Understanding Language Change
Abstract
How and why do language changes begin; how and why do they spread; and how can they ultimately be explained? This new textbook sets out to answer these questions in a clear and helpful way which will be accessible to all students with an elementary knowledge of linguistics. In the first half of the book Dr McMahon analyses changes from every area of grammar. In the second she addresses recent developments in socio-historical linguistics, and looks at such topics as language contact, linguistic variation, pidgins and creoles, and language death. Throughout the discussion is illustrated by a wealth of examples from English and other languages. Understanding Language Change will be welcomed by students as a follow-up to such introductory books as Jean Aitchison's Language Change: Progress or Decay?, also published by Cambridge University Press.
... According to McMahon (1994, p. 213), this process occurs in situations of widespread and stable bilingualism where the languages involved are perceived as socially equal. Wiemer (2020, p. 278) notes that convergence is common in "transitional zones" and "border regions," creating what is known as a "linguistic area" or Sprachbund (McMahon, 1994). In extreme cases, the merging of patterns from different varieties can lead to the creation of a new standard variety of the language, starting with the introduction of shared features, particularly syntactic and morphological ones, across different languages, resulting in sub-dialects that mix the two (McMahon, 1994). ...
... Wiemer (2020, p. 278) notes that convergence is common in "transitional zones" and "border regions," creating what is known as a "linguistic area" or Sprachbund (McMahon, 1994). In extreme cases, the merging of patterns from different varieties can lead to the creation of a new standard variety of the language, starting with the introduction of shared features, particularly syntactic and morphological ones, across different languages, resulting in sub-dialects that mix the two (McMahon, 1994). Convergence often leads to the structural similarity of two languages while they retain separate lexical items (McMahon, 1994). ...
... In extreme cases, the merging of patterns from different varieties can lead to the creation of a new standard variety of the language, starting with the introduction of shared features, particularly syntactic and morphological ones, across different languages, resulting in sub-dialects that mix the two (McMahon, 1994). Convergence often leads to the structural similarity of two languages while they retain separate lexical items (McMahon, 1994). Examples of this phenomenon include the Eastern European Sprachbund, where many Slavic dialects have merged syntactically and morphologically due to geographical proximity, particularly in border regions between Belarus and Ukraine or Czechia and Poland. ...
The report focuses on geolinguistics, a subdiscipline of language contact that examines the relationship between language use, language contact, and geography. By exploring the forces and mechanisms leading to shared linguistic features in specific regions, the study highlights the role of geographical proximity in fostering bilingualism and contact-induced changes. Key concepts such as convergence and borrowing are defined and contextualised. Overall, the report provides a comprehensive overview of how languages influence each other through processes such as loanwords, calques, loan shifts, and fake loans.
... The literature lists a number of semantic relation types, which form the basis for semantic change or shift (Lyons, 1963;McMahon, 1994;Geeraerts, 1997;Durkin, 2009;Murphy, 2010;Newman, 2016). For our coding, we wanted to include as many relations as possible, meanwhile keeping a system that was representative as well as possible to handle by the phylogenetic comparative model. ...
... We used both linguistic and database-related sources for establishing a semantic relations matrix. For establishing our main types, we used comparative linguistic observations of frequent semantic relations occurring in semantic change, based on the sources (Bloomfield, 1933;Hock, 1991;McMahon, 1994;Campbell, 2013). Further, we used the WordNet corpus (version 3.1) to define and motivate the coding (Fellbaum, 1998). ...
Introduction
The directionality of semantic change is problematic in traditional comparative models of language reconstruction. Compared to, e.g., phonological and morphological change, the directions of meaning change over time are potentially endless and difficult to reconstruct. The current paper attempts to reconstruct the mechanisms of lexical meaning change by a quantitative model. We use a data set of 104 core concepts in 160 Eurasian languages from several families, which are coded for colexification as well as cognacy, including semantic change of lexemes in etymologies. In addition, the various meanings are coded for semantic relation to the core concept, including relations such as metaphor, metonymy, generalization, specialization, holonymy, and meronymy. Further, concepts are coded into classes and semantic properties, including factors such as animacy, count/mass, concrete/abstract, or cultural connotations, such as taboo/non-taboo.
Methodology
We use a phylogenetic comparative model to reconstruct the probability of presence at hidden nodes of different colexifying meanings inside etymological trees. We find that these reconstructions come close to meaning reconstructions based on the comparative method. By means of the phylogenetic reconstructions, we measure the evolutionary dynamics of meaning loss of co-lexifying meanings as well as concepts.
Results and discussion
These change rates are highly varying, from almost complete stability to complete unstability. Change rates vary between different semantic classes, where for instance wild animals have low change rates and domestic animals and implements have high change rates. We find a negative correlation between taboo animals and change rate, i.e., taboo animals have lower change rates than non-taboo words. Further, we find a negative correlation between animacy and change rate, indicating that animate nouns have lower change rate than inanimate nouns. A further result is a negative correlation between change rate and degree of borrowing (borrowability) of concepts, indicating that lexemes that are more likely to be borrowed are less likely to change semantically. Among semantic relations, we find that metonomy is more frequent than any other change, including metaphor, and that a change from general to more specific is in all cases more frequent than the other way round.
