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Towards sustainable palm oil production: The positive and negative impacts on ecosystem services and human wellbeing

August 2020
Journal of Cleaner Production 278(3):123914

DOI:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123914

License
CC BY 4.0

Authors:

Marije Schaafsma

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

Benis N Egoh

University of California, Irvine

Palm oil is an important commodity contributing to livelihoods of many communities, GDP of governments and the achievement of several sustainable development goals (SDG) including no poverty, zero hunger and decent work and economic growth. However, its cultivation and continuous expansion due to high and increasing demand has led to many negative effects and subsequent calls to make production sustainable. To this end, information is needed to understand the negative and positive impacts on both the environment and human wellbeing to respond appropriately. Sustainability in palm oil trade entails having a global supply chain based on environmentally friendly and socially acceptable production and sourcing. Much has been done in understanding and responding to impacts on the environment but not so much on social impacts partly due to a lack of information. The direct (socio-economic) and indirect (through ecosystem services) impacts of palm oil trade were reviewed using peer-reviewed literature and the environmental Justice Atlas (EJA). Our results show that most of the 57 case studies were conducted in Indonesia and Malaysia where 85% of global production of palm oil occurs. The results show both negative (109) and positive (99) direct impacts on humans. Indirect impacts through ecosystems services were predominantly negative (116) as were the direct negative impacts. The most frequently studied direct negative impacts were conflicts (25%), housing conditions (18%) and land grabbing (16%) while the most frequently studied direct positive impacts were income generation (33%) and employment (19%). Ongoing initiatives to make the palm oil sector sustainable such as the RSPO are focused on the environment but need to pay more attention to (related) social impacts. To make palm oil production sustainable and to meet SDGs such as ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being as well as responsible consumption and production, negative social impacts of palm oil trade need to be addressed.

Flowchart of peer-review procedure.

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Distribution of peer-reviewed case studies across countries.

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Number of peer-reviewed case studies reporting direct or indirect impact of palm oil trade per year of publication.

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(a) Direct negative impacts of palm oil trade on human wellbeing from peer-reviewed literature vs EJA and (b) direct positive impacts from peer-reviewed literature.

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Indirect negative impacts of palm oil trade on human wellbeing from peer-reviewed literature compared to those from EJA.

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Figures - uploaded by Benis N Egoh

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Content uploaded by Benis N Egoh

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5Department of Earth System Science, University of California Irvine, California, USA

6International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Cameroon, Yaoundé, Cameroon

7School of Geography & Environmental Science, University of Southampton, UK

8Environmental Economics, Institute for Environmental Studies, VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands

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DFC8I7H=CB !B8998 HC 57<=9J9 +  “to ensure healthy lives and promote

wellbeing for all at all ages” GIGH5=B56=@=HM 9::CFHG AIGH 5@GC 69 ;95F98 HC

K5F8G F98I7=B; H<9 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG CB D9CD@9 B =ADCFH5BH 5GD97H =B

588F9GG=B; 6CH< +  5B8  =G HC 7C@@5H9 =B:CFA5H=CB CB H<9 DCG=H=J9

5B8 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; 5B8 WB8

K5MG HC A=B=A=N9 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG K<=@9 DFCACH=B; DCG=H=J9 7CBHF=6I

H=CBG HC @=J9@=<CC8G CK9J9F =B:CFA5H=CB CB H<9 =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@

HF589 CB <IA5BG =G C:H9B @57?=B;

@@ D5@A C=@ DFC8I7=B; 7CIBHF=9G 5F9 7@5GG=W98 5G 89J9@CD=B; CF

@95GH 89J9@CD98 97CBCA=9G K=H< 56CIH  5G @95GH 89J9@CD98 7CIB

HF=9G K<9F9 ACGH C: H<9 D9CD@9 5F9 DCCF -&,  !B H<9G9

7CIBHF=9G D5@A C=@ DFC8I7H=CB 7CBHF=6IH9G DCG=H=J9@M HC ( 5B8 =B

7CA9 DCJ9FHM 5@@9J=5H=CB CF 9L5AD@9 =B %5@5MG=5 95FB=B;G :FCA

D5@A C=@ D5@A ?9FB9@ C=@ 5B8 =HG DFC8I7HG =B  5ACIBH98 HC 5@ACGH

-+ 6=@@=CB 9EI=J5@9BH HC  C: ( 1IGCY  !B 588=H=CB

=B A5BM 89J9@CD=B; B5H=CBG =B7@I8=B; 7CIBHF=9G =B G=5 C=@ D5@A D@5B

H5H=CBG 5F9 9GH56@=G<98 6M @5F;9 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ 7CFDCF5H=CBG H<5H DFC

J=89 5779GG HC 98I75H=CB HC G9J9F5@ 7<=@8F9B K<C KCI@8 CH<9FK=G9 69 5H

<CA9 H<9F9:CF9 7CBHF=6IH=B; HC +  EI5@=HM 98I75H=CB 9BB9HH 9H

5@   :9K GHI8=9G <5J9 F9DCFH98 DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589

GI7< 5G =ADFCJ9A9BH =B :5FA9F =B7CA9 97CBCA=7 69B9WH :CF GA5@@<C@8

9FG CDDCFHIB=H=9G :CF 9AD@CMA9BH =B FIF5@ 5F95G %75FH<M 

=ADFCJ98 @=J9@=<CC8G 5B8 =ADFCJ9A9BH =B 97CBCA=7 ;FCKH< 5B8 (

$=  CK9J9F D5@A C=@ DFC8I7H=CB 5@GC <5G 8=F97H B9;5H=J9 GC7=5@

=AD57HG CF 9L5AD@9 K<9F9 @C75@ 7CAAIB=H=9G K<C 5F9 7IGHC8=5B CF

CKB9FG C: @5B8 GI::9F @CGG C: @=J9@=<CC8 K<9B GI7< @5B8 =G 7CBJ9FH98 HC

C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG 5G H<9M 75B BC @CB;9F 7I@H=J5H9 7FCDG CB H<9 @5B8

