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Statistical procedures and the justification of knowledge in psychological science.
... Even when it comes to 'measuring' career prospects, there may be parallels (to citationbased numbers such as h-indices and JIFs) -at least historically in disciplines such as psychology. As Rosnow and Rosenthal (1989) point out, "It may not be an exaggeration to say that for many PhD students, for whom the .05 alpha has acquired almost an ontological mystique, it can mean joy, a doctoral degree, and a tenure-track position at a major university if their dissertation p is less than .05. ...
... However, with h papers having at least h citations each, the formula for combining both metrics is arbitrarily chosen: h 2 citations or 2h citations could have been used as well (see Waltman & van Eck, 2012); just as p < 0.06 or < 0.03 could become a convention instead of 0.05 and 0.01. Rosnow and Rosenthal (1989) put it like this: "...God loves the 0.06 nearly as much as the 0.05" (p. 1277), to which Cohen (1990) added "...amen!" (p. ...
In science and beyond, quantifications are omnipresent when it comes to justifying judgments. Which scientific author, hiring committee-member, or advisory board panelist has not been confronted with page-long publication manuals, assessment reports, evaluation guidelines, calling for p-values, citation rates, h-indices, or other numbers to judge about the ‘quality’ of findings, applicants, or institutions? Yet, many of those of us relying on and calling for quantifications may not understand what information numbers can convey, and what not. Focusing on the uninformed usage of bibliometrics as worrisome outgrowth of the increasing quantification of science, in this opinion essay we place the abuse of quantifications into historical contexts and trends. These are characterized by mistrust in human intuitive judgment, obsessions with control and accountability, and a bureaucratization of science. We call for bringing common sense back into scientific (bibliometric-based) judgment exercises. Despite all number crunching, many judgments—be it about empirical findings or research institutions—will neither be straightforward, clear, and unequivocal, nor can they be ‘validated’ and be ‘objectified’ by external standards. We conclude that assessments in science ought to be understood as and be made as judgments under uncertainty.
... For assessment of reliability, Cronbach coefficient alpha is a widely accepted choice and most reported statistics (Rosnow and Rosenthal, 1992). In most literature α = 0.7 or more ensures having reliability (Hair et al., 1998). ...
... For assessment of reliability, Cronbach coefficient alpha is a widely accepted choice and most reported statistics (Rosnow and Rosenthal, 1992). In most literature α = 0.7 or more ensures having reliability (Hair et al., 1998). ...
Purpose: The present research study aims to evaluate the impact of attitude, environmental concern, sensory appeal, trust in organic food, and willingness to pay price premium on millennials' purchase intention of organic food products. Moreover, it examines the direct and indirect effects of trust in organic food purchase intention. Design / Methodology: The present study is based 227 millennials responses collected via convenience sampling method through an online survey and by use of social media. The structured questionnaire was designed in the form of Google form, and a link for the same was shared online. The Collected data were analyzed by using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modeling (SEM) with the help of AMOS 21 and SPSS 21. Findings: Findings suggest that willingness to pay price premium, attitude, and trust in organic food significantly influence purchase intention of organic food. In addition, environmental concern and sensory appeal have a significant positive impact on consumers' attitudes towards organic food products. Willingness to pay the price premium for organic food is positively influenced by trust in organic food. It empirically confirms that the trust in organic food has a more indirect effect than a direct effect on millennials' purchase intention. Research Limitations: The study is based on data collected through the method of convenience sampling, and hence discussed practical implications need to review before implementing in designing marketing strategies. Practical Implications: Marketing managers can make use of findings in developing effective marketing promotional campaigns focusing on developing a positive attitude towards organic food products, and willingness to pay extra can be influenced by instilling trust in organic food. Originality / Value: This paper explores the insights of millennials' purchase intention in the context of organic food. It is focusing on how environmental concern, sensory appeal, and trust in organic food, and willingness to pay price premium play an influencing role in millennials' consumption of organic food. Moreover, the direct and indirect effect of trust in organic food is examined as a novel contribution in the context of India.
... Has the world arrived at a point where significance testing becomes 'a kind of essential mindlessness in the conduct of research?' (Bakan, 1966) Researchers argued that it is not always sensible to accept or reject a hypothesis 'in a sharp sense' (Good, 1981) and it has no meaning in interpreting a sharp p-value when the strength of evidence can be better understood by the distribution in which the p-value is assessed. (Rosnow and Rosenthal, 1992) The p-value is a statistic whereby we reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is within the critical region of a distribution. And if it does not fall within the critical region, we do not reject the null hypothesis. ...
