Digital Archaeology of Death and Burial. Using 3D Reconstruction, Visualization and Simulation to Frame Past Experience

Abstract

In this chapter we demonstrate how 3D digital tools augment the archaeothanatological analysis, and by extension provide new ways of framing past experiences of death and burial. We illustrate our findings with a Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age (2500–1700 BC) archaeological case study from the site of Oostwoud-Tuithoorn, West-Frisia, the Netherlands, in which we integrate the outcomes of a traditional post-excavation archaeothanatological analysis with 3D digital reconstruction and simulation.

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Lnu.se
---- (), ---- ()
Digital Humanities is today an integrated part of humanistic
research at many universities, and initiatives in the eld take a
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currently develops as a cross-disciplinary eld, building on
existing collaborations between faculties in the form of an
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and Applications (DISA), and European collaboration within
the DARIAH-EU network – to mention a few. e papers in
this volume emanate from a conference on Digital Humanities,
arranged and funded by the Faculty of Arts and Humanities
at Linnaeus University on March 12–13, 2020. It is part of
the university’s initiative to implement Digital Humanities
across departments and faculties, with both a scientic and
pedagogical approach, building on competences already present
among its researchers and teachers. Focusing the humanities
as such, this volume contains contributions from the scholarly
elds of Archaeology, History, Library and Information
Science, Linguistics, Comparative Literature, Media and
Communication Studies, E-learning, and the Study of Religions.
It displays a variety of cross-disciplinary connections, new
research questions, and innovative methodological approaches –
all hallmarks of the wide eld of Digital Humanities.
Doing Digital Humanities: Concepts, Approaches, Cases
Joacim Hansson and Jonas Svensson (Eds.)
Doing Digital Humanities
Concepts, Approaches, Cases
Edited by Joacim Hansson and Jonas Svensson
  
Joacim Hansson is professor of
Library and Information Science at
the Department of Cultural Sciences,
Linnaeus University
Jonas Svensson is professor in the Study
of Religions, Department of Cultural
Sciences, Linnaeus University.

Doing Digital Humanities
Concepts, Approaches, Cases
Edited by Joacim Hansson and Jonas Svensson

Doing Digital Humanities: Concepts, Approaches, Cases
Linnaeus University, Växjö, 2020
Cover design: Richard Jansson, Linnaeus University
Cover illustration: Graph based on data from institutional
repository DiVA, representing publication patterns of LNU Arts
and Humanities scholars, made by Prof. Jukka Tyrkkö
ISBN: 978-91-89081-65-9 (print), 978-91-89081-66-6 (pdf)
Published by: Linnaeus University Press
Printed by: Holmbergs 2020

Content
Introduction ....................................................................................1
Automatic Identification of Topics: Applications
and Challenges Koraljka Golub ......................................................5
Digitalisation and Its Impact on Archaeological Knowledge
Production Fredrik Gunnarsson ......................................................27
Netnography in the Digital Humanities Hanna Carlsson
& Fredrik Hanell ...............................................................................45
Teaching Humanities Online: Practical Examples
from Linnaeus University Alastair Creelman, Corina Löwe,
Maria Nilson & Linda Piltz .............................................................65
Applying Critical Digital Method: Ethics, Sampling Strategies
and Analysis Methods Pernilla Severson .........................................81
How to Catch an Antelope: On Authenticity in Digitised Cul-
tural Heritage Documents Joacim Hansson ...................................99
Digital Archaeology of Death and Burial: Using 3D
Reconstruction, Visualization and Simulation to Frame
Past Experience Hayley L. Mickleburgh, Liv Nilsson Stutz
& Harry Fokkens ..............................................................................121
Honor Culture and Islam in Swedish Public Discourse:
An Example of How Computer-assisted Methods May
Facilitate Humanistic Research Jonas Svensson .............................147
The War Years: Distant Reading British Parliamentary
Debates Jukka Tyrkkö ....................................................................169
Market Language Over Time: Combining Corpus Linguistics
and Historical Discourse Analysis in a Study of Market
in Swedish Press Texts Claes Ohlsson ...........................................199

Digital History: Digitizing and Communicating the Past:
A Case Study Sara Ellis Nilsson .................................................... 219
“Here comes the police! Here they come!”: On the History
of a Collective (?) Noun Alexander Lakaw .................................. 241