CF 7C@@97H K=@8 :CC8G +5BH=?5 9H 5@ 6 @GC B9;5H=J9 9BJ=FCB

A9BH5@ =AD57HG GI7< 5G 5=F 5B8 K5H9F DC@@IH=CB B9;5H=J9@M 5::97H <IA5B

K9@@69=B; ,<9G9 GC7=5@ 5GD97HG B998 HC 69 7CBG=89F98 5B8 577CIBH98 :CF

K<9B 89G=;B=B; GIGH5=B56=@=HM GHF5H9;=9G

D5FH :FCA H<9 8=F97H B9;5H=J9 5B8 DCG=H=J9 GC7=5@ =AD57HG C: D5@A

C=@ HF589 CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; A5BM D9CD@9 F9@M CB 97CGMGH9AG :CF H<9=F

K9@@69=B; 9; A98=7=B5@ D@5BHG K5H9F 5B8 H=A69F I@H=J5H=CB C: C=@

D5@A GCA9H=A9G <5G =B8=F97H B9;5H=J9 9::97HG CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; J=5

97CGMGH9A G9FJ=79G 89WB98 5G H<9 69B9WHG :FCA H<9 B5HIF5@ 9BJ=FCBA9BH

5B8 97CGMGH9AG HC D9CD@9 CF 9L5AD@9 9GH56@=G<A9BH C: C=@ D5@A D@5B

H5H=CBG B9LH HC K5H9F 6C8=9G 75IG9G 9IHFCD<=75H=CB 5B8 G=@H5H=CB =AD57H

=B; CB @C75@ K5H9F DIF=W75H=CB 5B8 GIDD@M G9FJ=79G !;K9 5B8 'BM9;

658C  +CA9 97CGMGH9A G9FJ=79G GI7< 5G DC@@=B5H=CB K<=7< =G =A

D57H98 B9;5H=J9@M 6M 89:CF9GH5H=CB :FCA D5@A C=@ =G J9FM =ADCFH5BH =B

DFC8I7H=J=HM CB @5B8G75D9G 5B8 =B D5FH=7I@5F CB 7FCDG K<=7< <IA5BG 89

D9B8 CB !B :57H C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG F9@M CB 97CGMGH9A :IB7H=CBG GI7< 5G

DC@@=B5H=CB :CF H<9=F 7CBH=BI=HM CF 9L5AD@9 $= 9H 5@  G<CK98

H<5H ?BCKB C=@ D5@A DC@@=B5HCFG K=H< XI7HI5H=B; DCDI@5H=CBG <5J9 @98 HC

7CB79FBG 56CIH M=9@8 5B8 F9G=@=9B79 ,C H<9 69GH C: CIF ?BCK@98;9 BC

GHI8M <5G GMBH<9G=N98 H<9G9 DCG=H=J9 5B8 B9;5H=J9 GC7=5@ =AD57HG C: D5@A

C=@ HF589

,<9 CJ9F5@@ C6>97H=J9 C: H<=G F9J=9K =G HC IB89FGH5B8 D5@A C=@ HF589

=AD57HG CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; 57FCGG H<9 KCF@8 /9 8C H<=G 6M 5GG9GG

=B;  H<9 8=F97H GC7=C97CBCA=7 =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 GI7< 5G GC

7=5@ 5B8 WB5B7=5@ 69B9WHG 5B8 7CGHG  H<9 =B8=F97H =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@

HF589 H<FCI;< 97CGMGH9A G9FJ=79G GI7< 5G :CC8 DFCJ=G=CB 5B8 K5H9F DI

F=W75H=CB +=B79 ACGH =AD57HG 5F9 5HHF=6IH98 HC @5F;9G75@9 D@5BH5H=CBG =B

DI6@=7 8=G7CIFG9G K9 G99? HC IB89FGH5B8 <CK H<9G9 =AD57HG 5F9 8=GHF=6

IH98 69HK99B GA5@@<C@89FG 5B8 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ D@5BH5H=CBG $5GH@M =B CF

89F HC IB89FGH5B8 H<9 9LH9BH HC K<=7< B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG F97CF898 =B H<9

D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 5B8 <CK F9DF9G9BH5H=J9 CIF G5AD@9 =G K9 @CC?

5H K<=7< =AD57HG 5F9 F9DCFH98 =B ;F9M @=H9F5HIF9 GD97=:=75@@M =B H<9 BJ=

FCBA9BH5@ "IGH=79 H@5G

2. Methods

,KC GCIF79G C: =B:CFA5H=CB K9F9 IG98 =B H<=G F9J=9K HC IB89FGH5B8

D5@A C=@ HF589 =AD57HG CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; H<FCI;< 75G9 GHI8=9G C: 8=

F97H GC7=C97CBCA=7 5B8 =B8=F97H H<FCI;< 97CGMGH9A G9FJ=79G 'IF

WFGH GCIF79 C: =B:CFA5H=CB K5G :FCA D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 /96 C:

+7=9B79 HC @CC? :CF D5D9FG H<5H IG98 DF=A5FM 85H5 HC 5GG9GG H<9 =AD57HG

C: D5@A C=@ HF589 CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; @H<CI;< A5BM GHI8=9G CB D5@A

C=@ HF589 5F9 7CB8I7H98 6M &'G GI7< 5G H<9 9BH9F :CF !BH9FB5H=CB5@

CF9GHFM *9G95F7< !'* 5B8 /CF@8 /=@8@=:9 IB8 // K9 8=8 BCH

=B7@I89 5@@ ;F9M @=H9F5HIF9 6IH IG98 CB@M H<9 BJ=FCBA9BH5@ "IGH=79 H@5G

<HHDG9>5H@5GCF; 5 GCIF79 C: ;F9M @=H9F5HIF9 HC 7CAD5F9 CIF F9GI@HG

CB H<9 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 CB <IA5B K9@@69=B;  @=A=H5