Behavioral economics is a study of decision-making from the perspective of individual’s or institutions’ behavior arising from a departure from the classical economic theory. One example would be the differences in setting buying price and selling price for the same product due to the attachment one has with it. In an uncertain environment where events change rapidly, consumers are not able to indicate their buying price and selling price of the same product rationally, leading to a disparity in prices. And this disparity can be noticeably huge. Over the past 50 years, researchers in the field of psychology, decision science, and economics have studied the varied nature of the irrationality of consumers, and concluded that loss aversion remains the most credible explanation for the disparity. While buyers seek market valuation of products, sellers seek compensation for losing a product when it is sold. Researchers have named this phenomenon the endowment effect. In our research, we have shown that the endowment effect does not apply to a particular
class of products - the time-sensitive and value-depreciating products or TSVD products. The selling price is determined by the loss in losing the chance to sell the TSVD products across different points in time, which is fundamentally expressed in the Loss Aversion Sensitivity function or LAS function. And we have shown that the selling price on average can be higher than the buying price on average when consumers’ field of decision-making is obscured. We call this effect the obscurity effect. We researched the obscurity effect using a quantitative survey questionnaire and tested 6 hypotheses in within-subject and between-subject designs using non-parametric and parametric statistical methods. We concluded that the TSVD products follow the LAS function, and the behavioral pattern was disrupted when the obscurity effect is observed. In our discussion, we have provided some explanations for the obscurity effect. These explanations include concepts coming from cognitive psychology, social psychology, and emotions. Finally, we presented two use cases whereby businesses can benefit from curtailing the obscurity effect. Definitions used in this paper are defined by mathematical logic and reasoning.
... The variables of gender and financing of studies did not prove to be significant. In principle, age could be considered to be significant in line with recommendations by Rosnow and Rosenthal (1992). Once the dependent variable has been standardised to calculate the effect size of this variable on the dependent variable, if the T-test is applied to independent samples, the result of Cohen's d is lower than 0.2, which indicates that it has an insignificant effect, Subsequently, a logistic regression model was constructed to express the probability of an event occurring, in this case the dependent variable Y = "Have you thought, at any time, about permanently dropping out of the university degree course that you are studying?" ...
The analysis of the problem of dropout from university studies is a subject of great importance and topicality owing to the repercussions it has, not only in the economic and social sphere, but also at a personal, family, institutional level, etc. The objective of this article is to define a profile for a student who intends to abandon their university studies and who, therefore, is at risk of academic dropout. Various characteristics with a possible impact on this situation were analysed, both those of an individual, academic and socioeconomic nature and those which are personal. Specifically, we studied the variables of age, gender, how studies are financed, average university grade and order of preference of the degree course, as well as those related to academic satisfaction, adaptability skills and the student’s academic engagement. The analysis was conducted on students at the Universidad de La Laguna (ULL) according to degree field and academic year. The results obtained show that the students with the highest risk of dropping out of the degree programme are those in their first year, mainly in the field of sciences, who have chosen the degree course they are studying that was their third choice or lower, their average university grade has been a fail, they have a low level of academic engagement and are not very satisfied with the educational process.
... But many psychological experiments do not seem to operate this way. For example, they are often used to shore up existing commonsense knowledge or preconceived facts and relationships about human nature already established prior to experimentation (e.g., Brannigan, 2004;Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1989). In PROMISES AND PERILS OF EXPERIMENTATION 6 fact, many classic social psychological experiments in the 20th century used experiments for such purposes, but still claimed to have offered a deep and elegant understanding of pressing societal problems and human nature. ...
Researchers run experiments to test theories, search for and document phenomena, develop theories, or advise policymakers. When testing theories, experiments must be internally valid but do not have to be externally valid. However, when experiments are used to search for and document phenomena, develop theories, or advise policymakers, external validity matters. Conflating these goals and failing to recognize their tensions with validity concerns can lead to problems with theorizing. Experimenters in psychology should be aware of the mutual-internal-validity problem, long recognized by experimental economists. When phenomena elicited by experiments are used to develop theories that, in turn, influence the design of theory-testing experiments, experiments and theories can become wedded to each other and lose touch with reality. They capture and explain phenomena within but not beyond the laboratory. We highlight how triangulation can address validity problems by helping experiments and theories make contact with ideas from other disciplines and the real world.
Recent research has focused on the relation of mental rehearsal, specifically visualization, to enhanced performance. Some have suggested that mental practice enhances performance on cognitive tasks more than on motoric ones. The present study describes two waves of survey data from elite track and field athletes before the 1988 US Olympic trials (n = 633) and those same athletes after the Olympic Games in Seoul (n = 450). The focus was on several measures of mental practice and visualization, including internal and external perspectives and association with sociodemographic data, prior collegiate experience, coaching influences, and Olympic team selection. Analyses suggest that mental practice may be associated with more successful track and field performance for selected groups of athletes.
Monte Carlo studies provide the information needed to help researchers select appropriate analytical procedures under design conditions in which the underlying assumptions of the procedures are not met. In Monte Carlo studies, the 2 errors that one could commit involve (a) concluding that a statistical procedure is robust when it is not or (b) concluding that it is not robust when it is. In previous attempts to apply standard statistical design principles to Monte Carlo studies, the less severe of these errors has been wrongly designated the Type I error. In this article, a method is presented for controlling the appropriate Type I error rate; the determination of the number of iterations required in a Monte Carlo study to achieve desired power is described; and a confidence interval for a test's true Type I error rate is derived. A robustness criterion is also proposed that is a compromise between W. G. Cochran's (1952) and J. V. Bradley's (1978) criteria.
Purpose:
There is no consensus regarding how best to measure postoperative quality of recovery after anesthesia/surgery (e.g., using 24-hour survey instruments) in veterans or active military. Our goals were to (1) describe health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) and recovery across time in veterans, (2) examine the commonality between the quality of recovery (QoR-15) and short-form (SF) surveys (including the SF-8, 24-hour version), and (3) examine the responsiveness of these surveys.