... In linguistic adaptation, the adoption of linguistic features by one language from another, or both languages, can take various forms: adjusting language rules or sounds, replacing language elements through borrowing, and the occurrence of code-switching and codemixing (Mahsun, 2006;Mahsun et al., 2012). A similar concept to linguistic adaptation is commonly known as language change (Chaer & Agustina, 2004;Crystal, 1987;Labov, 1994;McMahon, 1994). Language change also encompasses the discussion of how individuals or groups modify their language across various linguistic levels, such as changes in phonetics, morphology, syntax, and semantics, as well as borrowing between different languages (Haviland, 1999). ...
... Therefore, the terms "linguistic adaptation" and "language change" in the context of this research essentially refer to the same thing. The concept of language change has been modified into the term "linguistic adaptation" (Chaer & Agustina, 2004;Crystal, 1987;Labov, 1994;Mahsun, 2006;Mahsun et al., 2012;McMahon, 1994). Linguistic adaptation and language change are discussed in relation to phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary borrowing. ...
This research describes the linguistic adaptation of Bali transmigrants on the mainland of Southeast Sulawesi, specifically in relation to phonological, morphological, grammatical, loanword, and language proficiency aspects. To address these issues, data collection methods such as interviews, observations, and surveys were employed. The results of the research indicated that the linguistic adaptation of Bali transmigrants can be observed phonologically, with the disappearance of retroflex sounds /t/ and /d/ among the younger generation. Generally, Bali transmigrants have limited knowledge of standardized Bali vocabulary, as evidenced by imprecise word usage. Morphologically, the formation of words combines Indonesian root forms with Balinese affixes. In terms of syntax, the use of Indonesian sentences is often accompanied by particles such as ji, mi, toh, and ki, along with the distinctive intonation of the local ethnic group. Vocabulary borrowing, particularly related to agriculture, was also commonly observed. Proficiency in colloquial language was more dominant than in formal language. Most participants were unfamiliar with formal Balinese vocabulary.
... The central assumption of this theory is that when speakers of a borrower language borrow lexemes from another, it often applies certain predictable strategies to change the make-up of the borrowed words to fit the system of the recipient language. This is done through loan adaptation, loan integration or loanword notarization, all of which are not done randomly (McMahon, (1994). ...
The purpose of this paper is to account for the semantic changes of Swahili loanwords in Kisukuma language. The reason behind this analysis is that the existing studies have touched this topic not deeply, hence offering curtailed explanations of the phenomenon. Cognitive Grammar and Assimilation theory were used as the basis of analysis in the study. The former assumes that lexemes are not stable, thus they can have both core and peripheral senses while the latter assumes that the two different elements tend to get assimilated into the related elements. The study used a case study design whereby Sukuma language was the case. Four Sukuma informants from Ngudu District in Mwanza Region, Tanzania were selected purposively as they speak Kisukuma fluently. Then, fifty Swahili lexemes loaned to Kisukuma were collected. Semi-structured interviews, observations, introspection and critical documentary analysis were used as instruments for data. The study revealed that the Swahili loanwords in Kisukuma have undergone semantic changes technically known as generalization, specialization and shifting. Based on the findings, the study provided certain conclusions and corresponding recommendations.
... It is well known that the meaning of words may change over time, and taboo and slang words are particularly susceptible to such changes (i.e., they change their meanings more frequently) [13]. Therefore, any word that is classified today in the RHSD as derogatory or reclaimed could soon be outdated. ...
... Komunikasi kebanyakan mengacu pada berbicara atau menulis. Sederhananya, komunikasi dapat digambarkan sebagai penyampaian pesan atau pertukaran informasi (McMahon, 1994). ...
For students, communicating using English is a common thing. However, it is often difficult for them to develop it, especially when they come from non-English study programs. This makes them feel difficult and then lazy to learn. The problem that then arises is what learning techniques they apply to be willing and proficient in English, and how they apply these learning techniques. This study aims to: (i) examine the learning techniques used by STAI Ma'arif Magetan students in learning languages. English (ii) Exploring how these learning techniques are applied in communicating in English by STAI Ma'arif Magetan students. This research is a qualitativeresearch in the form of a case study. The results of this study indicate that (i) the students of STAI Ma'arif Magetan apply three techniques to improve their communication skills in English, namely effective production technique, comprehension reaction technique, and reinforcing comprehension technique. (ii) Every technique used by students to become proficient in communicating English, is applied in certain ways, namely translating, getting help, using gestures, using synonyms, using notes, translating, using sources, using notes, and translating using personal estimates. This research was studied using.
... Indeed, it has been one of the most discussed topics in general linguistics in the last century, particularly in the American descriptivist tradition (Blevis 2009: 2;Bloomfield 1933: 275). A vast literature demonstrates analogical processes in the world's languages, mainly in the Indo-European family (Kuryłowicz 1947;Anderson and Jones 1974;McMahon 1994;Hopper and Traugott 2003). Analogical change is most conspicuous in morphology, but it operates in phonology and syntax as well. ...
... Заключение. Ведущая идеяобращение к моделированию языковой способности 9 McMahon April M.S. Understanding language change. -Cambridge, 2019.S-17. ...
Семантические парадигмы в контексте лингвистики имеют большое значение для изучения языка. Для данной цели применяют различные подходы (способы, методы), как историко-философский, сочетающий в себе исторические факты развития и размышления известных ученых. На сегодня ни один из подходов не является наиболее эффективным, поэтому проблематика данного вопроса также является актуальной. При регулярных исследованиях можно выявить различные закономерности, показатели и важные особенности, что может стать основой для более глубокого изучения темы.