H=CB C: BJ=FCBA9BH5@ "IGH=79 H@5G " =G H<5H =H CB@M F9DCFHG B9;5H=J9

=AD57HG

!B CIF 5B5@MG=G K9 8=GH=B;I=G< 69HK99B GA5@@<C@89FG 5B8 5;FC=B

8IGHF=5@ C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG +A5@@<C@89FG 5F9 7CBG=89F98 5G ;FCK9FG

H<5H 5F9 BCH 5;FC=B8IGHF=9G K=H< 5J9F5;9 D@5BH98 5F95 C:  <5 CF @9GG

5B8 =: GH5H98 =B H<9 GHI8M 5G GA5@@<C@89FG ,<=G =G 5 G<5@@CK K5M C: 5G

UNCORRECTED PROOF

L.M. Ayompe et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) 123914 

G9GG=B; GA5@@<C@89FG 7CAD5F98 HC H<9 89:=B=H=CB 6M H<9 *CIB8H56@9 CB

+IGH5=B56@9 (5@A '=@ *+(' K<9F9 H<9 :5FA DFCJ=89G H<9 A5>CF=HM C:

=B7CA9 HC H<9 :5A=@M 5B8 =B HIFB H<9 :5A=@M DFCJ=89G H<9 A5>CF=HM C: @5

6CF CB H<9 :5FA KKKFGDCCF; !B89D9B89BH GA5@@<C@89FG K9F9 BCH 8=G

H=B;I=G<98 :FCA H<CG9 =B D5FHB9FG<=D G7<9A9G K=H< 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ 7CA

D5B=9G !H G<CI@8 5@GC 69 BCH98 H<5H H<9 89:=B=H=CB C: GA5@@<C@89FG A5M

8=::9F :FCA 7CIBHFM HC 7CIBHFM 89D9B8=B; CB 8=::9F9BH G7<9A9G C: CKB

9FG<=D 5B8 A5B5;9A9BH

2.1. Peer-reviewed literature

!+! /96 C: #BCK@98;9G 85H565G9 K5G G9@97H98 5G H<9 CB@M G95F7<

9B;=B9 5B8 85H565G9 HC 7CB8I7H 5 7CADF9<9BG=J9 G95F7< C: H<9 57589

A=7 D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9  G95F7< K5G 7CB8I7H98 =B '7HC69F 

K=H<CIH GD97=:M=B; 5B =B=H=5@ CF 9B8 M95F 6IH =B7@I898 GHI8=9G =B 

IG=B; H<9 :C@@CK=B; G95F7< H9FAG “D5@A C=@”CF “C=@ D5@A”& “K9@@

69=B;”CF “K9@@69=B;”CF “K9@@ 69=B;”CF “=B7CA9”CF “DCJ9FHM”CF “BI

HF=H=CB”CF “@=J9@=<CC8”CF “G97IF=HM”CF “JI@B9F56@9”CF “<IA5B 75D=H5@”

CF “GC7=5@ =AD57H”CF “97CBCA=7 =AD57H”CF “K9@:5F9”  G97CB8 G95F7<

K5G 7CB8I7H98 K=H< H<9 H9FAG “D5@A C=@”CF “C=@ D5@A”& “97CGMGH9A

G9FJ=79G”CF “DFCJ=G=CB=B; G9FJ=79G”CF “F9;I@5H=B; G9FJ=79G”CF “<56=H5H”

CF “GIDDCFH=B; G9FJ=79G”CF “7I@HIF5@ G9FJ=79G” ,<9 CIH7CA9G C: H<9 HKC

G95F7<9G K9F9 7CA6=B98 5B8 8ID@=75H9G F9ACJ98 /9 89@=69F5H=J9@M 9L

7@I898 ‘6=C8=J9FG=HM’:FCA H<9G9 H9FAG

,<9G9 G95F7< H9FAG F9GI@H98 =B 5 HCH5@ C:  D5D9FG K<=7< K9F9

B5FFCK98 8CKB HC  D5D9FG 5:H9F G7FIH=B=G=B; H<9 H=H@9G 5B8 56GHF57HG

=;  /9 F958 H<FCI;< H<9 56GHF57HG =B 89H5=@ 5B8 G9@97H98 CB@M

H<CG9 D5D9FG H<5H F9DCFH98 8=F97H 5B8CF =B8=F97H =AD57HG CB <IA5B

K9@@69=B; C: D5@A C=@ HF589 =B W9@8 75G9 GHI8=9G  D5D9FG H<5H A9H

H<9G9 7F=H9F=5 K9F9 G9@97H98 5B8 F958 =B :I@@ 'IH C: H<9  CB@M 

D5D9FG K9F9 9@=;=6@9 HC 69 =B7@I898 =B H<9 GHI8M +I6G9EI9BH@M GBCK

65@@=B; K5G IG98 HC WB8 ACF9 GHI8=9G :FCA H<9 F9:9F9B79G C: D5D9FG

F958 5B8  ACF9 F9@9J5BH 75G9 GHI8=9G K9F9 :CIB8 H<5H A9H H<9 G9@97

Fig. 1. @CK7<5FH C: D99FF9J=9K DFC798IF9

H=CB 7F=H9F=5 C: CIF GHI8M A5?=B; 5 HCH5@ C:  75G9 GHI8=9G =B7@I898 =B

H<=G F9J=9K

2.2. Grey literature

,C IB89FGH5B8 H<9 9LH9BH HC K<=7< H<9 F9GI@HG F9DCFH98 =B H<9 D99FF9

J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 5F9 7CBG=GH9BH K=H< H<CG9 F9DCFH98 =B H<9 ;F9M @=H9F5

HIF9 K9 @CC? :CF 8=F97H 5B8 =B8=F97H =AD57HG 5G F9DCFH98 =B H<9 BJ=FCB

A9BH5@ "IGH=79 H@5G " ,<9 " K96G=H9 K5G G95F7<98 :CF 75G9G H<5H

<5J9 F9DCFH98 =AD57H C: D5@A C=@ HF589 CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; ,<9 "