Materials and methods:
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Boards from the University of Pittsburgh, the VA Pittsburgh, and the Human Research Protection Office of the Department of Defense. Secondary analyses of data were executed based on a randomized trial dataset of knee/hip arthroplasty patients, the study having recruited 135 total veterans. QoR-15 and HRQoL SF surveys were completed and self-reported before surgery (pre-op), on postoperative day 2 (PO-D2), and 6 weeks postoperatively. Descriptive statistics were used to examine scores across time. Common content was examined using Pearson's r. Responsiveness was examined using distribution-based methods.
Results:
Average veteran age was 67 year, 89% were male, 88% white, and average body mass index was 33 kg∙m-2. QoR-15 scores declined from pre-op to PO-D2 but were higher than pre-op at 6 weeks. SF physical component summary (PCS) scores were low both pre-op and PO-D2, but were elevated over baseline at 6 weeks. SF mental component summary (MCS) scores declined from baseline to PO-D2 but were higher than pre-op at 6 weeks. Associations of the QoR-15 total score and PCS/MCS were medium/large and statistically significant at P ≤ .01. Both instruments were responsive to changes.
Conclusion:
QoR-15 and SF-8 have high content commonality and performed similarly in veterans across time. SF-8 has added benefits of (1) brevity, (2) assessment of physical and mental health components, and (3) being normed to the general population. The SF-8, if used without the QoR-15 in tandem in future study of anesthesia-related outcomes, would need to be supplemented by separate questions addressing postoperative nausea/vomiting (a frequent outcome after anesthesia that is relevant to same-day and next-day mobilization after elective joint replacement surgery).
Objectives: This study compares the anesthetic efficiency of the intraligmentary needless device (NumBee) and traditional dental syringe utilized to anesthetize mandibular 1st permanent molar, in addition to assessing the pain perception experienced by the subject during anesthesia injection and cavity preparation.
Materials and Methods: Non fearful 30 children aged 6-8 years without a history of exposure to dental anesthesia were chosen to participate in the study using a randomized split-mouth design. All of them were indicated for simple class I dental restoration for both of their mandibular 1st permanent molars. In two randomized sequential dental treatment sessions, they were administered local anesthesia using NumBee for one of their treated teeth and a conventional dental syringe for the other tooth. The pain perception for both devices during the local anesthetic injection and during cavity preparation was evaluated by using Wong Baker Faces pain scale while the efficiency was recorded according to the reported symptoms during cavity preparation.
Results: Most of girls who injected by NumBee, experienced significantly less pain during the injection than during cavity preparation (p< 0.05). However, when the children were anesthetized with NumBee, the pain experience during cavity preparation was significantly higher than those anesthetized with inferior alveolar nerve block (p<0.05).
Conclusion: NumBee provided a more comfortable and less painful injection as compared to Inferior dental nerve block. However, NumBee gives less anesthetic depth than the inferior alveolar nerve block.
Clinical relevance: The features of the NumBee device, such as the absence of a needle, an appearance that is less likely to provoke anxiety, a reasonable duration of action, and the non-necessity of anesthetizing the entire dental nerve branch, could provide a more comfortable injection, and children might indeed favor it to the traditional syringe.
Trial registration. : No. 576322
Date: 2.6.2022
Collaborative inhibition (reduced recall in collaborative vs. nominal groups) is a robust phenomenon. However, it is possible that not everyone is as susceptible to collaborative inhibition, such as those higher in working memory capacity (WMC). In the current study, we examined the relationship between WMC and collaborative inhibition. Participants completed three shortened span tasks (automated operation span, automated reading span, symmetry span). They then viewed categorized word lists individually and then recalled the word lists alone or with a partner (Test 1), followed by an individual recall (Test 2). For correct recall, collaborative inhibition was greater among lower WMC individuals, and they showed no post collaborative benefits. Only higher WMC individuals benefited from prior collaboration. For false recall, higher WMC individuals had less false recall on Tests 1 and 2, and collaboration reduced errors on Test 1 for both lower- and higher WMC individuals. There were no lasting effects of collaboration on Test 2 errors. Furthermore, partner WMC appeared to influence recall, although this tentative finding is based on a smaller sample size. Specifically, on Test 2, participants had less false recall when their partner was higher in WMC and greater correct recall when both they and their partner were higher in WMC. We conclude that collaboration is relatively more harmful for lower WMC individuals and more beneficial for higher WMC individuals. These results inform theories of collaborative inhibition by identifying attentional control and WMC as mechanisms that moderate the magnitude of the effect. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
Previous studies have suggested that the Zhongyong thinking style (influenced by Chinese culture) is associated with psychological features. However, little is known about the direct association between Zhongyong thinking and resilience and the underlying mechanisms of this relationship in Chinese culture. The present study aimed to investigate the association between Zhongyong thinking and undergraduates’ resilience and to assess whether cognitive reappraisal and positive effects mediated this association. A sample of undergraduates (n = 1,356, 70.4% female, mean age = 19 years) was recruited for this study and the participants completed the Zhongyong Thinking Style Scale (ZYTS), the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS), and the Resilience-11. Results indicated that the Zhongyong thinking style was positively and significantly associated with resilience. Undergraduates’ resilience was affected by Zhongyong thinking partly through 3 different pathways: the mediating role of cognitive reappraisal, the mediating role of positive effect, and the mediating chain role of both cognitive reappraisal and positive effect. These findings might provide a deeper understanding of the protective factors for resilience among Chinese undergraduates.