... We adopt the established definition of polysemy as a one-to-many form-meaning mapping that comes about via changes on the meaning side. The key criterion here is historical relatedness (Leech, 1974;McMahon, 1994). This contrasts with the phenomenon of homophony (e.g., steak vs. stake), which results from changes on the form side (see Valera, 2020, for a more recent discussion). ...
... Gulf War is a war name which is a compound of two nouns. McMahon (1995) points out that Hughes who refers to the development of English political vocabulary due to the change in its principles from "the commands of kings… to the discussion and persuasion of elected governments" such as (Eurozone). Eurozone is a clipping noun from two nouns which are (Europe) and (Zone), Eurozone refers to the countries that are using euro (Oxford English Dictionary, 2018). ...
Almost all political vocabularies were neologisms. The present study aimed to show the importance of neologisms in political language. Neologisms are considered as the essential part of everyday speech. So, the main goal is to show the reasons behind the creation of neologisms that have gained new senses through political, social, economic and cultural changes in society. It points out the influence of political life upon culture and how culture helps politicians in producing political neologisms. The study analyses these neologisms in order to give more understanding information about them. The study concludes that people who work in the political field use neologisms to give a hidden message or to refer to the opposite of what they mean. الصة ُ الخ تلك أهمية بيان ِ ل هدف َ ت الحالية اسة فالدر لذا ستحدثة. ُ م السياسية المفردات جميع فأن األغلب على السياسي, الخطاب في ً مهما ً جزءا اللغوية المستحدثات عد ُ ت حيث السياسية. اللغة في المستحدثات اللغوي المستحدثات تكوين اء ور األسباب سيوضح االساسي فالهدف لذلك جديدة معاني تكتسب التي و ة دور عن فضال المجتمع. في الثقافية و االقتصادية و االجتماعية و السياسية ات التغير خالل من إنتاج على السياسي المجال في العاملين ساعد ُ ت الثقافة فأن السياسية الحياة في المستحدثات تح على العمل الحالية اسة الدر تحاول السياسية. المستحدثات بشكل مفهومة لتكون المستحدثات ليل المستحدثات ان إلى شير ُ ت التي االستنتاجات من لعدد توصلت اسة الدر فإن سبق لما وكنتيجة اضح. و ما عكس إلى ة للإلشار او معينة رسالة إليصال السياسي المجال في العاملين قبل من ستخدم ُ ت اللغوية يعنون. 702 ـة ــ ــ التربيـ ـة ـ ــ ـ ــ كليـ ـة ـ ــ ــ ـ ـ مجل العدد السابع الثالثون و الثاني تشرين الثاني/ الجزء / 2019
... In the case of competition between regular and irregular verbs this is a reasonable assumption, due to the factors favouring one over the other likely being cognitive or linguistic in origin. By contrast, social pressures like prestige, taboo, or language contact (Hernández-Campoy and Conde-Silvestre 2012 ;Labov 2001;McMahon 1994) are inherently time-dependent, and we may expect the selection strength in particular to change over time. Here, we investigate this possibility in the context of a purposeful change made by a regulating institution through prescriptive grammar and spelling rules (Anderwald 2012;Rubin et al. 2013), the acceptance or rejection of which we expect to be reflected by a change in the value of s. ...
Language change is a cultural evolutionary process in which variants of linguistic variables change in frequency through processes analogous to mutation, selection and genetic drift. In this work, we apply a recently-introduced method to corpus data to quantify the strength of selection in specific instances of historical language change. We first demonstrate, in the context of English irregular verbs, that this method is more reliable and interpretable than similar methods that have previously been applied. We further extend this study to demonstrate that a bias towards phonological simplicity overrides that favouring grammatical simplicity when these are in conflict. Finally, with reference to Spanish spelling reforms, we show that the method can also detect points in time at which selection strengths change, a feature that is generically expected for socially-motivated language change. Together, these results indicate how hypotheses for mechanisms of language change can be tested quantitatively using historical corpus data.
... Fennáll persze a lehetősége annak, hogy a folyamat megtorpan vagy felgyorsul, elhajolva a berajzolt trendvonalaktól. A nyelvi változásokra jellemző dinamikát szigmoid függvénnyel (S-görbe) szokták ábrázolni, ami lassú indulás után felgyorsuló középső szakaszra, majd lassuló lecsengésre utal (Weinreich-Labov-Herzog 1968;Aitchison 1991Aitchison /2001Blythe-Croft 2012;McMahon 1994;Górski-Eder 2023). A 4. ábra szinte egyenes vonalvezetése azt sejteti, hogy a változás az S-görbe meredeken emelkedő középső szakaszába lépett. ...
... It has been argued that languages evolve to avoid structured ambiguity by eliminating homonyms with related meanings. For example, Gilliéron (1902Gilliéron ( -1910 points out that in one French dialect, the word for pheasant (faisan) replaced the word for rooster (gat), which had grown identical to the word for cat (also gat; as cited in McMahon, 1994). ...
The form of a word sometimes conveys semantic information. For example, the iconic word gurgle sounds like what it means, and busy is easy to identify as an English adjective because it ends in -y. Such links between form and meaning matter because they help people learn and use language. But gurgle also sounds like gargle and burble, and the -y in busy is morphologically and etymologically unrelated to the -y in crazy and watery. Whatever processing effects gurgle and busy have in common likely stem not from iconic, morphological, or etymological relationships but from systematicity more broadly: the phenomenon whereby semantically related words share a phonological or orthographic feature. In this review, we evaluate corpus evidence that spoken languages are systematic (even when controlling for iconicity, morphology, and etymology) and experimental evidence that systematicity impacts word processing (even in lieu of iconic, morphological, and etymological relationships). We conclude by drawing attention to the relationship between systematicity and low-frequency words and, consequently, the role that systematicity plays in natural language processing.