121
Digital Archaeology of Death and Burial
Using 3D Reconstruction, Visualization and Simulation
to Frame Past Experience
Hayley L. Mickleburgh, Liv Nilsson Stutz & Harry Fokkens
Introduction
The study of burials has a long and important history in archae-
ology. The analysis of the human remains, the burial feature, and
the artefacts placed with the dead, has been crucial for the devel-
opment of archaeological theory and interpretation, from the es-
tablishments of the first chronologies in the 19th century to com-
plex issues in contemporary archaeology. The archaeological
study of burials has always drawn on multiple disciplines, meth-
ods and theories, including, but not limited to, biological anthro-
pology, cultural anthropology, ritual theory, social theory, molec-
ular biology, taphonomy, chemistry, etc. Through the physical re-
mains of the dead, archaeologists access information about the
demography and health status of a population, including disabili-
ties, level of care, infectious diseases, physical activity, and mor-
tality profiles. These remains can also provide molecular infor-
mation about kinship, migration and diet. The grave structure it-

122
self and the material items found with the dead allow archaeolo-
gists to propose interpretations of cultural practices relating to
identities (including gender and age), the ritual response to death,
social organization, and even dimensions of emotion and belief
in the past. Today we see an emerging archaeology of death that
through transdisciplinary approaches, i.e. an archaeology that
combines these complex approaches not only in the analysis, but
also in the very research design, aims to reconstruct the response
to death in the past and places it within a complex cultural context
(Nilsson Stutz 2016). We believe that 3D digital approaches have
a central role to play in these developments.
One of the most exciting approaches developed in mortuary
archaeology over the past several decades is archaeothanatology
(Duday 2009). Initially conceived in the 1970s under the name of
Anthropologie “de terrain” (Duday et al. 1990) the approach com-
bines detailed observation and documentation of the position of
the human remains during excavation, with knowledge in forensic
science and taphonomy about how the human body decomposes
after death in different contexts. Through the systematic collec-
tion of carefully documented case-studies, the approach has de-
veloped into a framework which allows the analyst to reconstruct
details of what happened to the body from the moment of death
to the moment of excavation. The approach has generated new
and previously overlooked information and allowed us to recon-
struct mortuary practices in the past with more accuracy, but it
has also made it possible to revisit and correct previously pro-
posed hypotheses. In addition, the focus on the handling of the
body and the visualization of the unstable body, allows for a con-
nection to both ritual theory informed by practice theory (Bell
1992) and sensory archaeology (Hamilakis 2015; Nilsson Stutz
2019). By reconstructing what people in the past were doing with
their dead, and what that may have looked and felt like, we not

123
only come closer to the past, but we can also connect the archae-
ological data to current interpretative frameworks grounded in
social theory.
Archaeothanatology was developed as an approach to use in
the field at the moment of excavation and documentation. How-
ever, several projects have demonstrated that valuable and previ-
ously unknown information also can be gleaned also from the
systematic application of this approach to the documentation (e.g.
field drawings, field notes and photographs) of older excavations
(e.g. Nilsson Stutz 2003; Peyroteo Sjerna 2016; Torv 2018). Ar-
chaeological excavations are destructive and the sustainability of
an archaeology that relies solely on new excavations can be ques-
tioned (Bonnie 2011; Carver 2011; Cherry 2011; Demoule 2011;
Nilsson 2011). We argue that archaeothanatology is a good exam-
ple of how the application of new analytical methods to high-
quality documentation from older excavations can yield new in-
formation and thus contribute to archaeological knowledge in a
productive and non-destructive manner. However, applying a
methodology that relies on 3D observations in the field situation
to conventional 2D documentation has its limits. In this chapter
we demonstrate how 3D digital tools augment the archaeothana-
tological analysis, and by extension provide new ways of framing
past experiences of death and burial. We illustrate our findings
with an archaeological case study in which we integrate the out-
comes of a traditional post-excavation archaeothanatological
analysis with 3D digital reconstruction and simulations.
Case Study
The Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age (2500–1700 BC) site of
Oostwoud-Tuithoorn, West-Frisia, the Netherlands, consisted of
two arable burial mounds which were first excavated in 1956 and
1957 by Prof. Dr. A.E. van Giffen. The burial mounds revealed
12 well-preserved human burials dating to three distinct episodes