=G 5 ;@C65@ 85H565G9 7CBH5=B=B; ACF9 H<5B  F9DCFH98 75G9G C: 9BJ=

FCBA9BH5@ 7CBX=7HG 5F=G=B; 8I9 HC H<9 9LD@C=H5H=CB C: B5HIF5@ F9GCIF79G

;9B9F5H=CB C: K5GH9 5B8 H<9 89;F585H=CB 5B8 7CAAC8=W75H=CB CF DF=J5

H=N5H=CB C: 9BJ=FCBA9BH5@ ;CC8G ,<9 " =G 5 7C@@56CF5H=J9 9::CFH K<9F9

5BMCB9 75B 7CBHF=6IH9 HC H<9 85H565G9 5B8 A5M J5FM =B EI5@=HM 6IH 9B

HF=9G 5F9 7<97?98 6M H<9 98=HCF=5@ H95A !H =G 5B CB@=B9 D@5H:CFA H<5H 5@

@CKG G95F7<=B; 5B8 W@H9F=B; 57FCGG G9J9F5@ W9@8G 5G K9@@ 5G 6FCKG=B; 6M

7CAAC8=HM 7CAD5BM 5B8 HMD9 C: 7CBX=7H ,KC G95F7<9G C: H<9 85H565G9

K9F9 75FF=98 CIH IG=B; H<9 H9FAG “D5@A C=@”5B8 “C=@ D5@A”F9GD97H=J9@M

 75G9G K9F9 C6H5=B98 :CF H<9 WFGH G95F7< 5B8  75G9G =B H<9 G97CB8

G95F7< :H9F 9L7@I8=B; 8ID@=75H9G K9 F9H5=B98  F9DCFH98 75G9G ,<9

" CB@M F9DCFHG B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG ,<9 85H565G9 K5G CB@M IG98 :CF 7CA

D5F=GCB DIFDCG9G HC WB8 CIH H<9 9LH9BH HC K<=7< B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG 75D

HIF98 =B D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 5F9 F9DCFH98 CF 56G9BH =B H<=G 85H565G9

5G K9@@ 5G HC IB89FGH5B8 H<9 F9GDCBG9 C: =AD57HG F9DCFH98 =B D99FF9

J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9

2.3. Data extraction

!B:CFA5H=CB K5G 9LHF57H98 :FCA H<9  75G9 GHI8=9G G9@97H98 :FCA

D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 5B8  :FCA " L5AD@9G C: =B:CFA5H=CB

;5H<9F98 =B7@I89 7CIBHFM C: 85H5 7C@@97H=CB HMD9 C: 9J=89B79 EI5@=H5

H=J9EI5BH=H5H=J9 HMD9 C: D5@A C=@ D@5BH5H=CB GA5@@<C@89F 5;FC=B8IG

HF=5@ HMD9 C: =AD57H 8=F97H =B8=F97H CF 8=F97H =AD57HG =B:CFA5H=CB

GI7< 5G =B7CA9 9AD@CMA9BH <CIG9 7CB8=H=CB =B:F5GHFI7HIF9 GI7< 5G

G7<CC@G CF FC58G CF <CGD=H5@G K9F9 9LHF57H98 =F97H =AD57HG K9F9 H<9F9

:CF9 89WB98 5G 5GD97HG C: @=J9@=<CC8G 8=F97H@M F9@5H98 HC K9@@69=B; =B8=

75HCFG GI7< 5G =B7CA9 98I75H=CB CF =B:F5GHFI7HIF9 CF H<9 =B8=F97H =A

D57HG H<FCI;< 97CGMGH9A G9FJ=79G H<9 75H9;CF=9G CIH@=B98 6M ,<9 7C

BCA=7G C: 7CGMGH9AG 5B8 =C8=J9FG=HM K9F9 IG98 +I?<89J 5B8 #I

A5F  K<=7< =B7@I89 DFCJ=G=CB=B; G9FJ=79G 9; F5K A5H9F=5@G

K5H9F :CC8 5B8 A98=7=B9G F9;I@5H=B; G9FJ=79G 9; 5=F DIF=W75H=CB

75F6CB G9EI9GHF5H=CB 5B8 K5H9F F9;I@5H=CB <56=H5H 5B8 GIDDCFH=B; G9F

J=79G 9; <56=H5H :CF GD97=9G 5B8 7I@HIF5@ G9FJ=79G 9; 59GH<9H=7 J5@I9

CF GD=F=HI5@ J5@I9 !B8=F97H =AD57HG K9F9 H<9F9:CF9 89WB98 5G 5GD97HG

H<5H K9F9 F9@5H98 HC @CGG C: B5HIF9 H<5H KCI@8 69B9WH <IA5BG 5B8 7CB

HF=6IH9 HC H<9=F K9@@69=B; /9 CB@M F9DCFH98 H<9 :F9EI9B7M 5H K<=7< H<9

=AD57HG K9F9 F9DCFH98 =B H<9 75G9 GHI8=9G K=H<CIH 8=GH=B;I=G<=B; K<C

H<9 5::97H98 GH5?9<C@89FG K9F9 CF K<=7< D5FHG C: H<9 GIDD@M 7<5=B H<9

=AD57HG 5F9 5HHF=6IH98 HC

3. Results

3.1. Distribution of studies

%CGH C: H<9  75G9 GHI8=9G F9DCFH98 =B D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 K9F9

7CB8I7H98 =B G=5  DF=A5F=@M =B !B8CB9G=5  5B8 %5@5MG=5

 5G G<CKB =B =;  +CA9 C: H<9 75G9 GHI8=9G  K9F9 F9DCFH98

=B $5H=B A9F=75 K=H< C@CA6=5 5B8 CGH5 *=75 957< F9DCFH98 =B  C:

H<9 GHI8=9G K<=@9 I5H9A5@5 &=75F5;I5 5B8 (9FI K9F9 957< F9DCFH98 =B

CB@M  C: 5@@ GHI8=9G :F=75 H<9 CF=;=B C: C=@ D5@AG <58  C: H<9 75G9

GHI8=9G K=H< 5A9FCCB 56CB <5B5 5B8 &=;9F=5 957< F9DCFH98 =B CB@M

 C: H<9 GHI8=9G ,<9F9 K5G 5B =B7F95G9 =B GHI8=9G :FCA  HC 

5B8 :FCA  HC  K=H< ACGH DI6@=G<98 =B  =; 