... Greenberg (1978) tried to explain the origin of gender, too. Aitchison (1987), McMahon (1994) and Aikhenvald (2000), among many others, had put great efforts to find out reasoning and explanation for the gender system in languages. They tried to explain the processing of gender in comprehension and explain how to use content to turn it into form. ...
Scottish pronunciation results from the interaction among different language varieties: Scots and Scottish English. The pronunciation of Scots and Scottish English is characterised by the fact that vowels that once were long retain their length in certain phonetic environments. This characteristic can be explained by two sets of changes between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries: (i) the Great Vowel Shift, as it affected speakers in Scotland and northern England, and (ii) the Scottish Vowel Length Rule. The Great Vowel Shift reduced the reliance on contrasts between long and short vowels to distinguish the meanings of words. Long vowels were then shortened. The Scottish Vowel Length Rule explains the phonetic environments in which vowel length was not shortened and some of the variations in vowel pronunciation in present‐day Scottish dialects.
Sestavek se iz splošnih izhodišč, ki zadevajo razumevanje jezikovnih sprememb, osredotoča na semantična in razčlenjuje različne notranje- in zunajjezikovne vidike njihovega nastanka. Potem preide v definicije novih besed, kakor se kažejo v različnih tujih in domačih leksikografskih in jezikoslovnih priročnikih in literaturi. Sledi pregled literature o novih besedah v slovenskem jezikoslovju. Posebna pozornost je namenjena njihovi obravnavi v slovenskih slovarjih. To splošno teoretično obravnavo dopolnjuje konkretna razčlenitev besedotvornih značilnosti novih besed s stališča izvora morfemskih delov. Pri izpeljevanju so mogoče vse kombinacije: 1. k domači osnovi se dodaja domače priponsko obrazilo (ustvarljiv, častnica) ali prevzeto (lučkar, ognjiščar); 2. k prevzeti osnovi se dodaja prevzeto priponsko obrazilo (golfist, surfist), 3. k prevzeti osnovi se doda domače priponsko obrazilo (babysitterka, mafijec). Pri drugi besedotvorni vrsti, sestavljanju, se kaže posebna produktivnost določenih predpon pri posamezni besedni vrsti, na primer predpona do- pri glagolu (doformulirati, dooblikovati) in po- pri pridevniku (posmučarski, pobolnišničen). Tudi pri zloženkah se pojavljajo vse možnosti kombiniranja morfemskih delov glede na izvor. Posebno pogoste so nove zloženke s prvim delom avto, bio, eko, samo. Besedotvorne vrste, ki jih ima v zavesti vsak govoreči, vsebujejo neomejene možnosti nastajanja novih besed. Produktivna je tudi nova besednovrstna vloga že uveljavljenih besed, zlasti oblikovanje prislovov, ki so izpeljani iz pridevnikov. Sestavek se konča z obravnavanjem novih besed v procesu gramatikalizacije, to je umeščanja novih besed v slovnični sistem, s čimer besede vstopajo v postopek pridobivanja predvidljivih in vzorčno tipiziranih slovničnih lastnosti. Pri tem obstaja možnost, da nove besede ob včlenjevanju v leksikalni in slovnični sistem odstopajo od regularnih jezikovnih zakonitosti (pomelo : pomel, aromaterapija : aromoterapija, Windows : Windowsi). Nove besede so tako z več vidikov razmeroma neustaljena, a stališča poimenovalne moči relevantna kategorija leksike, iz katere se napaja jedrni del določenega jezika. Hkrati je v njih mogoče opazovati različne kulturne vplive, zato so tudi pomemben vir za sociolingvistične študije.
Whether a committed reader or not, it is clear that the English language has evolved throughout the years into many different nuances. What is considered acceptable in terms of written form has been adjusted to match cultural, regional, and on a macroscopic scale, temporal changes. This paper explores these changes through innovative analysis of semantics, lexicology, syntax, and context, (to be referred to as Linguistic Patterns), analyzing data and deriving conclusions. It is apparent that there are noticeable differences in the corpora of a 16th-century author to a contemporary one. The most accessible examples of such changes are spotted in written works, whether poetry, books, or documents, as they provide valuable insight into the analysis of change. The methodology incorporates pre-existing and specifically trained models specialized in data analysis to understand and compile these changes. This study showcases the evolution of the English language interpreted by Machine Learning (ML) models and methods such as Natural Language Understanding (NLU). By feeding data, specifically written works, into such models with the foresight of expecting a wide range of differing results and analyzing the changes through the scope of time, this study showcases the change of Linguistic Patterns. The decision between model preference and proficiency is made by comparing the quality of data outputs, and systematically evaluating different model archetypes, such as Generative Pre-training Transformers (GPT) or Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT). The evaluation of changes in linguistic patterns is quantifiable through statistical measures, embeddings and syntactic parsing scores. Through these steps, this study derives that the English language has experienced a robust alteration in its core, from the elimination of now-considered archaic lexicology, differences in structural and contextual cues as well as notable evolution in semantics. These findings can be utilized in historical linguistic analysis and education, as well as improving Natural Language Understanding.
Combined Manifestations in A Patıent with Covıd-19: Clinical Presentation and Management; Case Report.