124
of mound use: around 2450 BC, between 2300–2000 BC and be-
tween 1900–1700 BC. The excavations by Van Giffen in the
1950s and subsequent excavations by De Weerd in the early 1960s
left a very detailed archive of field documentation, although very
little was published about the site at the time. Recent re-analysis
of these data and materials from the site have demonstrated that
Oostwoud-Tuithoorn is an important site for the understanding
of Bell Beaker population mobility and genetics (Fokkens et al.
2017; Olalde et al. 2018).
Skeletons in mound II were found in flexed body positions on
the side, and were mostly oriented east-west with the face directed
south (considered typical for the Late Neolithic). Two skeletons
were oriented north-south with the head towards the north.
Mound I contained skeletons in extended supine position (con-
sidered typical for the Bronze Age). Missing and displaced body
parts have been noted in some of the burials, raising the question
whether secondary treatment of the human remains was prac-
ticed. While preservation can be ruled out as the cause for the
missing body parts, other taphonomic processes such as plough-
ing of the site during the Early Bronze Age, and possibly loss dur-
ing excavation could have contributed (Fokkens et al. 2017).
In order to examine and test the hypothesis of secondary funer-
ary treatment of the remains at Oostwoud-Tuithoorn, we used
methods from archaeothanatology and 3D visualization and recon-
struction to re-analyse the original excavation data pertaining to the
case study of a complex burial feature of an adult male (26–35 years
old) in Mound II. Individual 228 was well preserved, and found
buried partly supine, partly on his left side, oriented east-west, with
the face directed toward the south. The right hand was found
mostly in anatomical relation, positioned by the feet, together with
the manubrium. The right clavicle, scapula and humerus were miss-
ing, along with the proximal parts of the right ulna and radius, but

125
there were no signs of cutmarks on the bones. The fracture sur-
faces of the right ulna and radius suggest recent damage, which
may have occurred during excavation, which was done by day la-
bourers. The latter is supported by a photograph made during ex-
cavation (see below figure 2, third image from the top), where one
can see the sharp cut of a shovel in the soil by the fragmented
ends of the right radius and ulna. The fact that the right hand was
found mostly in anatomical articulation, raises the question
whether the entire right upper limb was removed during life, or
post mortem, and if the latter, whether removal occurred shortly
after death or after a period of time when the connective tissues
had partly decomposed.
Methods
To compare the insights yielded by the different approaches, this
study started with a separate archaeothanatological analysis of the 2D-
documentation of the excavation (photographs and drawings; figure
2). In a second step, a 3D model of the burial was created, and the
insights from the different approaches were then integrated.
Principles of Archaeothanatology
Archaeothanatology recognizes that the human body goes through
a dynamic process of disintegration after death. Some of the
changes are linked to natural processes of decomposition, while
others are linked to the cultural treatment of the body after death,
what we call mortuary practices. The approach allows the archae-
ologist to reconstruct in detail what happened to the body from the
moment of death to the moment of excavation. By knowing the
natural processes affecting the body under different circumstances,
the goal of archaeothanatology is to separate these out, and identify
in detail the processes that can be attributed to human action.

126
The approach proceeds analytically by detailed observations of
the exact position of the bones at the time of excavation (includ-
ing their face of appearance and their relation to other bones).
Technically, it relies on two fundamental principles:
1. The relative chronology of the disarticulation of the
joints (which will destabilize individual bones); and
2. The subsequent movements of the disarticulated bones
to obtain a stable position in the deposit. The range of
the movements vary depending on a range of factors that
all must be considered, including (a) How much empty
space is available to move within? This depends on the
context of the burial (filled-in burial or open space like a
coffin or crypt) but can also be affected by additional
voids created during the decomposition, as organic mate-
rial in or close to the body, decomposes (b) The nature of
the surrounding sediment, which due to its character may
fill in these voids at different speeds, and thus provide
stability.
This means that the bones that we excavate have all moved to some
extent, and if we can retrace the movements of the bones, and sep-
arate out the natural processes, we can identify the processes linked
to mortuary practices. Even minor movements can be diagnostic,
and this is why it is so important to have detailed documentation.
The diagnostic criteria for these interpretations were built up over
time through systematic observation and publication as the ap-
proach was being routinely applied in French archaeology over the
past several decades. This work has built a body of references relat-
ing to a relative chronology of the disarticulation of the human skel-
eton in different circumstances, and established criteria for the spa-
tial distribution of bones in specific burial types such as in coffins or
wrapped burials. Insights have also been gained into the direction