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Fig. 2. =GHF=6IH=CB C: D99FF9J=9K98 75G9 GHI8=9G 57FCGG 7CIBHF=9G

Fig. 3. &IA69F C: D99FF9J=9K98 75G9 GHI8=9G F9DCFH=B; 8=F97H CF =B8=F97H =AD57H C: D5@A C=@ HF589 D9F M95F C: DI6@=75H=CB

3.2. Direct and indirect impacts of palm oil trade

,<9 G9@97H98 75G9 GHI8=9G F9DCFH98 B9;5H=J9 5B8 DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG :CF

6CH< 8=F97H GC7=C97CBCA=7 5B8 =B8=F97H H<FCI;< 97CGMGH9A G9FJ=79G

=AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; ,56@9  =B H<9 D

D9B8=L 89H5=@G H<9 GCIF79 C: =B:CFA5H=CB 7CIBHFM K<9F9 =AD57H K5G

F97CF898 7CBH=B9BH 5B8 HMD9 C: 9J=89B79 :CF H<9 8=F97H 5B8 =B8=F97H =A

D57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 F9DCFH98 =B H<9 D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9

3.2.1. Direct impacts

,<9  D99FF9J=9K98 GHI8=9G ACF9 C:H9B F9DCFH98 B9;5H=J9 

H<5B DCG=H=J9  8=F97H =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 CB <IA5B K9@@69

=B; ,<9 H<F99 ACGH :F9EI9BH@M F9DCFH98 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG =B7@I89 7CB

X=7HG  <CIG=B; 7CB8=H=CB  5B8 @5B8 ;F566=B;  ,<9G9

8=F97H B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG F9DCFH98 =B D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 K9F9 7CA

D5F98 5;5=BGH H<CG9 F9DCFH98 =B ;F9M @=H9F5HIF9 " =; 5 ,<9

" 5@GC F9DCFH98 @5B8 ;F566=B; =AD57HG K=H< 5 <=;< :F9EI9B7M =B

 C: 75G9G 6IH =AD57HG CB @=J9@=<CC8G =B ;9B9F5@ K9F9 F9DCFH98 =B

9J9B ACF9 75G9G  =F97H B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG F9DCFH98 =B H<9 D99FF9

J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 IB89F H<9 “'H<9FG”75H9;CFM =B7@I89 5779GG HC 98I

75H=CB <5F5GGA9BH =B9EI5@=HM >C6 EI5@=HM G97IF=HM GC7=5@ 9EI=HM GC

7=5@ B9HKCF?G 5B8 GC@=85F=HM +CA9 C: H<9 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG 9LHF57H98

:FCA H<9 D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 H<5H K9F9 BCH F9DCFH98 =B " =B7@I89

<CIG=B; 7CB8=H=CB DFCJ=G=CB C: <CGD=H5@G 5B8 =B7F95G9 =B GI=7=89 F5H9

@@ =AD57HG =B7@I898 =B H<9 " 5F9 5@GC F9DCFH98 =B 5H @95GH CB9 D99F

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Fig. 4. 5 =F97H B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; :FCA D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 JG " 5B8 6 8=F97H DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG :FCA D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9

F9J=9K98 75G9 GHI8M ,<=G H9@@G IG H<5H H<9 D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 75D

HIF98 H<9 6F958H< C: DCH9BH=5@ B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG

!B H9FAG C: DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG =B7CA9 ;9B9F5H=CB  5B8 9AD@CM

A9BH  K9F9 F9DCFH98 ACGH C:H9B =B H<9 D99FF9J=9K98 GHI8=9G =;

6 =F97H DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG F9DCFH98 =B H<9 D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9

IB89F H<9 “'H<9FG”75H9;CFM =B7@I89 7F98=H :57=@=H=9G =ADFCJ98 <CIG=B;

7CB8=H=CB @5B8G75D=B; A5F?9H =B:F5GHFI7HIF9 A=;F5H=CB F9@=;=CIG 79B

H9FG FIF5@ 89J9@CDA9BH 5B8 IF65B=N5H=CB +9J9F5@ C: H<9 G5A9 =B8=75

HCFG IG98 :CF 8=F97H 5B8 =B8=F97H =AD57HG K9F9 F9DCFH98 5G DCG=H=J9 5B8

B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG 89D9B8=B; CB H<9 7CBH9LH CF 9L5AD@9 =B7CA9 KCF?

=B; 7CB8=H=CB <CGD=H5@G K9F9 5@@ F9DCFH98 5G 6CH< B9;5H=J9 5B8 DCG=H=J9

=AD57HG

3.2.2. Indirect impacts

&9;5H=J9  =B8=F97H =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 CB <IA5B K9@@69

=B; K9F9 F9DCFH98 ACF9 :F9EI9BH@M H<5B DCG=H=J9 =B8=F97H =AD57HG  =B

H<9 GHI8=9G :FCA H<9 D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 !B H<9 75G9 GHI8=9G :FCA

H<9 D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 H<9 <=;<9GH B9;5H=J9 =AD57H K5G CB :CC8

DFCJ=G=CB  :C@@CK98 6M 75F6CB G9EI9GHF5H=CB 5B8 GHCF5;9 

5B8 7@=A5H9 F9;I@5H=CB  =;  CK9J9F H<=G K5G BCH B97

9GG5F=@M F9X97H98 =B H<9 " K<9F9 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG CB 9FCG=CB DF9

J9BH=CB  K5G H<9 <=;<9GH H<5H K5G F9DCFH98 =B 5@@ F97CF8G ,CD

B9;5H=J9 =B8=F97H =AD57HG :FCA " K9F9 9FCG=CB DF9J9BH=CB 75F6CB

G9EI9GHF5H=CB 5B8 <56=H5H DFCJ=G=CB 5F6CB G9EI9GHF5H=CB 5B8 GHCF5;9

 K5G CB9 C: H<9 HCD  ACGH C:H9B F9DCFH98 G9FJ=79G :CF B9;5H=J9

=AD57HG 6CH< :FCA D99F F9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 5B8 " +CA9 C: H<9 =A