Language change is a process in which a language changes due to changes in the structure of its linguistic elements. This happens because there are factors that trigger language changes, and of course one of the factors is also due to the development of the times. This research aims to analyze language change that is sound change and differences in meaning. This research was done by interviewing parents and one of our friends. It uses a qualitative research method that analyzes several related Google journals and sources. The research results show that sound change and differences in meaning are parts of language change. The development of the times affects the change of language. In the family, it should be used in a polite tone so that it can be well received. The difference in meaning between the past and now is very different. For example, in the family environment, disagreements often occur between parents and children due to changing times. A child's intentions are often not heard and denied by parents, and vice versa.
การศึกษานี้เป็นการทดลองวิจัยภาคสนามผ่านเทคโนโลยีสื่อสารออนไลน์เนื่องจากปัญหาการแพร่ระบาดโรคโควิด - 19 โดยใช้แบบสอบถามหรือสัมภาษณ์ออนไลน์ บันทึกการสนทนา นำมาวิเคราะห์ 2 ส่วน คือ 1) การสร้างพื้นที่การสื่อสารและบันทึกผ่านสื่อสังคมออนไลน์ 2) ถ้อยคำปฏิเสธในภาษาถิ่นโคราช
ผลการศึกษาพบว่า การวิจัยภาษาศาสตร์ภาคสนามยังควรเป็นการลงพื้นที่จริงนอกจากปัญหาเรื่องอุปกรณ์การสื่อสารและทักษะการใช้อุปกรณ์แล้ว ยังไม่อาจเข้าถึงข้อมูลเชิงลึกบางแง่มุมได้ เช่น การศึกษาภาษาจำกัดในกลุ่มของนักเรียน นักศึกษา ผู้การศึกษาสูงและมีรายได้สูงเท่านั้น แต่ภาษากลุ่มชนชั้นล่างที่มีแนวโน้มใช้ภาษาถิ่นในชีวิตประจำวันมากเข้าถึงได้ยาก
ข้อมูลถ้อยคำปฏิเสธในภาษาถิ่นโคราช พบว่า ภาษาถิ่นโคราชมีการปนภาษาระหว่างภาษาถิ่นอีสาน (ภาษาลาว) ภาษาไทยมาตรฐาน และมีคำอนุภาคภาษาเขมร คือ “เด่” โดยศึกษาผ่านแบบสอบถามและสัมภาษณ์ผ่านสื่อออนไลน์จำนวน 35 คน โดยใช้คำถามเชิงเรื่องเล่า (Narrative) 10 คำถาม มีคำตอบที่ใช้ได้ 330 คำตอบ ปรากฏคำปฏิเสธภาษาถิ่น เช่น ‘หึ’ พร้อมรูปแปร 44 ครั้ง (13. 33%) คำช่วยกริยาบ่งความปฏิเสธ ‘มิ’ 108 ครั้ง (32.73%) โดย ‘มิ’ ร่วมกับ ‘แม่น’ เพียง 1 ครั้ง มีการใช้ ‘ไม่’ ศัพท์ภาษาไทยมาตรฐานแทน ‘มิ’ 23 ครั้ง (6.97%) มีการใช้ศัพท์ภาษาลาว ‘บ่’ 12 ครั้ง (3.64 %) คำปฏิเสธ ‘ต่าว’ ปรากฏ 4 ครั้ง ไม่พบการใช้คำว่า ‘เปล่า’ คำปฏิเสธสำคัญของภาษาถิ่นโคราช คือ ‘จั๊ก’ มีรูปแปรต่าง ๆ 63 ครั้ง (19.09 %) ปรากฏร่วมกับคำว่า ‘เด่’ หน่วยอนุภาคในภาษาเขมร 24 ครั้ง (7.27%) แหล่ว/แล้ว 50 ครั้ง (15.15%) ดอก/ด็อก 30 ครั้ง (9.09%) มีคำสั่งเชิงปฏิเสธคำเดียวกับภาษาไทยมาตรฐาน คือ “อย่า” 20 ครั้ง (6.36%) และพบรูปแบบการปฏิเสธอื่น ๆ
คำสำคัญ: วิจัยภาษาศาสตร์ภาคสนาม, สื่อออนไลน์, โรคระบาดโควิด -19, ภาษาถิ่นโคราช
This is an experiment on Linguistic field study via online communication technology due to the COVID-19 pandemic, using social media, online questionnaires, or online interviews record. Two parts were analyzed: 1) creating a virtual communication space recording via social media 2) negation in Khorat dialect. The results showed that Field linguistics research should still be field based despite communication device and device skills issues. Some aspects of deeper insights are not yet accessible; for instance, it limited on adult students, college students, highly educated and high-income people, but the language of the lower classes who tend to use dialects daily is difficult to access.
Negation in Khorat dialect revealed that Khorat dialect is a mixed language between the Isan dialect (Lao), standard Thai language, and Khmer particle such as ‘de’. The study was conducted through questionnaires and online interviews with 35 participants by10 narrative questions, 350 total answers. Khorat dialect’s negative markers such as [hɨ̀], along with its variations totally 44 times, representing 13.33%. The negative auxiliary verb 'mi' appeared 108 times (32.73%), with only one collocation with the word [mɛ̂n] meaning 'yes'. While the standard Thai term 'mâj' is used instead of ‘mi’ appears 23 times (6.97%), and 'bɔ̀' is a Lao word 12 times (3.64 %). In addition, the negation word 'tàːw' with the same meaning and usage as the word 'plàːw' in Standard Thai appeared 4 times (1.21%) and the word 'plàːw' was not found at all. The significant negation term of Khorat dialect is [tɕák] ‘don’t know’with its variations appearing 63 times (19.09 %), often with ‘dĕ’ 24 times (7.27%), the Khmer negative particle, with ‘lɛ̀w’ 50 times (15.15%), and with ‘dɔk’ 30 times (9.09%). Moreover, there are the negative markers expressing imperative mode as the standard Thai, ‘jàː’ for 20 times (6.36%), and there were also other forms of denial.