127
and distance in which bones and body parts can move during the
process of natural body decomposition. An intrinsic understanding
has been developed of typical patterns that can be related for exam-
ple to specific body positions or the nature of the surrounding sedi-
ment. In recent years the approach has been enriched by experi-
mental studies testing these references, often to nuance some of the
insights previously taken for granted, but also sometimes to call into
question even some of the fundamental principles (Mickleburgh
2018; Mickleburgh & Wescott 2018; Mickleburgh et al. 2018). This
work is currently being developed and will have a significant impact
on the approach in the coming years.
When applying archaeothanatology to archival material the
analysis relies on maps, drawings, photographs and field notes.
Traditionally, the 3D information of these complex spatial rela-
tionships available in the field situation was “translated” into 2D
information through drawings in scale 1:5, and textual and pho-
tographic recording of in situ human remains. The 3D component
was added through the use of measurements of depths of certain
point of the feature, but remained inferred and was not actually
directly observable. This often meant that some relationships be-
tween the remains remained inaccessible or more difficult to as-
sess in detail, especially when the approach was used on older ar-
chive materials and older excavations with less detailed documen-
tation. Photos do not always reveal the detailed position of each
bone, most often because burials tend to be documented at max-
imum exposure of the remains, but not always in subsequent lay-
ers, making the detailed observation of all osseous elements im-
possible. When working on older documents it is therefore crucial
to account for which observations are possible, and which ones
are not possible or conclusive. Ideally the analysis can be com-
bined with a study of the human remains, which can help answer
certain questions, but this is not always possible.

128
The analysis proceeds by observations of each body segment
with attention to each articulation and movement of the bones
(including minor in situ rotations of individual bones). The ob-
servations of the exact position of the bones and the relationships
between bones are detailed, and the quality of the analysis de-
pends on the quality of the documentation. The analysis then con-
siders the deposit as a whole and systematically considers a range
of the aspects (table 1).
It must be underscored that the results of the analysis are some-
times inconclusive. Absence of evidence is a significant factor
when applying archaeothanatology to older documentation.
However, when applying the archaeothanatology approach, such
absences are made clear in the presentation of the analysis and
therefore become possible to evaluate (something that is not al-
ways the case in traditional burial archaeology).
3D Reconstruction, Visualization and Simulation
Because of archaeothanatology’s heavy reliance on detailed spatial
data, the quality of the analysis of old excavation documentation
can potentially be significantly improved by new developments in
3D technology. Thanks to the rapid development of affordable
3D documentation tools, recording the spatial relation between
in situ remains in the form of 3D models (i.e. digital replicas) has
become a routine way to document archaeological features, in-
cluding human burials. The potential of 3D digital tools to en-
hance archaeothanatological research is great, since preserving
the spatial and volumetric information of a burial facilitates re-
analysis or replication studies at a later date, and supports (open
access) data sharing.

129
Table 1: Overview of the basic principles of archaeothanatological analysis.

130
Table 1: Overview of the basic principles of archaeothanatological analysis (continued).

131
In order to generate digital replicas of the individual bones of the
skeleton, we used the image-based modelling technique Structure
from Motion (SfM), in which 3D data is computed based on a
series of 2D images of an object (Westoby et al. 2012). Bones
were photographed individually on a turntable and the resulting
images were processed using Agisoft PhotoScan Professional 1.4
software, in order to create 3D models of all well-preserved bones
of Feature 228. Burial 228 was photographed from various angles
during its excavation in the 1950s. These images could therefore
be used as reference images to position the 3D bone models in
their original spatial relation and configuration. 3D bone models
were imported into Maxon’s Cinema 4D R20.059 Studio, a pow-
erful 3D modelling, animation and rendering application that al-
lows users to create or import 3D objects, which can be textured,
lighted and animated using an extensive set of tools and real-
world physics. This allowed us to create a 3D reconstruction of
the position of the bones in the burial feature upon excavation in
the 1950s. The 3D animation features of Cinema 4D were then
used to visualize the potential movements of body parts and
bones during the processes of deposition, decomposition, and
disturbance of the body and bones. The 3D reconstruction of the
position of the bones provided us with the final or “B” position.
To establish an “A” position (i.e. the bones in anatomical relation
inside the freshly buried body), we used a fully rigged (i.e. animat-
able) anatomical reference model of an adult male human skele-
ton with soft tissue body volume developed by MotionCow (fig.
1). In order to replicate, as closely as possible, the physical char-
acteristics of the young male buried in Feature 228, the anatomi-
cal reference model was scaled to the estimated height of this in-
dividual during life (169.9 cm ± 3.27cm; Veselka, 2016). The ref-
erence model was then placed in the body position “A”, which
was established using traditional archaeothanatological analysis
(see table 1). Using the reference model as a guide, the digital bone