D57HG =89BH=W98 =B H<9 D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 H<5H K9F9 BCH F9DCFH98

=B H<9 " 5G =B8=F97H B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG =B7@I89 DC@@=B5H=CB F97F95H=CB

5B8 HCIF=GA @@ =AD57HG =B7@I898 =B H<9 " 5F9 5@GC F9DCFH98 =B 5H @95GH

CB9 D99FF9J=9K98 GHI8M 'B@M  C: D99FF9J=9K98 GHI8=9G F9DCFH98

DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 CB 97CGMGH9AG G9FJ=79G 5B8 =B7@I89G

59GH<9H=7 5DDF97=5H=CB  7@=A5H9 F9;I@5H=CB  DFCJ=G=CB C: F5K

A5H9F=5@G  9FCG=CB DF9J9BH=CB  5B8 :CC8 DFCJ=G=CB  !B

H9F9GH=B;@M 7@=A5H9 F9;I@5H=CB 5B8 9FCG=CB DF9J9BH=CB 6CH< 75A9 ID 5G

B9;5H=J9 5B8 DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG

3.2.3. Impacts of smallholder vs agro-industrial plantations

!B 8=GH=B;I=G<=B; 69HK99B GA5@@<C@89F 5B8 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ C=@ D5@A

D@5BH5H=CBG 6CH< 8=F97H 5B8 =B8=F97H =AD57HG K9F9 7CBG=89F98 !B H<9

D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9  75G9 GHI8=9G F9DCFH98 =AD57HG 6M GA5@@

<C@89FG K<=@9  F9DCFH98 =AD57HG 6M 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ C=@ D5@A D@5BH5

H=CBG ACB; H<9 8=F97H =AD57HG F9DCFH98 =B H<9 D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5

Fig. 5. !B8=F97H B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; :FCA D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 7CAD5F98 HC H<CG9 :FCA "

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HIF9 H<9F9 5F9 6CH< B9;5H=J9 5B8 DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG ;FC=B8IGHF=5@ C=@

D@5BH5H=CBG K9F9 <=;<@=;<H98 :CF B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG GI7< 5G 7CBX=7HG

 KCFG9B=B; <CIG=B; 7CB8=H=CBG  5B8 @5B8 ;F566=B; 

K<=@9 GA5@@<C@89F C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG K9F9 F9DCFH98 HC <5J9 B9;5H=J9

=AD57HG GI7< 5G @5B8 7CBX=7HG  5B8 @5B8 ;F566=B;  =;

5 &9;5H=J9 =AD57HG H<5H K9F9 F9DCFH98 HC 69 75IG98 6M CB@M 5;FC=B

8IGHF=5@ C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG =B7@I89 GC@=85F=HM G97IF=HM G7<CC@G >C6 G9

7IF=HM >C6 EI5@=HM <CIG=B; 7CB8=H=CB 5B8 <CGD=H5@G &9;5H=J9 =AD57H CB

GC7=5@ B9HKCF?G K5G F9DCFH98 HC 69 75IG98 6M CB@M GA5@@<C@89F C=@ D5@A

D@5BH5H=CBG CH< 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG 5B8 GA5@@<C@89FG

K9F9 <=;<@=;<H98 :CF DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG GI7< 5G =B7CA9   5B8

9AD@CMA9BH   F9GD97H=J9@M =; 6 +CA9 DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG

F9DCFH98 HC 69 ;9B9F5H98 6M CB@M 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ D@5BH5H=CBG =B7@I89 57

79GG HC 98I75H=CB DFCJ=G=CB C: <CGD=H5@G <CIG=B; 7CB8=H=CB H<9 9GH56

@=G<A9BH C: F9@=;=CIG 79BH9FG 5B8 H5L F9J9BI9 +CA9 8=F97H DCG=H=J9 =A

D57HG =B 6CH< 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ 5B8 GA5@@<C@89F C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG =B

7@I89 DCJ9FHM 9F58=75H=CB 5B8 KCF?=B; 7CB8=H=CB (CG=H=J9 =AD57H CB

@=J9@=<CC8 K5G F9DCFH98 HC 69 DFCJ=898 6M CB@M GA5@@<C@89F C=@ D5@A

D@5BH5H=CBG

!B8=F97H =AD57HG 5GGC7=5H98 K=H< 7<5B;9G =B 97CGMGH9A G9FJ=79G K9F9

F97CF898 :CF 6CH< GA5@@<C@89F 5B8 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG

@H<CI;< B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG CB 97CGMGH9A G9FJ=79G GI7< 5G :CC8 DFCJ=

G=CB 5B8 75F6CB G9EI9GHF5H=CB 5B8 GHCF5;9 K9F9 <=;<@=;<H98 =B 6CH<

5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ 5B8 GA5@@<C@89F C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG H<9 56GC@IH9 D9F

79BH5;9 :F9EI9B7M K=H< K<=7< H<9M K9F9 F97CF898 K5G <=;<9F =B 5;FC=B

8IGHF=5@ D@5BH5H=CBG   F9GD97H=J9@M H<5B GA5@@<C@89FG 

5B8  F9GD97H=J9@M 5G G<CKB =B =;  CK9J9F HCIF=GA F97F95H=CB

;9B9H=7 8=J9FG=HM K5H9F HF95HA9BH 5B8 59GH<9H=7 5DDF97=5H=CB 5F9 =B8=

F97H DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG 5GGC7=5H98 K=H< CB@M 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ D@5BH5H=CBG

,<9 G5A9 HMD9G C: =B8=F97H DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG K9F9 F9DCFH98 :CF 6CH<

GA5@@<C@89F 5B8 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG ;FC=B8IGHF=5@

D@5BH5H=CBG <58 G@=;<H@M <=;<9F :F9EI9B7M C: 8=F97H DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG 

