RESISTANT STARCH AS FUNCTIONAL FOOD INGREDIENT

Full text

CURRENT TRENDS
IN COMMODITY
SCIENCE
Current Trends in Commodity Science
Food safety and analysis of bioactive substances
EDITOR
Hanna Śmigielska
POZNAŃ 2017

162
RESISTANT STARCH AS FUNCTIONAL FOOD
INGREDIENT
Hanna Śmigielska, Jacek Lewandowicz
Department of Natural Science and Quality Assurance
Faculty of Commodity Sciences , Poznan University of Economics and
Business, Poznan, Poland,
hanna.smigielska@ue.poznan.pl
ABSTARCT: In Europe, functional food usually means a specially designed food
product which show a beneficial, documented impact upon health, which results
from the presence of nutrients traditionally considered as necessary for human body.
The term “functional food” is very broad, because it may include conventional food
products that are naturally rich in components that have beneficial effect on health or
products with such components added. Resistant starch (RS), refers to the fraction of
starch or starch products, that resist digestion in the small intestine, thus reaching the
colon. Therefore resistant starch can be fermented by human gastrointestinal
microbiota, which may result in increased growth of beneficial bacteria. Resistant
starch naturally occurs in variety of food products, but may be also added in form of
different preparations, either isolated from naturally rich sources or manufactured by
physical and/or chemical modification. Because starch products that contain RS
have been consumed by people and animals for thousands of years it can be
considered as safe functional food ingredient.
The paper presents the characteristics of different types of resistant starch and
their role in improvement of the human health. Moreover, the applicability of
resistant starch preparations for thickening of different food products is discussed.
The use of type 4 resistant starch as a thickening agent of semisolid food products
may be particularly effective, as apart from the prebiotic effect, it can positively
influence the texture, rheological properties and colour. Especially preparations
derived from normal potato and waxy corn starch are found useful, due to their
strong texture promoting properties and applicability in food product that are
emulsions and suspensions.
Keywords: resistant starch, thickening properties, prebiotic, functional foods

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INTRODUCTION
Nowadays consumers pay particular attention to the quality and functional
properties of the groceries purchased. The interest in food products with
health-promoting properties arises from increased health and nutrition
awareness of consumers and due to the fact that diet is one of the most
important factors affecting health and mood. Many scientific papers confirm
that defective, deficient or excessive and one-sided nutrition and the lack of
exercise may lead to affluence diseases [Willett et al. 2006]. In the literature
they may be also referred as chronic non-contagious diseases or diet-related
diseases. Therefore, consumers seek for food products that can help to
improve their health condition and prevent such diseases. Hence there is
observable increase of sales and consumption of functional foods. Another
cause of growing interest in the functional food (health-promoting food
products) is changing of the population structure and growing number of
elderly consumers. According to the figures provided in Eurostat’s News
Release [2011] it is forecasted that by 2060, in the European Union, the
number of the entire Community population over the age of 80 will increase
to 14% [Eurostat’s News Release 2011]. Therefore, understanding the needs
and expectations of these customers will be crucial for market success of
functional – health-promoting food products. Nevertheless aging society is
also a opportunity for food manufacturers who, by changing the composition
of their products, can meet these expectations.
The term “functional food” is very broad because it may include
conventional food, naturally rich in components with beneficial health effects
or food with such components added. The definition of functional food has
been set and legally endorsed in the food market of Japan, China, the USA,
and in a number of other countries. In Europe, functional food usually means
“specially designed food products which show a beneficial, documented
impact upon health, which results from the presence in them of nutrients
traditionally considered necessary” [Świderski and Kolanowski 2003].
However, the lack of legal definition of functional food causes a considerable
degree of arbitrariness when placing such food product on the market.