Key Words: Field Linguistics Research, Online Media, COVID-19 Pandemic, Khorat Dialect
Throughout the long history of Classic Maya hieroglyphs, a logosyllabic writing system used from the late first millennium BCE through the mid‐second millennium CE in southern Mesoamerica, the most commonly recorded phonetic value was the syllable u (/ʔu/). With over a dozen different u hieroglyphs, Classic Maya scribes had more options for recording /ʔu/ than any other syllable or logograph. Cognitive approaches to writing systems typically attribute graphemic variation (i.e., alternation between signs with equivalent linguistic value) to semantic differences like animacy or to non‐linguistic factors like identity. Distribution of Classic Maya u hieroglyphs, however, suggests that morphosyntactic context influenced which grapheme scribes wrote and when. This case suggests that scribal knowledge of Classic Maya hieroglyphs included ideas about writing's relationship to language. It also highlights the cognitive relevance of morphosyntax for a writing system's users as they differentiate among graphic signs with identical linguistic denotation.
This study examines a diachronic language shift in the realm of meaning construction through lexemes in the print media discourse of Pakistan based on the approach of corpus-assisted critical discourse analysis henceforth (CDA). The aim of this study is to investigate how the meanings of certain words evolve over time, potentially influencing cognitive patterns at a broader socio-political level. An integrated theoretical framework is developed, drawing on Fairclough's 3D model of CDA (1995) and utilizing the corpus tool Sketch Engine to conduct a comprehensive analysis of semantic shifts in speeches delivered by former Prime Minister, Imran Khan from the period 2011-2022 to investigate how a word changes its meaning over time that may influence the mental models of individuals. A mixed-methods approach is employed to identify semantic transformation in Khan's political speeches by examining how strategic language impacts on audience reception. To meet the objectives of this study frequency analysis, concordance lines, and Keynes are examined through the lens of corpus-assisted CDA to insights into significant diachronic semantic changes within Pakistani context. Findings reveal that Imran Khan intentionally employed specific lexical features, including the frequent use of key terms such as Pakistan, Country, People, Rally, Corruption, Kashmir, Opposition and Islamophobia with profound contextualization in his political discourse for showing his strong engagement with audiences on a global stage. However, this study concludes that the key tools of Sketch Engine such as frequency, concordances and Keynes are the unique quantitative tools offered a testified and valid data by enhancing the accuracy of corpus-assisted CDA in the field of English language.
This paper investigates the phenomenon of borrowing of the kinship terms from one language to another. The languages under inquiry are Punjabi and Urdu in an area where both the languages are spoken as the major languages. It is natural for languages to adopt words from other languages due to their contact with each other.
In recent years, numerous publications on onomatopoeia have discussed this class of words either separately or as a part of a broader class of ideophones. Those focused on onomatopoeia usually provide a language-specific description primarily based on phonological, morphological and/or syntactic characteristics. Semiotically oriented papers generally discuss the nature of onomatopoeia against the background of Saussure’s conception of arbitrariness. What is missing is the representation of onomatopoeia in the main semiotic models. Therefore, this paper outlines the fundamental semiotic models and adapts them to capture the class of onomatopoeia. The paper covers Saussure’s dyadic model of linguistic sign, the triadic models of Peirce and Ogden and Richards, and a cognitive onomasiological model proposed by Horecký. The latter’s advantage is that it is a dynamic model with potential for adaptation to various word-formation processes, including onomatopoeia-formation.
This paper sets out to study the second person–number marking in the (indicative) simple past in the history of European Portuguese, with a particular focus on morphological innovations such as fostes tu, which are considered deviant. These innovations, according to some brief descriptions in the literature (cf. Piel 1989; Williams 1994), are considered a case of morphological change by analogy; however, it remains to be determined whether it is a case of analogical extension or, possibly, leveling that would have resulted in syncretism. Based on data retrieved from private letters from the 16th to the 20th century by almost illiterate authors, we will argue that this innovation results from an analogical extension, motivated by morphological and pragmatic factors.
The paper investigates punctuation rules and their application in Serbian and English, focusing on the examples that comply with different normative solutions in the two languages. The main goal of the research is to compare and contrast the results obtained from a survey done by a group of seventh-grade primary school students. The paper aims to determine how well the respondents apply punctuation rules in Serbian and English, to examine whether there is interference in the application of rules, and to investigate to what extent the detected errors illustrate the tendency of spreading pseudo-norms that violate the orthography of both languages. The results show that the respondents use punctuation marks with more precision in Serbian than in English. The percentage of incorrect answers to each question and the types of errors indicate interference and the creation of hybrid forms that are incorrect in both languages, which represent the creation of pseudo-norms. Furthermore, the results show a greater influence of the application of the rules adopted in the Serbian language on the English language, which can be interpreted by the bigger number of Serbian classes and clearly stated topics within the syllabus of the Serbian language course.
The present paper aims at actualization of the changes in the morphological system of the deep Tamian subdialects belonging to the Livonic dialect, also trying to find out possible reasons and predictions for the developmental processes of those changes in the future.