:CF F5K A5H9F=5@G 5=F EI5@=HM 5B8 59GH<9H=7 5DDF97=5H=CB H<5B GA5@@

<C@89F D@5BH5H=CBG  +A5@@<C@89F D@5BH5H=CBG K9F9 F9DCFH98 HC DCG

=H=J9@M =AD57H CB :CC8 DFCJ=G=CB 5B8 9FCG=CB DF9J9BH=CB =B  C: H<9

75G9 GHI8=9G K<=@9 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ D@5BH5H=CBG K9F9 F9DCFH98 =B CB@M 

C: H<9 75G9 GHI8=9G

4. Discussion

'=@ D5@A =G 5B =ADCFH5BH 7CAAC8=HM 7CBHF=6IH=B; HC @=J9@=<CC8G C:

A5BM 7CAAIB=H=9G 5B8 ;CJ9FBA9BHG 5FCIB8 H<9 KCF@8 CK9J9F =HG

7I@H=J5H=CB 5B8 7CBH=BICIG 9LD5BG=CB 8I9 HC <=;< 5B8 =B7F95G=B; 89

A5B8 <5G @98 HC A5BM B9;5H=J9 9::97HG @958=B; HC 5 75@@ HC A5?9 DFC

Fig. 6. !AD57HG C: GA5@@<C@89F .G 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; :FCA D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 5 8=F97H B9;5H=J9 6 8=F97H DCG=H=J9

Fig. 7. !B8=F97H B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG C: GA5@@<C@89F .G 5;FC=B8IGHF=5@ C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG CB <IA5B K9@@69=B; :FCA D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9

UNCORRECTED PROOF

L.M. Ayompe et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) 123914 

8I7H=CB GIGH5=B56@9 ,C H<=G 9B8 =B:CFA5H=CB =G B99898 HC IB89FGH5B8

H<9 B9;5H=J9 5B8 DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG CB 6CH< H<9 9BJ=FCBA9BH 5B8 CB <I

A5B K9@@69=B; ,<=G GHI8M 5=A98 HC =BJ9BHCF=N9 H<9 8=F97H 5B8 =B8=F97H

=AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 CB <IA5BG %CGH C: H<9 GHI8=9G K9F9 75FF=98

CIH =B !B8CB9G=5 5B8 %5@5MG=5 ,<=G =G BCH GIFDF=G=B; 6975IG9 5G C: 

!B8CB9G=5 6975A9 H<9 @5F;9GH DFC8I79F C: 7FI89 D5@A C=@ =B H<9 KCF@8

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UNCORRECTED PROOF

L.M. Ayompe et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) 123914

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:CF9GH5H=CB ;F99B<CIG9 ;5G 9A=GG=CBG 5B8 <IA5B F=;<HG 56IG9G CF7=

C@5B= 9H 5@  CIBH9F5F;IA9BHG =B7@I89 H<5H GA5@@<C@89FG K<C

7CBHF=6IH9 7@CG9 HC  C: H<9 D5@A C=@ HF5898 KCF@8K=89 %IHG59FG

 <5J9 @CK9F DFC8I7H=CB M=9@8G I@9F 9H 5@  5B8 H<9F9:CF9

IG9 ACF9 @5B8 HC DFC8I79 H<9 G5A9 JC@IA9 C: D5@A C=@ H<5B 5;FC=B8IG

HF=5@ C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG !B8998 9LD5BG=CB 5ACB; GA5@@<C@89F C=@ D5@A

D@5BH5H=CBG A5M 69 @5F;9F =B GCA9 5F95G $99 9H 5@  'H<9F GHI8

=9G DC=BH CIH H<5H IDH5?9 C: “;CC8”5;F=7I@HIF5@ DF57H=79G 5ACB; GA5@@

<C@89FG =G @CK H<F95H9B=B; H<9 GIGH5=B56=@=HM C: D5@A C=@ DFC8I7H=CB C

BCI;< 9H 5@  ,<=G GHI8M <5G G<CKB H<5H 6CH< GA5@@<C@89FG 5B8

5;FC=B8IGHF=9G <5J9 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG H<5H G<CI@8 69 57H98 IDCB !B

8998 H<9 =B8=F97H =AD57HG 5F9 G=A=@5F :CF 6CH< GA5@@<C@89FG 5B8 5;FC=B

8IGHF=9G =G@=7< 9H 5@ 

,<9 =ADCFH5B79 C: D5@A C=@ HF589 =B DCJ9FHM 5@@9J=5H=CB BIHF=H=CB5@

69B9WHG 5B8 =B GIDDCFH=B; @=J9@=<CC8G 5B8 7CBHF=6IH=B; HC G9J9F5@ +G

GI;;9GH H<5H =B7F95G=B; H<9 GIGH5=B56=@=HM C: D5@A C=@ DFC8I7H=CB 5B8

HF589 G<CI@8 69 9B7CIF5;98 +9J9F5@ C: H<9 GHI8=9G =B H<9 D99FF9J=9K98

@=H9F5HIF9 F9DCFH98 6CH< B9;5H=J9 5B8 DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG :CF H<9 G5A9 =B8=

75HCF CF 9L5AD@9 6CH< B9;5H=J9 5B8 DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG CB =B7CA9 ;9B

9F5H=CB <5J9 699B F9DCFH98 =B D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 +=A=@5F@M 75F

6CB G9EI9GHF5H=CB 5B8 GHCF5;9 K5G @=GH98 5G 6CH< B9;5H=J9 5B8 DCG=H=J9

=AD57H CK9J9F H<9 DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG B998 HC 69 K9=;<98 5;5=BGH H<9

B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG CF 9L5AD@9 H<9 7CBJ9FG=CB C: :CF9GH CB A=B9F5@ GC=@

HC C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CB <5G 699B 9GH=A5H98 HC F9GI@H =B A95B 75F6CB @CGG9G