132
replicas of individual 228 were subsequently manipulated and an-
imated individually from position A to position B in Cinema 4D.
This method permitted continual inspection of the spatial relation
of the bones. Animation of the (duration and sequence of) move-
ments of bones between these two positions (motion paths), al-
lowed us identify the sequence and trajectories of possible move-
ments (i.e. examine physically possible motion paths, without
bones colliding and passing through each other).
Results
Post-Excavation Archaeothanatological Analysis
The traditional post-excavation archaeothanatological analysis of
individual 228 at Oostwoud-Tuithoorn allows us to get detailed
insight into the mortuary practices and the taphonomic history of
Figure 1. Right: The MotionCow anatomical reference model placed in the recon-
structed body position of burial 228. Middle: The burial position (“Position A”) of
individual 228’s bones, reconstructed with the aid of the anatomical reference model.
Left: The final position of individual 228’s bones, reconstructed based on the photo-
graphs taken during excavation of the burial in 1956.

133
the individual. The analysis confirms that this is a single primary
burial. Overall, the skeleton is well articulated. The dramatic dis-
articulations that can be observed
are all linked to post-depositional in-
terference and will be described in
detail below. The body decomposed
in a filled space since there is no
movement of bones outside of the
initial volume of the cadaver that
can be linked to the decomposition
process.
The body was placed on the back
with the head rotated to the left. The
thoracic cage shows a minor transfer
of the weight toward the left, which
is indicative of a very minor rotation
to the left of the upper part of the
body. The right shoulder was
strongly projected upward and sup-
ported in this forced position later-
ally by the wall of the grave feature
(wall effect). The right arm was in
abduction and the forearm flexed
and in pronation, bringing the right
hand to rest in front of the chest.
The initial position of the left upper
limb is unknown due to disturb-
ances that will be described in detail
below. The lower part if the verte-
bral column presents its lateral right
side, indicating a rotation of the
lower part of the body to the left
that is significantly stronger than
Figure 2. Photographs of burial
228 during excavation in 1956.

134
that seen for the upper part. This movement to the left also en-
gaged the lower limbs, which were moderately flexed at the hip
and knee and rotated to the left.
The most interesting aspects of this burial are linked to post-
depositional interferences. Some of these are most likely linked to
the excavation itself. The location of a collection of six disarticu-
lated rib fragments and the first right metacarpal, to the left of the
lower part of the vertebral column, is probably the result of col-
lection in the trunk area of the body and re-deposition during the
excavation. Other movements took place when parts of the skel-
eton were still at least partially articulated and can therefore be
broadly dated within a few years of the burial. These disturbances
affect the right upper limb and shoulder girdle, and both lower
limbs.
The right scapula, clavicle and upper limb are all absent from
their anatomically correct position. The sternum has moved up-
ward, to the right, and toward the back, and is positioned imme-
diately to the right of the upper portion of the thoracic vertebrae,
and surrounded by the ribs of the right hemi-thorax. An articu-
lated segment of the right hand, and the fractured distal ends of
the right radius and ulna present the anterior side lying in the area
of the lower limbs. The disarticulated manubrium can be found
immediately to the medial side of the hand, presenting the ante-
rior side. The articulated metacarpals of the left hand are posi-
tioned dorsal side upward over the thorax; the disturbance of the
sternum and manubrium did not lead to their disarticulation. It is
likely that the movement of the sternum occurred when the rib-
cage had already (partially) flattened due to natural decomposition
processes, as displacement of the sternum while the ribcage re-
tained its original volume would have created space into which
the metacarpals of the left hand could have moved once the rib-
cage and left hand fully decomposed.