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Functional Food Ingredients Market
High rates of growth of functional food sales are recorded in the developed
countries (approximately 5% per year). In 2012, the value of the market of
this type of food products was estimated at 96 billion USD and had increased
to over 111 billion USD by 2014.
In 2015 the market of functional products in Poland increased by 6.6%
[Euromonitor Int. 2015]. High demand for these products encourages
manufacturers to seek for new solutions and new carriers of bio-active
compounds that can be used in production of new innovative products
enriched with these components. Enrichment with new health-promoting
ingredients may not only increase the market attractiveness of products, but
can also increase manufacturers profits. Therefore specialty food ingredient
market including functional ingredients if estimated to grow at least to 2020
(Fig. 1). Moreover, as one can conclude functional food ingredients
contribute to the majority of the share of specialty food ingredients. This
relationship results from the current trend focusing on designing good tasting,
convenient and nutritionally rich food products. However, the success of this
market strategy is dependent on introduction of new versatile food
ingredients. Among the ingredients are resistant starch preparations that aside
form prebiotic effect can exhibit texture promoting properties and may be
used in new generation of functional food products.
Figure 1. Market value of specialty foods ingredients.
Source: [Market Reports 2016]

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Nutritional value of starch
Starch is a plant reserve material, which also serves as a primary source of
calories (50-65%) in human diet (FAO/WHO 1997) due to the fact that it is
easily and quickly digestible source of energy providing 15 kJ/g. However
not all starch fractions are fully digested by human body, which may result in
reduction of its energy value up to 8 kJ/g [Fuentes-Zaragoza et al. 2010;
Lewandowicz, Śmigielska and Le Thanh-Blicharz 2014].
Until the early 90’s of the last century, form the physiological point of
view, starch was previewed only as source of energy. However it has been
found that starch present in different food products is not fully digested by
healthy individuals, which significantly implies its nutritional value. Due to
above, from the nutritional point of view starch fractions were divided into
three categories [Englyst et al. 1982] (Table 1.).:
 Rapidly digested starch (RDS) – hydrolyzed to glucose within 20
minutes,
 Slowly digestible starch (SDS) – hydrolyzed to glucose within 3 hours,
 Resistant starch (RS) – hydrolyzed to glucose in over than 3 hours.
Further development of research regarding digestion of starch lead to
introduction of new category namely [Soral-Śmietana and Wronkowska
2004]:
 Very resistant starch (VRS) – digested for 24 hours or more.
Resistant starch may be defined as fraction of starch or starch products, that
are not enzymatically degraded by α-amylase present in the mouth and small
intestine. (Table 1.). Therefore RS passes through the small intestine intact
and can by fermented by human microbiota in the large intestine, producing
short chain fatty acids (SCFA). Therefore is should be regarded as dietary
fibre, providing approximately 8 kJ/g [Asp 1987]. From the physiological
aspect resistant starch is similar to the soluble forms of dietary fiber
[Śmigielska, Lewandowicz and Le Thanh-Blicharz 2013].
Classification of resistant starch
Not all resistant starches are the same forasmuch they differ in the
mechanism causing the resistance to amylolytic enzymes. Therefore, up to
date five different types of resistant starch has been defined in scientific
literature [Fuentes-Zaragoza et al. 2011; Homayouni et al., 2014, Raigond,
Ezekiel and Raigond 2015; Sullivan et al. 2017].