Resilience, a psychological individual difference variable, has not received adequate scholarly attention in education contexts. The present study investigated the resilience level among 273 university EFL learners in China with T.-Y. Kim and Kim’s (2017. The impact of resilience on L2 learners’ motivated behaviour and proficiency in L2 learning. Educational Studies 43(1). 1–15) scale, which comprised five sub-components of resilience in the Korean EFL context. Confirmatory factor analysis and reliability analysis showed that self-regulation, one sub-component identified in the Korean context, was also found in the factorial structure of resilience in the Chinese EFL context; accordingly, self-regulation was hypothesised to be a “Resilience Core” that can be found in different learning contexts. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that the selected sociobiographical variables (e.g., a global measure of multilingualism, GMM) affected resilience and “Resilience Core” to varying degrees; for example, L2 joy (ΔR2 = 14.2–23.3%) and GMM (2.9–7.8%) emerged as important predictors for resilience because their minimum ΔR2 exceeded the “typical” effect size benchmark (1%).
Research has demonstrated time and again that peoples’ self-reports of news exposure are heavily inflated and the reasons for this overreporting remain unclear. In three online survey experiments conducted in Israel, we manipulated the survey procedure to test cognitive and motivational explanations, and attempted to attenuate inflated reports of news exposure. While increasing or decreasing the anonymity of the survey (the ultimate test for social desirability) did not affect participants’ responses, a self-affirmation manipulation reduced reported exposure. A memory-aid manipulation also reduced reported television news exposure, suggesting that the cognitive mechanism possibly relates to memory failure.
Children’s behaviour and mental health has the power to surprise us, readers and authors of the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and laymen alike, if not for the endless variation among people, then for the ever‐changing context in which they develop. The hypothetico‐deductive method in combination with null‐hypothesis significance testing has turned surprise into scientific knowledge. Null effects may in themselves also be surprising and informative, but appear less well represented in the literature. This editorial highlights emerging methodological practices for studying null effects in the most informative way.
Parents' insecure representations of attachment are associated with lower parental sensitivity and insecure infant–parent attachment relationships, leading to less optimal conditions for the children's socio-emotional development. Therefore, two types of short-term intervention were implemented in a group of lower middle-class mothers with an insecure representation of attachment as assessed with the Adult Attachment Interview. In one group of mothers, the intervention efforts were directed at promoting maternal sensitivity by means of written information about sensitive parenting and personal video feedback. In the other group, additional discussions about the mothers' early attachment experiences took place, aiming at affecting the mothers' attachment representation. The interventions were implemented during four home visits between the 7th and the 10th month after the baby's birth. Preliminary results on 30 mothers pointed at an intervention effect: Mothers in both intervention groups were more sensitive at 13 months than mothers in a control group, t(28) = −2.3, effect size d = .87, p = .01. Mothers who were classified as insecure dismissing tended to profit most from video feedback, whereas mothers who were classified as insecure preoccupied tended to profit most from video feedback with additional discussions about their childhood attachment experiences, F(1,16) = 1.9, d = .65, p = .19. © 1998 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health
Postgraduate medical students are often not able to select and interpret the findings of statistical tests during their thesis or research projects. To go ahead with selection of tests to be performed, researchers need to determine the objectives of study, types of variables, analysis and the study design, number of groups and data sets, and the types of distribution. In this review, we summarize and explain various statistical tests to help postgraduate medical students to select the most appropriate techniques for their thesis and dissertation.
The replicability crisis refers to the apparent failures to replicate both important and typical positive experimental claims in psychological science and biomedicine, failures which have gained increasing attention in the past decade. In order to provide evidence that there is a replicability crisis in the first place, scientists have developed various measures of replication that help quantify or “count” whether one study replicates another. In this nontechnical essay, I critically examine five types of replication measures used in the landmark article “Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science” (Open Science Collaboration, Science, 349, ac4716, 2015) based on the following techniques: subjective assessment, null hypothesis significance testing, comparing effect sizes, comparing the original effect size with the replication confidence interval, and meta-analysis. The first four, I argue, remain unsatisfactory for a variety of conceptual or formal reasons, even taking into account various improvements. By contrast, at least one version of the meta-analytic measure does not suffer from these problems. It differs from the others in rejecting dichotomous conclusions, the assumption that one study replicates another or not simpliciter. I defend it from other recent criticisms, concluding however that it is not a panacea for all the multifarious problems that the crisis has highlighted.
Effect size is a statistical index that measures the magnitude of the effect generated by the variable of interest in a study, in a sense, reflecting the practical or clinical value of the study in addition to the statistical results. In recent years, it has become preferable to report the effect size expressing practical significance in addition to the statistical significance expressed by the p-value in hypothesis tests in scientific research, and even it has been required by some scientific journals. By reporting the effect size, it is possible to use it in statistical power analysis, to compare the results of the studies, and to determine the amount of the effect in the study. In this study, by mentioning the concept of effect size, some effect size indices calculated according to research designs are introduced with examples of the field of veterinary medicine.