135
Disturbance has also affected the pelvic girdle and lower limbs.
The pelvis is fragmented and difficult to observe in detail. The
bones of the lower right limb are partially fragmented (the right
femur is fractured and the proximal end is missing, the right fibula
is fractured in half, and the distal right tibia is missing) and disar-
ticulated, with the exception of the foot which is relatively well
articulated. For the lower left limb, we note similar disturbances.
The left femur is still articulated with the fragmented pelvis and
presents its medial side, but the left tibia is disarticulated from the
femur, fibula and foot, and has rotated laterally, presenting its
posterior side. The left fibula is disarticulated and laterally dis-
placed, and rotated presenting the posterior surface. Some of the
bones of the left foot are present but the segment is disarticulated
and the bones are scattered and difficult to observe in detail.
From the positions of the bones it appears that some interfer-
ing agent has affected the right side of the body, which is also the
part of the body that due to the position of the body in the grave
feature, would have been elevated and therefore somewhat more
vulnerable to surface work, for example ploughing. We further
note that the disturbance has taken place at a moment when the
skeleton was only partially disarticulated. Some joints appear to
have been very well preserved, in particular those of the right
fore-arm and hand which have been moved over one meter with-
out disarticulation, as well as the left forearm and hand. Other
bones, like the scapula and clavicle, were loose enough to detach
but only after having affected bones in the vicinity (in particular
the sternum which seems to have been dragged to the right, which
is the opposite direction of the expected movement resulting
from natural decomposition in a body slightly rotated to the left).
In summary, the post-excavation archaeothanatological analy-
sis has identified a number of movements of bones throughout
the skeleton, some of which are related to the natural decompo-
sition of the body in a closed burial environment, and others

136
which are associated with disturbance(s) of the body before com-
plete decomposition of the connective tissues. Disturbance(s) oc-
curred in those parts of the body that were most elevated, i.e.
closest to the surface, suggesting activities associated with land
and soil management may have been the cause. There appears to
be some degree of directionality in the displacement and damage
to different elements of the skeleton, and the overall configura-
tion and appearance of the disturbances suggests that they oc-
curred at a single point in time during decomposition of the body.
These observations provide us with a hypothesis for the events
which led to the final position of the bones of burial 228. To-
gether with the ubiquitous presence of prehistoric plough marks
around the burials at Oostwoud-Tuithoorn, the observed bone
displacements suggest that disturbance of the body may have oc-
curred during ploughing of the area within a few years of the bur-
ial of the deceased. This hypothesis was already tentatively put
forward in an earlier analysis of the burial and its surroundings,
prior to archaeothanatological analysis (Fokkens et al. 2017).
Simulation of Bone Movements
In order to test this ploughing hypothesis, a simulation of bone
movements using 3D animation was carried out. The first step
was to animate the movements between position A and B of each
individual bone along the shortest possible motion path. Move-
ments were timed and played simultaneously. This allowed us to
identify physically impossible movements and movement paths,
i.e. movements that would not be possible considering gravity or
directional force, or movements along paths which led to inter-
secting of bones. For each individual bone and its motion path
we examined how timing and speed of the movement would af-
fect the path and the potential for impossible movements. The
movements associated with the natural decomposition of the
body and the movements associated with the disturbance were

137
visualized separately by assigning the affected bones a different
colour.
Taking the motion path of the bones of the lower left limb as
an example, we can see that the shortest motion path calculated
by Cinema 4D for the movement of the left tibia is illogical, since
the rotation is not consistent with the directionality of overall
bone displacement within the soil matrix. The rotation direction
of the shortest motion path calculated by Cinema 4D is therefore
unlikely, and the opposite direction of rotation was chosen for
the reconstruction (fig. 3). The final position of the left tibia, rest-
ing on the right distal femur and proximal tibia shows that the
movement of the latter two bones to their final position must
have occurred prior to the movement of the tibia. Simultaneous
movement of these three bones during simulation led to inter-
secting of the bones that would be physically impossible in the
real world (fig. 3). The final resting position of the right distal
Figure 3. Left and middle: Reconstructed rotation direction of the left tibia. Right:
Intersecting of digital bone replicas, demonstrating that simultaneous movement would
not have been possible.

