korkut 2015: 42-27), Xanthos Acropolis Basilica (Canbilen et al. 1996) and buildings in
Arif (Harrison 2001: 44-45).
23 For alternating brick and stone arch samples in Lycia and dating discussions see: Peschlow
1993: 64 (St. Nicholas Church and Olympos); Peschlow 2001: 201, figs 3-4, 9 (Church in Tersane
and Building with Mosaics in Olympos); Asano 1995: 73, fig. 44 (Gemiler Ada Church III); Ötüken
et al. 2000: 227-228, figs 4-6 (Northern Annex of St. Nicholas Church); Tekinalp 2001: 512 (Chapel
of Andriake C Church); Alpaslan 2003: 129-130, fig. 8 (Apollonia Upper Church); Öztaşkın 2012:
EARLY BYZANTINE CHURCHES IN OLYMPOS | Seçkin Evcim – Gökçen Kurtuluş Öztaşkın
158
316 (Yanartas / Chimaera St. Michael Church); Öztaşkın M. and Öztaşkın G. K. 2012: 285, fig. 2
(Building with Mosaics in Olympos).
24 In Lycia, especially in the churches of urban areas, the decoration elements are elaborative
than the ones in countryside. For brief introduction of Early Christian church decoration in Lycia,
see: Elton 2006.
25 For the characteristics of the architectural sculpture of the Byzantine period in Lycia, see:
Doğan 2006.
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