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Questioning the Key Techniques Underlying the Iterative and Incremental Approach to Information Systems Development
Abstract
The iterative and incremental development (IID) approach is widely adopted in information systems development (ISD) projects. While the IID approach has played an important role the management of many ISD projects, some of the key techniques have not received critical appraisal from the academic community. This paper aims to fill the gap and examines three such techniques through a case study. First of all, the gap between the theory of user participation and the reality of user’s lack of real influence on design and development is explored. The author proposes the concept of “participatory capture” to explain the side effect of user participation. Secondly, the assumption that evolutionary prototyping converges to a successful design is questioned. Thirdly, the side effect of the timeboxing technique is considered. The paper suggests that the IID approach represents the learning approach as categorized in Pich et al. (2002) and it might be ineffective in dealing with the significant uncertainties in ISD projects.
Participatory capture refers to the manner in which institutions and organizations engaged in participatory projects deploy participatory methods, however unintended, in ways that further endanger or disempower the most vulnerable participants. To further articulate this phenomenon, this article presents a critical discourse analysis of key documents associated with HOPE VI, a federal public housing program in the United States known for its emphasis on community participation amid antiblack power structures. The result of the analysis are two models of participatory engagement—deficit and governance—that facilitated HOPE VI’s participatory capture. Deficit models rely on participants who are discursively rendered as “inferior,” while governance models prioritize “token” participants at the expense of more robust participant feedback. Moreover, these models, in the context of the U.S., carry with them particularly racialized predicates that demonstrate potential perils of participation for low-income, marginalized communities. With implications for organizational communication, diversity initiatives, and community engagement, the analysis presented in this article offers researchers, organizers, and policymakers ways to continually evaluate the efficacy of participatory methods, especially in racialized or hierarchical contexts.
In a series of prior papers, the authors have explored the theoretical foundation of project management. In this paper, this theoretical foundation is consolidated and used for explaining the novel features of two project management methods, which radically deviate from the conventional doctrine of project management: Last Planner and Scrum. Both methods have emerged since mid-nineties as practical responses to the failure of conventional project management methods, Scrum in the field of software projects, Last Planner in the field of construction projects. It is shown that both methods reject the underlying theoretical foundation of conventional project management and instead subscribe, implicitly or explicitly, to alternative theories, which better match the situation in question.
This article develops a model of a project as a payoff function that depends on the state of the world and the choice of a sequence of actions. A causal mapping, which may be incompletely known by the project team, represents the impact of possible actions on the states of the world. An underlying probability space represents available information about the state of the world. Interactions among actions and states of the world determine the complexity of the payoff function. Activities are endogenous, in that they are the result of a policy that maximizes the expected project payoff.
A key concept is the adequacy of the available information about states of the world and action effects. We express uncertainty, ambiguity, and complexity in terms of information adequacy. We identify three fundamental project management strategies: instructionism, learning, and selectionism. We show that classic project management methods emphasize adequate information and instructionism, and demonstrate how modern methods fit into the three fundamental strategies. The appropriate strategy is contingent on the type of uncertainty present and the complexity of the project payoff function. Our model establishes a rigorous language that allows the project manager to judge the adequacy of the available project information at the outset, choose an appropriate combination of strategies, and set a supporting project infrastructure—that is, systems for planning, coordination and incentives, and monitoring.
Communication structures between project owners and project managers are influenced by the principal–agent relationship between the parties and the contract type chosen. Empirical research results on project owner–manager communication practices are mapped against the contractual communication requirements in projects. This identifies possible risk factors for projects, based on a conflict between ‘best’ communication for a project and suggested communication through the chosen contract type. The paper provides recommendations for risk-minimizing owner–manager communication, as well as contributions to project theory by showing the differences of principal–agent theory and transaction costs economics in minimizing costs for governing projects.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that project managers (PMs) sometime provide biased status reports to management. In our research project we surveyed PMs to explore possible motivations for bias, the frequency with which bias occurs, and the strength of the bias typically applied. We found that status reports were biased 60% of the time and that the bias was twice as likely to be optimistic as pessimistic. By applying these results to an information-theoretic model, we estimated that only about 10–15% of biased project status reports were, in fact, accurate and these occurred only when pessimistic bias offset project management status errors. There appeared to be no significant difference in the type or frequency of bias applied to high-risk versus low-risk projects. Our work should provide a better understanding of software project status reporting.