This study examines loanwords from Hebrew into Arabic in the spoken language of people from Iksal village, in the lower Galilee and Um Al-Fahm city, in the Triangle region in Israel. The current study specifically examines borrowing in spoken language, with a comparison of the current findings with a previous research by Abu Elhija (2017), where the data was taken from online writings on Facebook. The research questions the frequency of loanword items from Hebrew into two rural dialects, the domains that appear with Hebrew loanwords, the phonological representations of the loanwords, and the reasons for these words to be borrowed. The main findings show that more loanwords were found in the spoken corpus than in the social media corpus in Abu Elhija (2017). There are more loanwords in synchronous communication compared to asynchronous. The findings also show that topics like education, employment, and technology had the most extensive loanwords. Moreover, in the case of loanwords used by Arabs in Israel, a word can be considered a loanword regardless of its phonology.
Case marking alignment has been assumed to reflect principles of optimization: dedicated case marking is limited to arguments more in need of disambiguation, and semantically or pragmatically similar arguments are encoded by the same case forms. This view is based on the synchronic properties of the relevant alignment patterns and the cross-linguistic rarity of other logically possible ones, not diachronic phenomena involved in their emergence or cross-linguistic distribution. This paper explores several developmental processes that recurrently give rise to accusative, ergative, and active case marking alignment cross-linguistically, including reanalysis of argument structure, the development of case forms through grammaticalization or phonological reduction, and the extension of an existing case form to novel contexts. These processes appear to be driven by inherent or contextual properties of particular source constructions, independent of principles of optimization in the use of case marking. The synchronic properties of the resulting alignment patterns cannot be taken as evidence for such principles either, because they are due to inheritance (a case form inherits the distribution of particular source elements or developmental processes, which is unrelated to the assumed optimization principles) or residue (a case form becomes restricted to particular arguments as a new form develops for the other arguments, also independently of these principles). These facts call for a source-oriented approach to case marking alignment and recurrent cross-linguistic patterns in general, one where the focus shifts from the synchronic properties of individual patterns to unraveling the effects of several different diachronic phenomena that give rise to individual patterns and shape their cross-linguistic distribution over time.
The evolution of language has developed into a large research field. Two questions are particularly relevant for this strand of research: firstly, how did the human capacity for language emerge? And secondly, which processes of cultural evolution are involved both in the evolution of human language from non-linguistic communication and in the continued evolution of human languages? Much research on language evolution that addresses these two questions is highly compatible with the usage-based approach to language pursued in cognitive linguistics. Focusing on key topics such as comparing human language and animal communication, experimental approaches to language evolution, and evolutionary dynamics in language, this Element gives an overview of the current state-of-the-art of language evolution research and discusses how cognitive linguistics and research on the evolution of language can cross-fertilise each other. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
Writing proficiency is one of the key abilities that students of English as a foreign language must possess. In a variety of social contexts, people frequently make conscious or unconscious linguistic decisions to communicate. This study sought to understand how language registers affect how well writing skills develop in students enrolled in a Language Teaching Training program. This study used a quantitative approach and a pre-experimental design. The study involved applying two pre-test writings, and two post-test writings and eight-session intervention. The templates used to create the written pieces were modified from the Longman Preparation Course for the TOEFL iBT Test (2015). Using the Cambridge University B2 level scoring criteria, the writing samples received scores over 10 points. In this way, 30 students in a program for language teachers created various pieces of writing that showed their knowledge of the subject. The T-test statistical instrument was used to demonstrate the degree of efficacy of language registers in the development of writing skills. It was found out there is a bond between language registers and the development of writing skills. Main findings revealed learners used informal English registers more confidently than formal registers.
The rapid growth of cultural evolutionary science, its expansion into numerous fields, its use of diverse methods, and several conceptual problems have outpaced corollary developments in theory and philosophy of science. This has led to concern, exemplified in results from a recent survey conducted with members of the Cultural Evolution Society, that the field lacks ‘knowledge synthesis’, is poorly supported by ‘theory’, has an ambiguous relation to biological evolution, and uses key terms (e.g. ‘culture’, ‘social learning’, ‘cumulative culture’) in ways that hamper operationalization in models, experiments, and field studies. Though numerous review papers in the field represent and categorize its empirical findings, the field's theoretical challenges receive less critical attention even though challenges of a theoretical or conceptual nature underlie most of the problems identified by Cultural Evolution Society members. Guided by the heterogeneous ‘grand challenges’ emergent in this survey, this paper restates those challenges and adopts an organizational style requisite to discussion of them. The paper's goal is to contribute to increasing conceptual clarity and theoretical discernment around the most pressing challenges facing the field of cultural evolutionary science. It will be of most interest to cultural evolutionary scientists, theoreticians, philosophers of science, and interdisciplinary researchers.
Speaker identity is one of the factors that might play a role in the realisation of sounds. Previous studies have observed that phonetic variations, alongside the formation of speaker’s identity, can index political meaning. This article aims at analysing a politically conditioned variation in rendering the name of the capital of Ukraine. Though the change from ‘Kiev’ to ‘Kyiv’ precedes the beginning of the Russian war in Ukraine, the analysis shows 24 February, 2022 has accelerated the process. Contrary to the general tendency for a language change to manifest first in the spoken mode and then proceed to writing, the findings indicate faster shift from ‘Kiev’ to ‘Kyiv’ in written English.
