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Study on the EU's list of Critical Raw Materials (2020) Non-Critical Raw Materials Factsheets
... The European Commission on Raw Materials Risk (ECRMR) seeks to reduce reliance on single-supply partners [88], but alternatives such as Tajikistan (contributing 15% to EU imports) pose a potential risk to the supply chain because of political tension in the area [89]. The discovery of antimony deposits in Bolivia introduces a potential new player in the EU's critical raw material (CRM) supply chain [90], and at present, there are no explicit risks for developing economies in the antimony market [88]. While the bismuth supply chain risk is low, the EU is very dependent on a single supplier, China, which currently supplies~63% of the EU demand, so diversification, with Laos and Vietnam being obvious suppliers [88], will also be desirable. ...
This study assesses supply risks for critical raw materials (CRMs) essential to Europe’s thermoelectric (TE) technology, which transforms heat into electricity. Given the EU’s heavy reliance on imports for key materials like tellurium, antimony, bismuth, and lead, the analysis incorporates market forecasting, scarcity quantification, and Monte Carlo simulations to model demand and supply risks. This study reveals that tellurium poses high risks due to scarcity and potential geopolitical impacts, with antimony and bismuth at moderate risk, and lead presenting notable health hazards. The findings suggest the necessity of circular supply chains and material alternatives to mitigate resource, environmental, and geopolitical challenges for sustainable TE development in Europe. Moreover, there is a pressing need to update and expand data availability for materials like tellurium to enable more robust risk assessments in the immediate future.
... The estimated annual EU consumption of natural aggregates, based on the average between 2012 and 2016, is approximately 2105 Mt. Mineral construction materials represent the largest raw material flow in the EU economy [4]. Reducing energy consumption and CO 2 emissions in the concrete industry is a significant challenge nowadays. ...
The application of recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs) has become increasingly popular for different types of structures, as presented in several studies. However, depending on the type of structure and the region, RCAs might have different properties. This study aims to investigate the application of RCAs of different origins for substructure layers of the cycle paths located in Central Europe, which was not analysed previously. Recycled aggregates from an airport, road overpass, and building demolition were tested according to European standards and used to produce concretes, in which compressive strength, density, water absorption, and frost resistance were tested. After 28 days, RCA concrete had compressive strengths from 5.9 to 17.3 MPa and frost resistance ratios close to 1.0. The concrete parameters indicate that RCAs might be used for the construction of cycle path substructural layers with the appropriate class of cement and W/C ratio. To meet the requirements of EN 12390-3 to achieve class C8/10, RCA concrete with CEM II B/V 32.5 should be used with a W/C ratio of 1. To meet the requirements of D-04.05.01v02, RCA concrete with CEM II B/V 32.5 and a W/C ratio smaller than 1.50 should be used. Applying recycled RCAs in various structures helps protect natural resources by reusing materials. However, the variability in RCA properties requires testing to guarantee quality.
... Then, in 2017, twenty-six CRMs were identified starting from 61 with the same methodology. Similarly, in 2020, the study on CRMs was carried out analysing 66 candidates, 30 were identified as critical [14]. Overall, the evolution of these studies supports the idea that, presumably, the number of CRMs will continue to increase in the next years. ...
... Lithium and cobalt belong to the group of Critical Raw Materials (CRMs) as essential elements for the development of strategic sectors such as renewable energy, electric mobility, defense, aerospace, and digital technologies [1]. These two metals, together with Ni and Mn, are an essential component of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). ...
Metals such as nickel, cobalt, lithium, and manganese are widely used in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in electronic devices and electric vehicles. It is forecast that there will be a strong increase in the number of electronic devices and electric vehicles in the coming years. (1) Background: In this paper, the application of ultrasound waves on improving Li, Co, Mn, and Ni leaching efficiency from mixed active cathode materials from different types of LIBs is presented. (2) Methods: Environmentally friendly, low-concentrated (0.75 M) organic acids (oxalic acid, citric acid) and, additionally, sulfuric acid, were used in sonochemical and chemical leaching (stirring process) at a temperature of 60 °C. (3) Results: The results showed significantly higher leaching efficiency of metals with ultrasound-assisted treatment, especially when using organic acids. An average of 50% better leaching results were obtained for Li in oxalic acid (99.6%) and for Co (93.1%) in citric acid during sonochemical leaching. (4) Conclusions: Based on the theory of hydrogen peroxide formation during ultrasound wave transition in solutions, the role of H2O2 as one of the most effective reductants used to enhance cobalt, manganese, and nickel leaching from LIBs is indicated.
... Battery technologies are highlighted in this context, with the EU promoting collaboration with industry to establish a globally competitive and sustainable battery value chain. The EU's focus includes recycling efforts, with directives stating that a significant portion of lithium-ion batteries must be recycled modularly, and elements like Co, Ni, Cu, and Li must be recovered [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]. ...
The demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is driven by environmental concerns and market growth, particularly in the transportation sector. The EU’s push for net-zero emissions and the European Green Deal accentuates the role of battery technologies in sustainable energy supply. Organic acids, like gluconic acid, are explored for the eco-friendly leaching of valuable metals from spent batteries. This study investigates leaching kinetics using gluconic acid (hydrolyzed glucono-1.5-lacton), analyzing factors such as temperature, acid concentration, particle size, and reaction time. Results reveal the temperature’s influence on leaching efficiency for cobalt, nickel, and lithium. The mechanism for Co follows a surface chemical reaction model with an activation energy of 28.2 kJ·mol⁻¹. Nickel, on the contrary, shows a diffusion-controlled regime and an activation energy of 70.1 kJ·mol⁻¹. The reaction of leaching Ni and Co using gluconic acid was determined to be first-order. The process within this environmentally friendly alternative leaching agent shows great potential for sustainable metal recovery.
... Lithium, cobalt, and nickel are also essential for electric vehicles and power storage batteries (Calvo and Valero, 2022). It is always noted that most of these minerals are concentrated in some selected areas of the globe, typically remote, less developed jurisdictions which makes the mineral-based clean energy transition process more intricate (Blengini et al., 2020;Palacios et al., 2018). Important minerals and metals for the energy transition have often been labelled critical materials because of the risks associated with their supply. ...
Purpose
Assessing the supply risk of critical raw materials (CRMs) is crucial for supporting green transition strategies. Combining criticality assessment with life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) helps to link business actions to supply risks. However, these assessments are characterized by a variety in context, scope, and stakeholder influence, as well as a lack of method standardization. Currently, no operational quantitative method applied to LCSA includes diverse stakeholder perspectives.
Methods
This study proposes a novel fit-for-purpose criticality assessment methodology leveraging existing criticality values from the study on CRMs from the European Commission (EC) while considering different stakeholder perspectives. In this research, several sets of characterization factors (CFs) are proposed, in which the values for supply risk and economic importance from the EC study on CRMs are combined in different ways, in some cases also with further parameters such as material prices. The methodology, called CriticS, guides stakeholders in defining the goal and scope, choosing sets of CFs, and operationalizing the assessment using a product’s bill of materials (BoM) or its life cycle inventory (LCI). Specific sets of CFs are tested in a proof-of-concept case study of a laptop by using its BoM and LCI.
Results and discussion
Supply risk and economic importance values were used to create 19 different sets of CFs. All sets of CFs of the CriticS are organized in a decision tree framework, helping stakeholders to select the most appropriate set of CFs that meets their needs. The CFs are linked to elementary flows in the ecoinvent® database, creating an operationalized model. The results of the proof-of-concept study highlight the benefits and the challenges in applying the CriticS methodology. These challenges are discussed, and potential solutions are identified.
Conclusions
The results demonstrated the usefulness of the CriticS method with regard to the selection of the set of CFs using the decision tree, taking into account a given stakeholder’s perspective. Future research should focus on refining the CF-elementary flow links, integrating CriticS into LCA software, and interpreting the results of the CriticS method together with those of life cycle sustainability assessment.
Purpose
When resources are extracted and used by society, they are not necessarily lost for future generations. Therefore, recent publications on impact assessment of abiotic resource use in life cycle assessment focus on a decreased accessibility of resources due to dissipation, rather than depletion. In a previous study, dissipation was defined as a function of the global change in accessible stock due to human actions, and the global amount of the accessible stock, assuming a very long-term time perspective (more than 500 years). In this paper, a short-term time perspective (25 years) is adopted.
Methods
The same generic characterization model is used, but different choices are outlined to derive characterization factors for a short-term perspective (25 years). To illustrate how the short term might be approached, a preliminary set of characterization factors is developed, based on assumptions and estimates.
Results
The problem of resource use is defined as follows: the decrease of accessibility on a global level of primary and/or secondary elements over the short term due to the net result of compromising actions (i.e., emissions, dissipation in the technosphere, occupation in use, and exploration for new stocks). Characterization factors are derived based on assumptions, like the following: the accessible stock is based on present estimates of accessible stocks in the environment and the technosphere; estimates of accessible stocks in the technosphere are based on past extractions and generic recycling rates; all flows that are presently not recycled are assumed to be inaccessible. Finally, weighting between elements and the functions they have for the present society is based on the added value of the economic sector that is affected due to the decreased accessibility.
Discussion and conclusion
A preliminary set of characterization factors is proposed for 55 elements. They assess the impact of the present use of resources on the decreased accessibility in the short term due to emissions and dissipation in the technosphere. However, calculation of impact category scores is still hampered by a lack of appropriate data for dissipative flows in life cycle inventory databases. The presented calculations are based on several simplifications and proxies. A more detailed distinction of dissipative flows and estimates of stocks in the technosphere may be possible based on (dynamic) SFA modelling of elements in different applications. To derive a more mature set of characterization factors, it is recommended to use the presented model as a basis and further elaborate or replace the proxies.
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