Although user participation in systems development is widely believed to have positive impacts on user acceptance, it does not guarantee success and there is still much that we do not know about how and why user participation sometimes delivers positive benefits, but not always. Much of the prior research on user participation assumes that user–developer communication will ensure that the resulting system will be designed to meet users’ needs and will be accepted by them. The nature and quality of the communication between users and developers, however, remains an understudied aspect of user participation. In this paper, we focus on the user–developer communication process. We propose a process model that delineates four stages of communication between users and software developers, and we argue that these stages must occur for user participation to lead to effective outcomes. To illustrate our model, we apply it to analyse a ‘critical case study’ of a software project that failed despite high levels of user involvement. We show that when ‘communication lapses’ occurred in several of the user–developer communication stages, developers failed to be informed regarding the underlying reasons that users avoided the system. Based on the insights from this case study, we advise researchers and practitioners how to leverage the potential benefits of user participation, rather than take them for granted.
User participation has been widely touted by the MIS community as a means to improve user satisfaction with systems development. This claim, however, has not been consistently substantiated in the empirical literature. In seeking to explain such equivocal results, the effects of four contingency factors - task complexity, system complexity, user influence, and user-developer communication - on the relationship between user participation and user satisfaction were investigated. As suggested in the literature, this research tests hypotheses that these specific contingency factors should aid in identifying situations where user participation would have a strong relationship with satisfaction.Analysis of 151 independent system development projects in eight different organizations indicated that user participation has a direct relationship with user satisfaction. In addition, the four contingency factors were found to play key roles on this relationship. Task complexity and system complexity proved to be pure motivators. That is, the strength of the participation-satisfaction relationship depended on the level of these factors. In projects where there was a high level of task complexity or system complexity, the relationship between user participation and user satisfaction was signifiantly stronger than in projects where task complexity or system complexity was low. User influence and user-developer communication were shown to be independent predictors of user satisfaction. That is, user influence or user-developer communication was positively related to user satisfaction regardless of the level of participation.The results help explain the relationship between user participation and user satisfaction by suggesting the nature of the relationship under different sets of conditions. The implications are relevant to system developers and to academicians seeking to explain how, when, why, and where user participation is needed.
In prior literature, it has been generally seen that there is no explicit theory of project management. We contend that it is possible to precisely point out the underlying theoretical foundation of project management as espoused in the PMBOK Guide by PMI and mostly applied in practice. This foundation can be divided into a theory of project and a theory of management. We link theories to the body of
knowledge by comparing prescriptions derived from theory to prescriptions presented in the PMBOK. Secondly, we show, by a comparison to competing theories and by an analysis of anomalies (deviations from assumptions or outcomes as implied in the body of knowledge) observed in project management practice, that this foundation is obsolete and has to be substituted by a wider and more powerful theoretical foundation.
One of the most intractable problems in software is getting engineers to consistently use effective methods. The Software Engineering Institute (SEI) has worked on this problem for a number of years and has developed effective methods for addressing it. This paper describes these methods and shows what they have accomplished with several hundred students and working engineers. After first describing the problem of changing engineers’ practices, the paper discusses the logic engineers typically follow in deciding what methods to use. Next is a description of the Personal Software Process (PSP) and the Team Software Process (TSP). Finally, the implications of SEI’s experiences with the PSP and TSP are described, with particular emphasis on software engineering and computer science education.
TH J. TURNERUniversity of StirlingTHE COMPUTER JOURNAL, Vol. 42, No. 2, 1999BOOK REVIEWS 151information should be allocated and protected is assumingever greater importance. Intellectual property law isbecoming a mainstream topic.During the 1970s and 1980s much attention focused onthe application of concepts of copyright and patent law inrespect of computer programs and data. From as far backas 1985, computer programs have been protected as a formof literary work---a categorization ...
The dynamic system development method (DSDM) is a holistic approach to system development in a rapid application development (RAD) environment. It provides an overall framework, based on wide experience, for particular types of commercial information system development projects. The method is currently undergoing trials in a number of user organizations. The formation of the consortium and the successful launch of the method shows how user organizations and IT professionals can take a proactive stance in the advancement of system development practice.