This study analyzed factors associated with career choice of police agents of Honduras. This was carried out using a mixed methods approach, combining focus groups and questionnaires in a sample of 828 police candidates. Results indicate three main motivational dimensions: pursuit of socioeconomic stability, community service and the social influence from family-friends. Other factors that motivate the permanency are the social links created between applicants, time and effort investment, and the opportunities for professional-academic development. Findings indicate that the available working conditions perceived in the informant's home community are related to economic motivations regarding socioeconomic stability, but not with motivations related to community service. Additionally, the perception of violence isn't related to the election of the police career.
In this article, we review the field of early childhood prevention and intervention science, describe noteworthy achievements over the past half-century by researchers in this area, and comment on current issues in need of ongoing attention. Although there have been many successes and noteworthy achievements in the field, in recent decades there has been little progress toward population-level impacts of early intervention. As such, novel empirical methods and revised standards of evidence are needed to complement (rather than replace) existing best practices for the development, implementation, evaluation, and scaling of effective programs.
Conservation science and practice commonly draw on the theories and methods of social psychology to explain human cognition, emotion, and behavior germane to biodiversity conservation. We created a systematic map of the cross‐disciplinary conservation science literature, which draws on social psychology concepts and methods in their application broadly described as conservation psychology. Established protocols were used to systematically collect and collate peer‐reviewed research published in an explicit selection of multidisciplinary conservation journals. We sought to catalog the literature, elucidate trends and gaps, and critically reflect on the state of conservation psychology and its research practices that aim to influence conservation outcomes. The volume of publications per year and per decade increased from 1974 to 2016. Although a diversity of research designs and methods was applied, studies disproportionately focused on specific concepts (attitudes and beliefs), locations (North America and Europe), and contexts (terrestrial, rural). Studies also tended to be descriptive, quantitative, and atheoretical in nature. Our findings demonstrate that although conservation psychology has generally become more visible and prominent, it has done so within a limited space and suggest that disciplinary research principles and reporting standards must be more universally adopted by traditional and multidisciplinary conservation journals to raise the floor of empirical research.
Behavioral studies have shown that the ability to discriminate between non-native speech sounds improves after seeing how the sounds are articulated. This study examined the influence of visual articulatory information on the neural correlates of non-native speech sound discrimination. English speakers’ discrimination of the Hindi dental and retroflex sounds was measured using the mismatch negativity (MMN) event-related potential, before and after they completed one of three 8-min training conditions. In an audio-visual speech training condition (n = 14), each sound was presented with its corresponding visual articulation. In one control condition (n = 14), both sounds were presented with the same visual articulation, resulting in one congruent and one incongruent audio-visual pairing. In another control condition (n = 14), both sounds were presented with the same image of a still face. The control conditions aimed to rule out the possibility that the MMN is influenced by non-specific audio-visual pairings, or by general exposure to the dental and retroflex sounds over the course of the study. The results showed that audio-visual speech training reduced the latency of the MMN but did not affect MMN amplitude. No change in MMN amplitude or latency was observed for the two control conditions. The pattern of results suggests that a relatively short audio-visual speech training session (i.e., 8 min) may increase the speed with which the brain processes non-native speech sound contrasts. The absence of a training effect on MMN amplitude suggests a single session of audio-visual speech training does not lead to the formation of more discrete memory traces for non-native speech sounds. Longer and/or multiple sessions might be needed to influence the MMN amplitude.
Literally hundreds of statisticians have rightly called for an end to statistical significance testing (Amrhein et al. 2019; Wasserstein et al. 2019). But the practice of arbitrarily thresholding p-values is not only deeply embedded in statistical practice, it is also congenial to the human mind. It is thus not sufficient to tell our students, "Don't do this." We must vividly show them why the practice is wrong and its effects detrimental to scientific progress. I offer three teaching examples I have found to be useful in prompting students to think more deeply about the problem and to begin to interpret the results of statistical procedures as measures of how evidence should change our beliefs, and not as bright lines separating truth from falsehood.
Many surveys of effect size (ES) reporting practices have been conducted in social science fields such as psychology and education, but few such studies are available in applied linguistics. To bridge this gap and to echo the recent calls for more robust statistics from scholars in applied linguistics and beyond, this study represents the first attempt, in the field of applied linguistics, to focus upon ES reporting practices. With an innovative “two-standards” approach for coding, which overcomes the limitations with similar studies in other social science fields (e.g., communication), this study assesses the ES reporting practices over a span of 6 years in a major journal. Findings include the following: (a) the ES reporting rate is about 50% and (b) some improvement of ES reporting over time is in evidence. Future research directions (e.g., examining whether and how ES is interpreted after being reported) are suggested.