138
femur and proximal tibia, in generally articulated relation, is con-
sistent with displacement as a result of natural processes of body
decomposition, occurring prior to the disturbance of the left tibia.
Furthermore, the reconstruction of motion paths indicates that
the displacement of the left tibia and left fibula must have oc-
curred simultaneously, since analysis of the motion paths revealed
that movement of either of the bones individually before the
other led to intersection of the 3D bones models in digital space.
Analysis of the motion paths of each individual bone and all
bones in conjunction in this manner led to the creation of an ani-
mated simulation of the sequence, timing, and trajectories of bone
displacements in burial 228. The full reconstruction of the spatial
relation of the bones of burial 228 in both position A and position
B, as well as the animated simulations of bone movements can be
viewed online at https://play.lnu.se/media/t/0_h5uw04gs. The
animation visualizes in red the displacement of the skull, upper
left limb, left femur, right distal femur and proximal tibia moving
in general downward direction, which is the result of decomposi-
tion of the soft tissues and “settling” of the bones in the burial
pit. The skull also moves slightly in westerly direction (i.e. toward
the feet), which is commonly seen in burials where the head is
slightly elevated and the decomposition and flattening of the
thorax area creates space into which the skull is able to move. The
left tibia and fibula, followed by the right fibula, a fragment of the
right ilium, the sternum body, and finally the manubrium and the
distal right ulna and radius (visualized in blue) are seen moving as
a result of the disturbance of the burial. These movements take
place after (at least partial) flattening of the ribcage, and after the
downward displacement of the bones in the lower right limb, but
before complete decomposition of the connecting soft tissues of
the body.

139
Discussion
The ability to reconstruct 3D information from 2D excavation
data opens up a range of possibilities to re-analyse old excavation
documentation. Reconstructed 3D models of human burials al-
low for non-destructive analysis of the spatial relation of bones,
and provides a means to study the taphonomic history of individ-
ual burials which were not recorded in 3D. While the spatial rela-
tion and difference in depth of the individual bones is difficult to
interpret when examining the photographs of burial 228 taken
during excavation, the 3D reconstruction and animation of bones
from position A to position B clearly visualizes the areas of the
body that are most affected by the disturbance as identified in the
archaeothanatological analysis. Both the motion paths we recon-
structed and the traditional archaeothanatological analysis identi-
fied directionality of the disturbing force which led to the fractur-
ing and displacement of large portions of the skeleton. The direc-
tionality of displacement of the tibia – toward the east – is con-
sistent with the fracturing and displacement of the right fibula, as
well as the displacement of the left fibula. The displacement of
the sternum shows the same directionality. Together with the ab-
sence of the right proximal femur, the right distal tibia, large por-
tions of the pelvis and the majority of the upper right limb, as well
as the disarticulation of the left foot bones, these displacements
suggest a single disturbance of the burial took place in west to
east direction to the minimal depth of the elevated portions of
the supine, partly flexed body. The simulation provided additional
information on the sequence of individual bone movements and
identified bones that moved simultaneously, lending further sup-
port to the interpretation of a single disturbance event in which
force was applied in west to east direction. The timing and se-
quence of the bone movements based on the reconstructed mo-
tion paths also supports the archaeothanatological interpretation

140
that the body was in a state of partial decomposition at the mo-
ment the disturbance occurred, allowing certain areas of the body
to maintain anatomical articulation, while others had disarticu-
lated naturally or became disarticulated due to the external force
applied to the body. The disturbance of the body shows a path of
destruction through the burial which is consistent in width and
force with a simple and light scratch plough (or ard plough),
known to have been used in this period (Fokkens 1998).
Virtual reconstructions and simulations provide an important
way to test hypotheses and speculations through visualization of
potential scenarios (Ferdani et al. 2020). The archaeothanatologi-
cal analysis in conjunction with the motion paths we recon-
structed and the resulting simulation of bone movements in burial
228 were examined in the light of the hypothesis that ploughing
of the area on and around the burial mounds at Oostwoud-Tu-
ithoorn, relatively shortly after burial of the individual (i.e. within
a few years). Overall, the interpretation put forward, that the in-
terference with the decomposing body was linked to the plough-
ing of the soil is consistent with our findings. In this scenario, the
plough, moving in west to east direction, first disarticulated and
scattered the bones of right foot, then caught on the left tibia and
fibula – moving them eastward – and subsequently impacted the
distal right tibia, proximal right femur and the pelvis, leading to
fracture of these bones. The absence of part of these bones may
be due to them having been dragged to the surface by the plough
and collected by the person ploughing. In the last part of the west
to east trajectory of the plough, the tip of the plough likely caught
the right clavicle, scapula and humerus (which were positioned
slightly elevated), and due to adhering soft tissues was able to de-
tach the entire right upper limb and the manubrium. During this
movement, the sternum body was displaced from its anatomical
position. The upper right limb, which was still in partial articula-
tion, was redeposited along with the manubrium at the feet of the