The Practical, Start-to-Finish Guide to Planning and Leading Iterative Software ProjectsIterative processes have gained widespread acceptance because they help software developers reduce risk and cost, manage change, improve productivity, and deliver more effective, timely solutions. But conventional project management techniques don't work well in iterative projects, and newer iterative management techniques have been poorly documented. Managing Iterative Software Development Projects is the solution: a relentlessly practical guide to planning, organizing, estimating, staffing, and managing any iterative project, from start to finish.ï¾ Leading iterative development experts Kurt Bittner and Ian Spence introduce a proven, scalable approach that improves both agility and control at the same time, satisfying the needs of developers, managers, and the business alike. Their techniques are easy to understand, and easy to use with any iterative methodology, from Rational Unified Process to Extreme Programming to the Microsoft Solutions Framework.Whatever your roleï¾team leader, program manager, project manager, developer, sponsor, or user representativeï¾this book will help you Understand the key drivers of success in iterative projects Leverage “time boxing” to define project lifecycles and measure results Use Unified Process phases to facilitate controlled iterative development Master core concepts of iterative project management, including layering and evolution Create project roadmaps, including release plans Discover key patterns of risk management, estimation, organization, and iteration planning Understand what must be controlled centrally, and what you can safely delegate Transition smoothly to iterative processes Scale iterative project management from the smallest to the largest projects Align software investments with the needs of the businessWhether you are interested in software development using RUP, OpenUP, or other agile processes, this book will help you reduce the anxiety and cost associated with software improvement by providing an easy, non-intrusive path toward improved resultsï¾without overwhelming you and your team.
From the Book:Corporate and commercial software development teams all want solutions for one important problem--how to get their high-pressure development schedules under control. In Rapid Development, author Steve McConnell addresses that concern head-on with overall strategies, specific best practices, and valuable tips that help shrink and control development schedules and keep projects moving. Inside, you'll find: The best rapid-development strategies that can be applied to any project Candid discussions of great and not-so-great rapid-development practices--estimation, prototyping, forced overtime, motivation, teamwork, rapid-development languages, risk management, and many others A list of classic mistakes to avoid for rapid-development projects, including creeping requirements, shortchanged quality, and silver-bullet syndrome Case studies that vividly illustrate what can go wrong, what can go right, and how to tell in which direction your project is headed Rapid Developement is the real-world guide to more efficient applications development
This paper reports an in-depth case study of a rapid application development (RAD) project. RAD is a recent information systems development method noted for its high levels of user involvement and use of iterative prototyping. The paper develops a model of the core features of RAD gleaned from literature such as that published on the dynamic systems development method (DSDM). We report an ethnographic study of a RAD project and use this case material to contrast the theory with the practice of RAD. We conclude the paper with a consideration of a number of possible revisions to the prescriptions of RAD and also discuss the role of RAD within the broader context of IS development.
‘It’s lots of bits of paper and ticks and post-it notes and things . . . you’ll get to understand it, it’s not that bad really’. A RAD team member
This paper sets out on a political exploration of the paradoxes of participatory practices which are brought to the fore via the application of a critical framework. In addition, the worker participation literature is used to illuminate some of the contradictions of user participation in Information Systems Development. This approach places emphasis on the fundamentally conflictual nature of organizational relations. The set of resultant paradoxes which this phenomenon engenders is presented. One consequence of the conflictual nature of organizations is the antagonistic relations between end-users (employees) and sponsors of the system (managers). In this paper we highlight the contradictions entailed in the systems developer’s role when intervening between the groups, attempting to enrol them into participation as well as develop a system that will deliver on the promises made on its behalf during the enrolment process. The analogy of the two-headed Roman god, Janus, is made in relation to the role of the systems developer, in order to emphasize the incompatibility of needs of organizational members. The paradoxes enumerated in the paper (namely: rhetoric of empowerment, rhetoric of involvement, exclusion of dissent, illusions of compatibility, and outcome of participation) are adjusted to the role of the Janus systems developer, revealing the latter to be a captive of these contradictions. Finally, some conclusions for future academic research and professional practice are drawn.
There is a growing trend to develop Information Systems (IS) using rapid development tools and methods rather than using traditional analysis and specification methods. Some writers have warned of a return to an undisciplined style of systems development. This paper uses the discipline of ‘requirements engineering’ to validate the use of Rapid Application Development (RAD) techniques in identifying and responding to users’ requirements for IS. It argues that traditional systems analysis depended on identifying explicit requirements that could be verbalized; many new IS, however, depend on identifying different forms of knowledge and requirements. Techniques employed by RAD are eminently suited to eliciting these requirements. The paper is founded in part on two empirical studies, which are viewed through a theoretical filter based on a framework from ‘requirements engineering’.
This conceptual paper proposes a value-centred approach to measuring project success. The paper adopts a product-based project definition and a corresponding project lifecycle model. After reviewing briefly the literature, the paper defines the concepts of the net project execution cost (NPEC) and the net product operation value (NPOV). Twelve possible project outcomes are outlined based on values of NPEC and NPOV at project completion compared with their initial estimates. The proposed scheme potentially enables project stakeholders to reach the same project success or failure verdict. It also addresses many issues hitherto encountered in the quest for project success criteria.