Cognitive reappraisal is an emotion regulation strategy that involves reinterpreting the meaning of an event or its outcome to change its emotional trajectory. In this study, we examined how cognitive reappraisal affects both emotional experience and memory outcomes. We also examined whether these outcomes are modulated by participants' self-reported success at generating reappraisals. To do this, we asked participants to use situation-focused reappraisals to decrease their emotional response to some negative images and to passively view other negative images while facial electromyography (EMG) was recorded. After each trial, participants rated the image's emotional valence and arousal. During reappraisal trials, participants also self-reported their success in generating a reappraisal. One week later, memory was assessed with a surprise free recall test followed by a recognition test. Compared with images that were passively viewed, participants (N = 42) rated the successfully reappraised images as lower in arousal and less negative in valence. Meanwhile, there was an emotional cost associated with failures to generate reappraisals; participants rated these images as higher in arousal and more negative in valence. No similar effects emerged for the EMG ratings. In contrast to these emotional outcomes, a different pattern emerged for the memory outcomes. Instructions to reappraise led to enhanced recall and recognition and to greater memory confidence regardless of whether or not participants successfully generated the reappraisals. Taken together, these results suggest that trying, but failing, to generate a situation-focused cognitive reappraisal may be detrimental. In these situations, people feel worse but remember the situation well. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
Research on nonpharmacological effects of alcohol shows that exposure to alcohol-related cues (i.e., alcohol priming) can increase behaviors associated with actual alcohol consumption. Attributions of responsibility to female victims in sexual assault scenarios are affected by whether or not alcohol was consumed by a victim and/or perpetrator. Victims often receive higher levels of blame if they consume alcohol prior to the assault. This work extends the research on nonpharmacological effects of alcohol into a novel domain of blame attribution toward rape victims. In two studies, participants in lab settings (Study 1; N = 184) and online (Study 2; N = 421) were primed with alcohol or neutral beverage advertisements as part of a purportedly separate ad-rating task and then were presented with a vignette depicting an acquaintance rape where the characters consumed beer or soda. Participants subsequently completed a questionnaire assessing victim blame and perpetrator blame. Across both studies, participants blamed the victim most when they were exposed to both contextual (story) and noncontextual (ads) alcohol cues; this effect was especially prominent in males in Study 1. Findings for perpetrator blame were inconsistent across studies. Implications of nonpharmacological effects of alcohol on blame attribution toward rape victims are discussed in the context of courtroom situations and bystander intervention.
Tras varios decenios de críticas a las técnicas inferenciales
basadas en las pruebas de significación estadística orientadas
al rechazo de la llamada hipótesis nula y, a pesar del notable
consenso alcanzado entre los estadísticos profesionales,
este recurso se mantiene vigente tanto en las publicaciones
biomédicas, entre ellas las de Salud Pública, como en cursos
introductorios de estadística. Entre las muchas deficiencias
señaladas por los más prominentes especialistas se destacan
tres por ser las más obvias y fáciles de comprender: que no
contribuyen a cumplimentar la encomienda de la ciencia, que
se conocen de antemano las respuestas a las preguntas que se
encaran por su conducto y que los resultados que producen
dependen de un elemento ajeno a la realidad estudiada:
el tamaño muestral. El artículo discute en detalle tales
limitaciones, ilustra su perniciosa presencia en la investigación
actual y valora las razones para la subsistencia de la sinrazón
en esta materia.
We address the controversy regarding the sign of the effect of self-efficacy on performance. We propose that when reward is high, self-efficacy has a positive effect on performance, whereas when reward is low, it has a negative effect. This hypothesis was tested in three experiments (with sample sizes of 76, 99, and 111) in which reward and self-efficacy were manipulated and performance was measured using different manipulations and tasks in both within-factor and between-factor designs. The results supported the hypothesis that reward moderates the effect of self-efficacy on performance. When reward was high, the effect of self-efficacy on performance was positive, whereas when reward was low, the effect of self-efficacy on performance was negative.
This study investigated the clinical significance of previously reported statistically significant mean reductions in drinking and related problems among college students in a randomized trial of a brief indicated preventive intervention (G. A. Marlatt et al., 1998). Data were analyzed over a 2-year follow-up for participants from a high-risk intervention group (n = 153), a high-risk control group (n = 160), and a functional comparison group (n = 77). A risk cutpoint for each dependent measure was based on the functional comparison group distribution. Compared with the high-risk controls, more individuals in the high-risk intervention group improved and fewer worsened, especially on alcohol-related problems and, to a lesser extent, on drinking pattern variables. These data from a prevention context clarify the magnitude and direction of individual change obscured by group means.
Two word-primed picture-naming experiments were carried out to test the hypothesis that rate of activation in semantic memory is slower for older adults than for young adults. The presence of priming effects, both positive and negative, was taken as evidence of activation. In Experiment 1 there was no age difference in the time of onset of either facilitation or inhibition by primes. A computer simulation, based on a simple connectionist model, showed that slower processing would have only a minimal effect on the time of onset of priming effects under the assumptions of the model; however, offset of inhibition by primes would be delayed if processing rate were reduced. In Experiment 2 older adults showed inhibition by primes over a longer interval than did young adults, which was taken as evidence that the general slowing associated with aging extends to the transmission of activation at the earliest levels of cognitive processing.