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 RS1 – inaccessible to digestive enzymes due to the physical barriers
formed by cell walls and protein matrices. Present in bread, seeds and
legumes. RS1 is heat stable in most cooking operations and enables
its use as an ingredient in a wide variety of conventional foods
[Sajilata et al. 2006].
 RS2 – starches that are protected from digestion due to their
crystalline structure. Present in undercooked potatoes and legumes,
banana or in high amylose corn [Dupuis, Liu, and Yada 2014].
 RS3 – represents the most resistant starch fraction and it mainly
consists of retrograded amylose that is formed during cooling of
gelatinized starch. It can found in salads made with pasta and
potatoes. RS3 is of particular interest to the food industry as it offers
the potential for manipulation of processing to enhance the RS
content of foods [Sajilata et al. 2006]. RS3 is entirely resistant to
digestion by pancreatic amylases and heat stable in high temperature
operations of food industry.
 RS4 – chemically modified starch obtained either by crosslinking,
etherisation or esterification. RS4 has novel chemical bonds other
than α-(1-4) or α-(1-6) introduced into starch macromolecule that
hinder the accessibility for amylolytic enzymes. May be present in
food products containing modified starches [Sajilata et al. 2006]
Type 4 resistant starch is of particular interest to food industry, due to
ease of preparation.
 RS5 – two different components have been proposed as RS5 either
amylose–lipid complexes [Fuentes-Zaragoza et al., 2011] (which are
formed during processing or can be created artificially); or resistant
maltodextrin which is processed to purposefully rearrange starch
molecules [Lockyer and Nugent 2017].
Table 1. In vitro digestibility of starch fractions in a variety of food products
Foods
%
RDS
%
SDS
%
RS1
%
RS2
%
RS3
Flour, white
38
59
-
3
traces
Shortbread
56
43
-
-
traces
Bread white
94
4
-
-
2
Bread, whole meal
90
8
-
-
2

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Spaghetti, white
55
36
8
-
1
Biscuits made with 50% raw
banana flour
34
27
-
38
traces
Biscuits made with 50% raw
potato flour
36
29
-
35
traces
Beans, dried, freshly cooked
37
45
11
traces
6
Beans, red kidney, canned
25
-
-
15
60
Source: [BNF 1990], RDS - Rapidly digested starch, SDS - Slowly digestible starch
Explanatory notes: Values are expressed as % of the total starch present in the product
Resistant starch and gut health
Food products that increase the amount of SCFAs in the colon are thought to
be beneficial for health by helping to prevent the development of abnormal
cells in the gut [Fuentes-Zaragoza et al. 2011]. Therefore many animal
studies and some human studies have been conducted to examine the effect
of resistant starch consumption on health. The results have proven that
resistant starch consumption can be linked to a variety of benefits for gut
health and metabolic effects [Evans 2016].
It has been proved that resistant starch can be important factor in the
reduction of risk of chronic cardiometabolic diseases [Bindels, Walter and
Ramer-Tait, 2015]. Resistant starch has digestive and absorptive properties
which may provide health benefit, the physiological effects include increased
satiety [Bodinham et al., 2010; Raben et al., 1994], improved insulin
sensitivity and glycemic control [Keenan et al., 2015; Robertson et al., 2005],
as well as enhanced gut health [Keenan et al., 2015]
Moreover, resistant starch is considered as one of the most abundant
dietary sources (like the non starch sacharides) in promoting large bowel
health and preventing bowel inflammatory diseases (IBD) and colorectal
cancer (CRC) [Topping, Anthony, and Bird 2003; Fuentes-Zaragoza et al.,
2010].
Resistant starch in food technology
Application tests showed that RS may act as texture modifier, imparting a
favorable tenderness to the bread crumb. RS was also incorporated in a
variety of other baked goods, many of which include batter systems, such as
cakes, cake-like muffins, or brownies. The usefulness of RS was also
evaluated in terms of a crisping agent in food products [Sajilata et al 2006].