Long-term contact with English has led to the presence in Guernésiais of a considerable number of lone English-origin lexical items (Jones, 2015). Although the presence of such items was being noted as far back as the nineteenth century, this is the first study to analyse and document them systematically. Using extensive original data, it examines these lexical items in relation to each part of speech and discusses their use in Guernésiais in the broader context of language contact. The study also considers whether, and how, lone English-origin lexical items become assimilated phonologically and morphosyntactically and whether frequency and motivation have a bearing on their usage.
As our society ages, questions concerning the relations between generations gain importance. The quality of human relations depends on the quality of emotion communication, which is a significant part of our daily interactions. Emotion expressions serve not only to communicate how the expresser feels, but also to communicate intentions (whether to approach or retreat) and personality traits (such as dominance, trustworthiness, or friendliness) that influence our decisions regarding whether and how to interact with a person. Emotion Communication by the Aging Face and Body delineates how aging affects emotion communication and person perception by bringing together research across multiple disciplines. Scholars and graduate students in the psychology of aging, affective science, and social gerontology will benefit from this over-view and theoretical framework.
In this chapter, readers learn about processes and mechanisms that are part of language change. We start with defining and elaborating on contexts of language contact, as language contact is the reason for (most) language change. Following that, we zoom in on linguistic factors, for example the influence typological differences between languages may have on language change, and the social factors, such as the intensity of language contact and the attitudes of the involved speakers, and how these factors relate to language change. To then assess and understand the language use of individual speakers, mechanisms such as code-switching, translanguaging, and code-alternation are introduced. Towards the end of this chapter, we discuss effects of language change on various levels of the recipient language and how to distinguish temporal from lasting variation.
The relationship between native lexical items and terms borrowed from other languages has traditionally been understood as one of competition. The Historical Thesaurus has provided modern scholars with the tools to classify vocabulary using componential analysis and to investigate lexical change up and down the semantic hierarchy. This study makes use of vocabulary collected for the Bilingual Thesaurus of Everyday Life in Medieval England, which has been augmented with more general terms and arranged into hyponymic levels. It focuses first on the lexis of Trade to provide a detailed case study, and then draws on work undertaken for the Technical Language and Semantic Shift in Middle English project to present a larger dataset taken from various occupational domains. Results suggest that the relationship between incoming loanwords and native lexis in the Middle English period may be reframed more as one of harmonious co-existence, with the enlarged vocabulary providing the conditions for the early beginnings of lexical standardisation.
In this chapter, we look at a common explanation for morphological change: analogy, or the extension of a pattern from one (set of) words to another. We discuss two types of analogy, proportional analogy, and paradigmatic levelling, and how these have played a role in morphological change in English. The clearest example of analogy in the history of English is change in the strong (or ‘irregular’) verb system, which we chart in some detail. The chapter finishes with an attempt to make generalisations about when analogy may apply, and which direction change may go in. We also look at the effects of word or pattern frequency.
Verb-adjective combinations are multi-word verbs composed of a base verb (e.g. to get, to cut) and an adjective (e.g. clear, short), which behave as single lexemes (Biber et al. 1999). They are the result of interacting factors working as catalysts behind the processes of grammaticalisation and lexicalisation, which prompted the syntactic restructuring of adjacent items and their univerbation since early times (Jespersen 1961; Claridge 2000). These processes were operative especially during the Early Modern English (EModE) period, as demonstrated by Claridge (2000). However, despite the broad base of knowledge obtained to date, no studies have examined the history of verb-adjective combinations during the more recent Late Modern English (LModE) period.
This study aims to fill this gap and to describe the development of verb-adjective combinations and the role performed by internal causes of change like direct formation, syntactic reanalysis, and analogical generalisation in their renewal during the years 1750-1850.
This study is a corpus-based investigation undertaken on the Late Modern English-Old Bailey Corpus (LModE-OBC), which is a corpus covering the years 1750-1850 and compiled by drawing texts from the Proceedings of the Old Bailey, London’s Central Criminal Court. The corpus has been queried with the concordancer WordSmith Tools 6.0.
The analysis reveals that both stability and change characterised verb-adjective combinations during the LModE time. Processes of interferences within the linguistic system driven by analogy worked as language-internal causes of change and prompted the renewal of verb-adjective combinations of the years 1750-1850.
"This article tackles the irregularities of English language and the means of dealing with them. Starting from a short presentation of the history of English language and the way it has evolved throughout time, the present paper aims at understanding the underlying reciprocity of various levels of grammar that generates complexity and irregularity at one level, triggering at the same time changes at another level, having as a result an alteration of the symmetry of forms distribution in grammar. At some point in the process of learning English, students tend to get frustrated because almost no rule in English is straightforward and there are always exceptions to a rule; more than that, it somehow seems that breaking rules in English grammar has become a rule itself. However, in-depth understanding of grammar structures may prove useful for learners in order to master the use of English."
The aim of this research was to describe the reflection of consonant phonemes /b/ and /d/ in Toba Batak language into /p/ and /t/ in Angkola Batak language. The theory used in this paper was the theory of Comparative Historical Linguistics which consists of two views, namely Types of Phonetic Changes and Types of Phonological Processes. The method used by the author was a comparative method between the Toba Batak language and the Angkola Batak language with a focused on the phoneme changes /b/ to /p/ and /d/ to /t/ in both languages. Based on the analysis described in the discussion chapter, it can be concluded that the consonant reflection phonemes /b/ and /d/ in Toba Batak language undergo linear changed to /p/ and /t/ in Angkola Batak language in the initial, middle and final positions. The changing included b > p and d > t, the changed occured consistently in the initial, middle and the final positions
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