Researchers have all too often ignored replicability of results because they overly rely on significance testing. This is a misinformed view because statistical significance does not evaluate the importance or replicability of a result. This paper focuses on two methods of assessing replicability of results, double cross-validation and bootstrap procedures. Selected variables from Hughes, Cavell, and Grossman's (1997) data set of 112 cases are used to illustrate all these techniques as applied to the interpretation of multiple regression results. One statistical computer package SPSS is used for the double cross-validation procedure, and a 1987 microcomputer program package of Lunneborg is used to demonstrate the bootstrap procedure.
The relationships between adolescents' explanations for unemployment poverty, and homelessness and their beliefs about opportunity, reports of family values, and personal aspirations were tested for 434 teenagers (mean age = 16 years 4 months). Explanations were coded for references to individual causes, societal causes, or both. Higher maternal education and average household income in the adolescent's school district were positively related to the likelihood of attributing all three problems to societal causes. When explaining unemployment, older adolescents noted both causes, and boys mentioned individual factors whereas girls mentioned societal factors. After adjustment for background factors, those endorsing individual causes were more likely to believe that all Americans enjoyed equal opportunity and that government support encouraged dependency, and they were more committed to materialist goals. In contrast, youth endorsing societal or situational causes had more altruistic life goals and reported that compassion was emphasized in their families.
This tutorial summarizes some of the widely known limitations of tests of statistical significance and then focuses on extracting measures of variation accounted for as a supplement to significance testing. Computation details are presented for research consumers. Some cautions in interpreting these measures are also reviewed.
An influential theme within the movement to integrate psychotherapies high-lights commonalities among existing systems of treatment. We examine this trend via a case study of the relationship between Ellis's rational-emotive therapy (RET) and Beck's cognitive therapy (CT). Numerous differences be-tween these two therapies in goals, style, and therapeutic focus were evident in their original formulations, but recent developments within each framework have largely eliminated the differences. On the face of it, this would seem a useful integrative development. We propose, however, that the disappearance of differences between RET and CT has not been fruitful for research or prac-tice because it has not been guided by empirical findings or by integrative theorizing. Kruglanski's theory of lay epistemology and Higgins' self discrepancy theory are described as possible bases for an integration that could retrieve the utility of the original distinctions between RET and CT KEY WORDS: rational-emotive therapy; cognitive therapy; common factors; psychotherapy integration; lay epistemology; self-discrepancy theory.
This study compared the distributional appraisal method (DAM) with the traditional appraisal method (TAM) on seven criteria reflecting appraisal effectiveness: Four interrater agreement measures, calculated by Cronbach's formulas, and three measures of differentiation: Ratee and dimension differentiation, and leniency. The study took place in a software company, where 45 participants, working in teams, rated all their team members on eight dimensions, both by DAM and TAM. DAM mean scores exhibited stronger agreement than TAM scores on two Cronbach's interrater agreement measures - stereotype accuracy and differential accuracy. High inverse correlations were found between measures of agreement and differentiation. The study demonstrates that DAM and TAM differ in their effectiveness and that criteria for rating effectiveness may be inversely related.
Suppose you obtain p = .02 in an experiment, then replicate the experiment with new samples. What p value might you obtain, and what interval has an 80% chance of including that replication p? Under conservative assumptions the answer is, perhaps surprisingly (.0003, .30). The authors report three email surveys that asked authors of articles published in leading journals in psychology, medicine, or statistics to estimate such intervals. Overall response rate (7%) was low, but responses from 360 researchers gave intervals with an average 40% to 50% chance of including replication p, rather than the target 80%. Results were similar for all three disciplines. Respondents generally found the task unfamiliar and difficult. There was great variability over respondents, but almost all of them gave intervals that were too short. This widespread, and often severe, underestimation of the variability of p may help to explain why researchers place too much interpretive weight on single p values.
The critique against significance testing has been increasingly acknowledged in recent years. This paper focuses on the relation between meta-analysis and this controversy. A contradiction in the literature can be seen in that significance testing has been blamed for the poor accumulation of knowledge in psychology, while at the same time meta-analytic reviews have claimed the opposite. Although a majority of meta-analytic experts argue against significance testing, this critique cannot account for the success of meta-analysis. Rather, it may be that meta-analysis has facilitated the recognition of the significance test critique. Taking the significance testing critique seriously has important implications for meta-analysis in that its research base (e. g., studies) is viewed as unreliable. Although the significance test controversy may lead to further fragmentation of psychology, it is not clear that this will negatively affect the practice of meta-analysis.