168
It was found that it can be used as ingredient that improves crispness in foods
where high heat is applied to a product surface during processing (i.e. french
toast, waffles). RS can improve expansion in extruded cereals and snacks or
in dried pasta products. RS may also be used as thickener for opaque health
beverages in which insoluble fiber is desired [Sajilata et al 2006]. However
most of the commercial preparations world widely available, like Hi-maize®
(RS2) and Novelose® (RS3) offered by Ingredion, are mostly applicable to
dry food products already containing starch.
New technology for preparation of RS4
Unfortunately most of resistant starch preparations offered on the market do
not exhibit desired rheological properties required in the food industry [Le
Thanh-Blicharz et al. 2011; Śmigielska, Lewandowicz and Le Thanh-
Blicharz 2013]. Therefore many scientists are developing new technologies
for obtaining resistant starch preparations [Zięba et al. 2010; Wronkowska et
al. 2011; Zięba, Szumny and Kapelko 2011; Wronkowska and Soral-
Śmietana 2012]. Particularly interesting technology was developed in prof.
Wacław Dąbrowski Insitute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology in
Poland for production of acetylated distarch adipate – E 1422 that exhibited
reduced digestibility by about 50% and similar rheological properties to
commercial starch preparations [Le Thanh-Blicharz et al. 2011]. Chemical
composition of preparations synthesized on a basis of starch originating form
different botanical sources is listed in table 2. The use of new type of
crosslinking agent allowed for the reduction of starch digestibility almost by
50%, compared to normal (commercially available) E 1422 preparation.
Unfortunately the medium and highly substituted preparations do not meet
the purity specification of Joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food
additives (JECFA) in reference to maximal adipic group content of 0,135%
[FAO/WHO 1997]. Therefore only low substituted preparations that are
digestible in slightly over 50% may be recommended for the use in food
industry. The modification with new crosslinking agent may be particularly
effective in case of waxy starch varieties as probably higher amount of α-1,6-
glycosidic bonds accounted for lower digestibility of waxy corn starch
compared to normal (common) one. Moreover new waxy starch varieties as
potato and rice have been recently introduced to the market [Lewandowicz
2017].

169
Table 2. Chemical composition of E 1422 type 4 resistant starch preparations
Starch
source
Degree of
substitution
Adipic group
content
[%]
Acetyl group
content
[%]
in vitro
digestibility
[%]
Potato
Low
0.06±0.01
0.11±0.01
52.7±1.1
Medium
0.26±0.09
1.46±0.09
50.5±1.2
High
0.45±0.12
3.33±0.18
48.1±0.5
Corn
Low
0.06±0.01
0.11±0.01
52.0±1.2
Medium
0.23±0.11
0.77±0.14
50.2±1.3
High
0.44±0.13
1.51±0.11
48.4±1.7
Waxy corn
Low
0.08±0.01
0.43±0.13
48.4±0.7
Medium
0.32±0.12
0.67±0.14
45.8±2.7
High
0.55±0.14
0.78±0.11
43.5±2.1
E 1422
Commercial preparation
0.03±0.01
1.21±0.02
93.0±1.2
Source: Le Thanh-Blicharz et al. 2011
Functional properties of new type of RS4
Low substituted preparations of new type of RS4 were evaluated as
thickeners in food systems that may be classified either as emulsion (low fat
mayonnaise) [Lewandowicz, Śmigielska and Le Thanh-Blicharz 2015] or
suspension (tomato ketchup) [Śmigielska, Lewandowicz and Le Thanh-
Blicharz 2013]. It was found that regardless of starch used for thickening,
both types of cold sauces were characterized by similar rheological properties
(Table 3). Therefore new type of RS4 preparations are characterized by
competitive thickening properties, compared to conventional E 1422
preparations. Moreover the use of waxy corn and normal potato variety can
positively influence colour of mentioned cold sauces. In case of tomato
ketchup one can observe increase of value of red colour component and color
score [Śmigielska, Lewandowicz and Le Thanh-Blicharz 2013], whereas in
mayonnaise increase of lightness thus indicating better emulsion
stability[Lewandowicz, Śmigielska and Le Thanh-Blicharz 2015].