There is an extensive literature on user participation in system development. Individual papers discuss separate components of the participation issue. Papers study individual factors associated with participation, investigate the process of participation and discuss the link between participation and system success. In spite of the many studies in this area, findings are not consistent or cumulative. One reason for this may be that participation is a nebulous term that is difficult to define clearly: it is a concept with many dimensions. This paper highlights a number of attributes of participation, presents a framework which is used to describe and synthesise existing research findings, and includes an analysis of empirical literature in an attempt to explain inconsistency in findings.
The effect of user involvement on system success is an important topic yet empirical results have been controversial. Many methodological and theoretical differences among prior studies have been suggested as possible causes for inconsistent findings. This research is an attempt to resolve inconsistent data despite differences that may exist in prior studies. Data from 25 studies were meta-analyzed to test the separate effects of user participation and user involvement on six system success variables. Results showed that user participation had a moderate positive correlation with four success measures: system quality, use, user satisfaction, and organizational impact. The correlation between user participation and individual impact was minimum. User involvement generally had a larger correlation with system success than did user participation. Overall, these findings indicate that both user involvement and user participation are beneficial, but the magnitude of these benefits much depends on how involvement and its effect are defined.
Recent research has suggested that flawed status reporting is a serious concern in IS projects. However, the linkage between reporting quality and project performance has not been empirically confirmed. Our investigation consisted of two complementary studies, both of which employed previously validated measures of reporting quality and project outcomes. The first considered the perceptions of 210 IS project members of the quality of status reports they submitted to their project managers. The second considered the perceptions of 485 IS project managers of the quality of project reports they received from project members reporting to them. Both showed that the perceived quality of project reporting was less than perfect and was significantly associated with project task and psychological outcomes. Moreover, the second study results suggested that reporting quality was also related to organizational outcomes. We offer recommendations for project managers.
The relationship between user participation and information system (IS) success has drawn attention from researchers for some time. It is assumed that strong participation of future users in the design of IS would lead to successful outcomes in terms of more IS usage, greater user acceptance, and increased user satisfaction. However, in spite of this, much of the empirical research so far has been unable to demonstrate its benefits. This paper examines the participation–success relationship in a broader context, where the effects of user participation and two other factors, user attitudes and user involvement, on system success occur simultaneously. Other contingency variables considered here are: system impact, system complexity, and development methodology. The theoretical framework and the associated hypotheses are empirically tested by a survey of 32 organizations. Empirical results corroborate the positive link between user participation and user satisfaction and provide evidence on the interplay between user attitudes and user involvement.
Because of its flexibility, the Web is becoming the applications platform of choice, and applications of the Web are proliferating rapidly. These two trends call for rapid development and deployment of Web-based software, and this article presents architectures and development methods to enable beleaguered IT shops to quickly produce quality software for the Web.
A two-phased research project comparing the prototyping approach with the more traditional life cycle approach finds that prototyping facilitates communication between users and designers during the design process. However, the findings also indicate that designers who used prototyping experienced difficulties in managing and controlling the design process.
Despite the widely held view that systems are more likely to be successful if users are involved during systems development, there is uncertainty about the exact nature of the relationship between user participation and system outcomes. There has been considerable research activity in this area but findings are inconclusive. Comparatively little qualitative research has been reported. This paper reports an interpretive study that examined the development process for 38 decision support systems in the Australian agricultural sector. The relationship between user participation and system outcome was explored. The degree of user influence in the design process was found to be an important component of this relationship. Degree of user influence was a result of both the type and depth of user participation. Much previous research has focused on whether users were involved in development without detailed consideration of the degree of influence on design features resulting from this participation. The results from this study are significant in that they yield theoretical insights into the phenomenon of user participation and related system outcomes. In addition, the results have practical significance for practitioners developing decision support software.
This paper presents the findings of an empirical study investigating the nature of the process of information systems development. These findings are used to identify systems development approach, which extends understanding of the information systems development process beyond the levels of methodology and technical expertise. The term approach expresses the rich, varied, and complex ways in which professionals deal with development situations. The term transcends methodological components – which can be combined, tailored, or omitted altogether. Within approach, a framework for method choice, a key diagnostic scheme, and the use of a central repository reveal the significant background activity that goes into developing information systems. It is suggested that the information systems development process ultimately involves a professional using an approach to intervene in a problematic situation for developing the organization's information and, if needed, other systems. This understanding has implications for examining the field's ineffectiveness in relation to the approach adopted – rather than the methodology used.