It is a commonly held belief among many psychological scientists that the more plausible a hypothesis, the better it is scientifically. It is also often believed that if there are two alternative theories which are equally strong in terms of explanatory power, one should choose the plausible theory over the implausible one. The goal of this article is to challenge these assumptions. Based on Popper's philosophical views, it will be argued that psychological scientists should be encouraged to formulate implausible (yet testable) hypotheses and theories. Examples from other scientific disciplines will be presented to illustrate this argument. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We argue that the goals of scientists in data analysis and scientific communication do not match the logic of hypothesis testing as it is typically taught in introductory statistics courses. The "Intro Stats" method has a number of well-known logical fallacies and the results of the procedures are often misinterpreted. However, we suspect that these problems do not directly compromise researchers' inferences concerning their data because researchers implicitly use a different method for identifying the implications of data. In particular, we argue that researchers are typically interested in comparing the relative adequacy of different accounts or theoretical explanations rather than rejecting an artificially constructed null hypothesis; a simple analysis of recent journal articles supports this view. An alternative approach to data analysis and scientific communication is to present the strength of the evidence provided by an experiment in the form of a maximum likelihood ratio. This approach is more consistent with the logic of comparing alternative accounts that scientists commonly use. Likelihood ratios are simple to calculate and provide a simple and intuitive summary of the results relevant to evaluating the alternative explanations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the links between children's perceptions of the manner in which they and their parents adjust their relationships during early adolescence and early adolescents' orientation toward parents and peers. A sample of 1,771 children completed self-report questionnaires during the spring of their 6th and 7th grades. As predicted, early adolescents who believed their parents asserted and did not relax their power and restrictiveness were higher in an extreme form of peer orientation. Also as predicted, those who perceived few opportunities to be involved in decision making, as well as no increase in these opportunities, were higher in both extreme peer orientation and peer advice seeking. Discussion focuses on the importance for parent–child relationships to adjust to early adolescents' changing developmental needs, as well as the implications of early adolescent peer orientation for later development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Effect size is becoming an increasingly popular measure of the importance of an effect, both in individual studies and in meta-analyses. However, a large effect size is not the only way to demonstrate that an effect is important. This article describes 2 alternative methodological strategies, in which importance is a function of how minimal a manipulation of the independent variable or how difficult-to-influence a dependent variable will still produce an effect. These methodologies demonstrate the importance of an independent variable or psychological process, even though they often yield effects that are small in statistical terms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article considers scientific evidence relevant to 4 claims that are often made about the findings of research that has compared the sexes. These claims are that the sex-related differences demonstrated by empirical research are small, unusually unstable across studies, very often artifactual, and inconsistent with the content of gender stereotypes. The empirical status of these claims has been seriously weakened by the findings of numerous quantitative syntheses of research that have compared female and male behavior. This weakening of the evidence has jeopardized the feminist political agenda of using empirical research to disconfirm gender stereotypes to raise women's status. Consequently, comparing the sexes has become increasingly controversial among psychologists. To deal responsibly with the issues that have been raised, psychologists should consider the role that their research plays in discourse on the status of women in society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Developments are discussed that shaped the conceptualization of the psychology of rumor. In the period just after World War II, G. W. Allport and L. Postman (1947) postulated that the occurrence of rumors will vary according to an incident's thematic importance and the amount of ambiguity inherent in a given situation. Although never empirically validated, that basic proposition until recently was widely accepted. Recent work now suggests that rumor generation and transmission result from an optimal combination of personal anxiety, general uncertainty, credulity, and outcome-relevant involvement. General implications of the proposed conceptualization for rumor control are raised. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Increasing emphasis has been placed on the use of effect size reporting in the analysis of social science data. Nonetheless, the use of effect size reporting remains inconsistent, and interpretation of effect size estimates continues to be confused. Researchers are presented with numerous effect sizes estimate options, not all of which are appropriate for every research question. Clinicians also may have little guidance in the interpretation of effect sizes relevant for clinical practice. The current article provides a primer of effect size estimates for the social sciences. Common effect sizes estimates, their use, and interpretations are presented as a guide for researchers.
Examines the relation between part-time employment and adolescent development in a heterogeneous sample of approximately 4,000 15–18-yr-olds. Long work hours during the school year are associated with lower investment and performance in school, greater psychological and somatic distress, drug and alcohol use, delinquency, and autonomy from parents. Workers do not have any advantages over nonworkers in self-reliance, work orientation, or self-esteem. The negative correlates of school-year employment are closely linked to the number of hours worked each week and generally cut across ethnic, socioeconomic, and age groups; in no subsample are the correlates of extensive employment positive. The findings suggest that parents, educational practitioners, and policy makers should continue to monitor the number of weekly hours adolescents work during the school year. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Supports J. Cohen's (see record
1995-12080-001) observations regarding the widespread abuse of null hypothesis significance testing and its deleterious consequences for knowledge development. The need to change the graduate training curriculum regarding the value of replication is also addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article has 4 purposes. First, some of the criticisms of contemporary practice regarding the use of statistical tests are reviewed briefly; these concerns have been reflected in a series of articles in the
American Psychologist and in the appointment of an American Psychological Association (APA) Task Force on Statistical Inference, which will consider recommendations for improving the use of statistical significance tests. Second, a brief overview of effect indices is presented. Third, related practices within 7 volumes of an APA division journal,
School Psychology Quarterly, are reviewed; it was found that some contemporary authors continue to use and interpret statistical significance tests inappropriately. Fourth, suggestions for improved practice are briefly explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article is addressed primarily to new researchers who feel burdened by an expanding body of ethical rules and regulations. Moral dilemmas proliferate as researchers try to strike a balance between ethical accountability and the technical demands of scientific practices. The challenge is to expand existing knowledge and abide by an evolving social contract that is responsive to current ethical sensitivities. This article illustrates dilemmas faced by researchers, examines some of the events leading up to the present situation and shows how researchers might exploit this situation, so that science and society can both benefit. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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