170
Table 3. Values of Ostwald de Waele equation parameters describing flow
curves of cold sauces thickened with different types of E 1422 starch.
Type of E 1422
Sauce
Consistency index
[Pa∙sn]
Flow index
[-]
RS4 Potato
Ketchup
21,81
0,3698
Mayonnaise
64,53
0,3703
RS4 Corn
Ketchup
24,18
0,2931
Mayonnaise
21,83
0,3645
RS4 Waxy corn
Ketchup
21,12
0,4326
Mayonnaise
62,49
0,3914
Commercial
preparation
Ketchup
23,27
0,3641
Mayonnaise
51,92
0,4422
Source: Śmigielska, Lewandowicz and Le Thanh-Blicharz 2013; Lewandowicz, Śmigielska
and Le Thanh-Blicharz 2015
The new type of RS4 E 1422 derived from waxy corn and normal potato
starch was also evaluated in terms of being a carrier of micronutrients such as
iron or zinc [Lewandowicz, Śmigielska and Le Thanh-Blicharz 2014]. It was
found that potato RS4 is characterized by high adsorption capacity and can be
used as a carrier of micronutrients in food fortification. Moreover
fortification of this starch preparation with Zn2+ ions has improved colour,
pasting and rheological properties.
CONCLUSIONS
The market of fortified food in the coming years will continue to grow and
adjust to consumer expectations. Therefore food manufactures are now
seeking new solutions that will help them to create new improved fortified
food products. Recently developed technology of obtaining E 1422
preparation that contains 50% of type 4 resistant starch fits into this trend.
This solution is particularly effective because compared to other types of
resistant starches it is characterized by superior rheological properties.
Moreover it has been positively evaluated as thickener for different food
systems (emulsions and suspension) and as a carrier for micronutrients.
Implementation of this preparation to the functional food industry will be
beneficial both for manufacturers and consumers.
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STRESZCZENIE: W Europie funkcjonalna żywność oznacza zazwyczaj specjalnie
zaprojektowany produkt spożywczy, który wykazuje: korzystne, udokumentowane
oddziaływanie na zdrowie, które wynika z obecności składników odżywczych
tradycyjnie uważanych za niezbędne dla ludzkiego organizmu. Określenie "żywność
funkcjonalna" jest bardzo szerokie, ponieważ może zawierać konwencjonalne
produkty spożywcze, które są naturalnie bogate w składniki, które mają korzystny
wpływ na zdrowie lub produkty które mają dodane takie składniki. Termin skrobia
oporna (RS) odnosi się do frakcji skrobi lub produktów skrobiowych, które nie są
trawione w jelicie cienkim, dochodząc w ten sposób do okrężnicy. Dlatego też
skrobia oporna może być fermentowana przez ludzką mikrobiotę żołądkowo-
jelitową, co może prowadzić do wzrostu korzystnych bakterii w świetle jelita.
Skrobia oporna występuje naturalnie w różnych produktach spożywczych, ale może
być również dodawana w postaci różnych preparatów, wyizolowanych z naturalnie
bogatych źródeł lub wytwarzanych fizycznie i/lub chemicznie modyfikowanych.
Ponieważ produkty skrobiowe zawierające skrobię RS są spożywane przez ludzi i
zwierzęta przez tysiące lat, można je uznać za bezpieczny funkcjonalny składnik
żywności.
W artykule przedstawiono charakterystykę różnych typów skrobi opornej oraz
ich rolę w poprawie stanu ludzkiego zdrowia. Ponadto omówiono zastosowanie
preparatów skrobi opornych do zagęszczania różnych produktów spożywczych.
Użycie skrobi opornej typu 4. jako środka zagęszczającego do półstałych produktów
spożywczych może być szczególnie skuteczne, ponieważ poza efektem
prebiotycznym może mieć pozytywny wpływ na teksturę, właściwości reologiczne i
kolor. Zwłaszcza preparaty otrzymane z normalnej skrobi ziemniaczanej i woskowej
skrobi kukurydzianej są przydatne, ze względu na ich silne właściwości
poprawiające teksturę i możliwość stosowania w produktach spożywczych, które są
emulsjami i zawiesinami.
Słowa kluczowe: skrobia oporna, właściwości zagęszczające, prebiotyki, żywność
funkcjonalna.