141
individual. Since only the distal portions of the right ulna and ra-
dius and an articulated section of the right hand were recovered
during excavation, it remains unclear whether the upper right
limb was redeposited in its entirety, or only a part of it. The frac-
ture surfaces of the ulna and radius suggest that the damage was
recent, and occurred during the shovel excavation by day labor-
ers. Some bones, which may have been redeposited after plough-
ing, may have gone unrecognized during excavation and may have
been lost. We emphasize that while this scenario is consistent with
our findings from archaeothanatological analysis as well as virtual
reconstruction and simulation, this does not mean that other pos-
sibilities can be completely ruled out.
Our case study confirms that using 3D reconstruction, visuali-
zation and simulation as an integral part of the interpretative pro-
cess can enrich our understanding of the archaeological record
and past experiences (Ask 2012; Ferdani et al. 2020). In addition
to adding new data and providing a more secure interpretation,
this work also allows us to better visualize what actually happened
in the past, and it more broadly allows us to access the dimension
of lived experience in the past. The archaeothanatological analysis
is grounded in an understanding of the processes of decay and
decomposition, aspects of death that we as a culture tend to hide,
and that often are not directly visible in the archaeological record.
In the past, however, it is possible that these processes were cen-
tral to how death was handled, experienced and understood. The
sensory experiences of death during this period were not limited
to the skeletal remains we as archaeologists can see today, but
included visual, olfactory, and tactile experiences that engaged the
dead body, perhaps also during the course of its decomposition
and disintegration. These insights allow us to understand the dis-
turbance that we attribute to the act of ploughing through burial
228 of Oostwoud-Tuithoorn in a new way. The analysis and the
animation allow us to visualize how the man was laid to rest,

142
shortly after death in a pit that was immediately filled in with sed-
iment in an area regularly used for burial and marked by monu-
mental mounds. A few months to years later, somebody walked
across this same area behind a simple scratch plough that slowly
broke ground, bringing dark fertile soil to the surface. At one
point perhaps, the plough caught something, its motion forwards
interrupted for a brief moment – and once it moved forward
again it brought with it the entire arm of a dead body, still articu-
lated and held together by soft tissue, including desiccated skin.
The arm, including the shoulder, followed the plough up to the
surface and then parts of it were redeposited in the soil, at the
level of the feet of the burial. We cannot be completely sure if the
anatomical elements were tucked in intentionally, or simply cov-
ered over in the process of ploughing. How can we understand
the act of disturbance of this grave? Was this intentional – a case
of disrespect for the dead? Was it an unexpected mistake, an un-
intended disturbance by somebody who did not know the grave
was there? Or, are there reasons to believe that this event was part
of intentional practices? Given the concentration of both plough
marks and burials in the area clearly marked by burial mounds, it
is difficult to think that the disturbance of the subsurface was un-
intentional, especially given that it would have occurred within
years of the original burial when the memory of the use of the site
would very likely be preserved. We also rule out the hypothesis
that this is an aggressive act of destruction. The entire area is filled
with plough marks that appear to often follow the contours of
the mounds, tying the use of the land for ploughing to an aware-
ness of the presence of the mounds and the dead within them.
Instead we propose that the activities of ploughing and mortuary
ritual were not mutually exclusive but can be understood as part
of the engagement with the place in a world where ritual and cos-
mology was inseparable from economic activities like agriculture.
We can imagine a scenario of two persons working the land: one

143
controlling the plough, the other sowing the freshly opened fur-
rows. The sudden appearance of a disembodied arm led to a con-
scious decision to rebury without further disturbing the body, fol-
lowed by continuation of working the land. The analysis of the
burial and the engagement with the body that is made possible by
archaeothanatology and animation allows us to visualize what this
event and such practices might have been like and come closer to
the lived experience.
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