This article presents a new approach to the management of evolutionary prototyping projects. The prototyping approach to systems development emphasizes learning and facilitates meaningful communication between systems developers and users. These benefits are important for rapid creation of flexible, usable information resources that are well-tuned to present and future business needs. The main unsolved problem in prototyping is the difficulty in controlling such projects. This problem severely limits the range of practical projects in which prototyping can be used. The new approach suggested in this article uses an explicit risk mitigation model and management process that energizes and enhances the value of prototyping in technology delivery. An action research effort validates this risk analysis approach as one that focuses management attention on consequences and priorities inherent in a prototyping situation. This approach enables appropriate risk resolution strategies to be placed in effect before the prototyping process breaks down. It facilitates consensus building through collaborative decision making and is consistent with a high degree of user involvement.
In this paper we show that systems development methodologies may contain incompatible assumptions about the role of users and information systems (IS) personnel during systems development. Using deconstruction, we analyze and interpret a systems development methodology currently receiving considerable attention--Information Engineering. We find that this methodology's characterization of IS-user relations and, in particular, its recommended partitioning of responsibility between IS and users is inconsistent and contradictory. Despite a heavy emphasis on user involvement, users are given a relatively passive role to play during development. At the same time, users are expected to sign off on projects and take responsibility for project outcomes. We suggest that such prescriptions, when put into action during systems development, make the relationship between users and IS personnel problematic. Further, we argue that the contradictions we surface in the methodology reflect contradictions and ideologies in the context within which systems development occurs. Our analysis raises important questions about the relationship between the production and consumption of information technology in organizations.
First published almost ten years ago, Information Systems Development is used by lecturers and students worldwide. Through long experience of teaching with the text and feedback from colleagues and students, the authors have continued to build from the solid foundations of the original text. The new 3rd edition of Information Systems Development has been updated and enhanced to reflect the latest developments in IS technology, and to meet the needs of a new generation in IS studies. The book contains comprehensive coverage of diverse topics including Oracle applications, UML notation, RUP, RAD and DSDM. There is a new section on SAP and other ERP systems. E-commerce and web applications such as Dreamweaver are examined, as well as additional information on package development and component based design. The authors further illustrate how these various technologies integrate with social and economic factors to provide a thorough examination of Information Systems Development. Due to this broad content base, Information Systems Development is suitable for a wide range of degree programs without impacting the unique requirements of either computer science, or business and management courses. Both theoretical models and real-world examples provide an engaging and practical text, and there is considerable web-based support material available for both lecturers and students.
Public decision makers are given a vague
mandate to regulate industries. Restrictions on their instruments or scope of regulation
affect their incentives to identify with interest groups and the effectiveness of
supervision by watchdogs. This idea is illustrated in the context of the regulation of a
natural monopoly. Much of the theoretical literature has assumed that a benevolent regulator
is prohibited from operating transfers to the firm and maximizes social welfare subject to
the firm's budget constraint. The tension between the assumptions of benevolence and of
restrictions on instruments in such models leads us to investigate the role played by the
mistrust of regulators in the development of this institution. We compare two mandates:
average cost pricing (associated with the possibility of transfers). The regulator may
identify with the industry, but a regulatory hearing offers the advocacy groups (watchdogs)
an opportunity to alter the proposed rule making. The comparison between the two mandates
hinges on the dead-weight loss associated with collusion and on the effectiveness of
watchdog supervision.
Opinions on rapid prototyping as a practical development tool vary widely, with conventional wisdom seeing it more as a research topic than a workable method. The authors counter this notion with results from 39 case studies, most of which have used this approach successfully.< >
Although many view iterative and incremental development as a modern practice, its application dates as far back as the mid-1950s. Prominent software-engineering thought leaders from each succeeding decade supported IID practices, and many large projects used them successfully. These practices may have differed in their details, but all had a common theme-to avoid a single-pass sequential, document-driven, gated-step approach.
Issues Impacting on the Project Management of a RAD Development Approach of a Large
- H Berger
- P Beynon-Davies
Customer Rights and Responsibilities
- K E Wiegers
SDLC, JAD, and RAD: Finding the Right Hammer
- C Osborn
Software Project Management - A Mapping between RUP and the PMBOK
- S Charbonneau
Adaptive Software Development
- J Highsmith
A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge
- Pmi
Case study research: Design and methods
- R K Yin