C: 56CIH  %; '<5−CJ9F  M95FG K<=@9 7CBJ9FG=CBG CB D95H

@5B8G @958 HC 75F6CB @CGG9G F5B;=B; :FCA  HC  %; '<5−CJ9F

 M95FG 5F;=CB9 9H 5@  ,<9G9 @CGG9G 5F9 9BCFACIG 7CAD5F98

HC 5BM 75F6CB H<5H A=;<H 69 GHCF98 =B 5 D5@A D@5BH5H=CB ,C 9B<5B79

9BJ=FCBA9BH5@ GIGH5=B56=@=HM DC@=7M =B79BH=J9G 5F9 F9EI=F98 HC D9FGI589

;FCK9FG HC 9GH56@=G< C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG CB 5@F958M7@95F98 @5B8G =B

GH958 C: 6=C8=J9FG9 <=;< 75F6CB DF=A5FM F5=B:CF9GHG 5B8 =BJ9GH =B 69HH9F

9BJ=FCBA9BH5@ DF57H=79G @=BG?=G 5B8 IH=PFF9N.P@9N  B

CH<9F 9L5AD@9 C: B9;5H=J9 5B8 DCG=H=J9 =AD57H K5G =B GC=@ 9FCG=CB K<9F9

5@@ GHI8=9G =B H<9 " F9DCFH98 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG C: C=@ D5@A 7I@H=J5H=CB

CB GC=@ 9FCG=CB +9J9F5@ GHI8=9G <5J9 :CIB8 H<5H GC=@ @CGG :FCA C=@ D5@A

D@5BH5H=CBG =G 56CIH  H=A9G ;F95H9F H<5B =B B5HIF5@ :CF9GHG G99 =G

@=7< 9H 5@  CK9J9F K<=@9 7@95F=B; C: @5B8 :CF D5@A C=@ D@5BH5

H=CBG =AD57HG B9;5H=J9@M CB GC=@ 9FCG=CB F979BH GHI8=9G <5J9 G<CKB H<5H

H<9 IG9 C: 7FCD F9G=8I9 9ADHM :FI=H 6IB7<9G 5DD@=75H=CB <5G 5 <=;< DC

H9BH=5@ HC 9B<5B79 GC=@ 6=CH5 5B8 :IB7H=CBG 5B8 GC=@ :9FH=@=HM =B C=@ D5@A

D@5BH5H=CBG ,5C 9H 5@  ,<9F9:CF9 GCA9 C: H<9 DCG=H=J9 CF B9;5

H=J9 =AD57HG F9DCFH98 <9F9 AIGH 69 =BH9FDF9H98 K=H< 75F9 5G H<9M 89D9B8

CB H<9 7CBH9LH 5B8 H<9 HMD9 C: C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CB 5G K9@@ 5G H<9 D5FH=7I

@5F K9@@69=B; =B8=75HCF 7CBG=89F98 %5BM C: H<9 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG 75B 69

5JC=898 CF A=B=A=N98 H<FCI;< ;CC8 DF57H=79G =B7@I898 =B 79FH=W75H=CB

GH5B85F8G

::CFHG HC 9B<5B79 GIGH5=B56@9 C=@ D5@A 7I@H=J5H=CB 5B8 7CAD9H=H=J9

B9GG C: H<9 D5@A C=@ =B8IGHFM <5J9 HC 69 J=;CFCIG@M DIFGI98 =B CF

89F HC A=H=;5H9 H<9 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG CB <IA5BG 5B8 H<9 9BJ=FCBA9BH

+CA9 C: H<9 A95GIF9G GI;;9GH98 HC F98I79 =AD57HG CB H<9 9BJ=FCBA9BH

=B7@I89 =ADFCJ=B; DFC8I7H=J=HM H<FCI;< 69GH A5B5;9A9BH DF57H=79G 5B8

IG=B; <=;< EI5@=HM G998G (IF65  AI@7<=B; 9ADHM :FI=H 6IB7<9G

5B8 D@5BH=B; 7CJ9F 7FCDG +5GK5HH97<5 9H 5@  ,<9 ;F99B=B; C:

D5@A C=@ DFC8I7H=CB H<FCI;< H<9 IG9 C: 6MDFC8I7HG GI7< 5G 6=CA5GG HC

DFC8I79 6=C65G98 DFC8I7HG &; 9H 5@  6=C;5G 75DHIF9 HC F98I79

A9H<5B9 9A=GG=CBG *5A=F9NCBHF9F5G 9H 5@  5B8 D5@A C=@

DFC79GG=B; K5GH9G :CF 9B9F;M ;9B9F5H=CB =G 9B7CIF5;98 25<F599 9H 5@

 +9J9F5@ 79FH=W75H=CB =B=H=5H=J9G 9L=GH 5H H<9 ;@C65@ 5B8 B5H=CB5@

@9J9@ 5B8 =B7@I89 H<9 *CIB8H56@9 CB +IGH5=B56@9 (5@A '=@ *+(' K<=7<

DFCJ=89G =B79BH=J9G :CF F98I7=B; 9BJ=FCBA9BH5@ =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ DFC

8I7H=CB 5B8 H<9 !B8CB9G=5B +IGH5=B56@9 (5@A '=@ !+(' H<9 %5@5MG=5B

+IGH5=B56@9 (5@A '=@ 9FH=W75H=CB %+(' 5B8 H<9 IFCD95B +IGH5=B56@9

(5@A '=@ +(' =B=H=5H=J9G ,<9F9 =G GCA9 DFC;F9GG =B F98I7=B; B9;5

H=J9 =AD57HG CB H<9 9BJ=FCBA9BH 6M H<9G9 =B=H=5H=J9G K=H< BCH56@9 F9

GI@HG CF 9L5AD@9 *+(' 79FH=W98 DFC8I79FG =B C@CA6=5 K9F9 :CIB8 HC

75IG9 @CK9F 9BJ=FCBA9BH5@ =AD57HG H<5B H<9=F BCB79FH=W98 7CIBH9FD5FHG

8I9 HC 69HH9F A5B5;9A9BH DF57H=79G +5GK5HH97<5 9H 5@  I

FIAC 9H 5@  5F;I9 <CK9J9F H<5H 89GD=H9 H<9 DFC;F9GG 57<=9J98

H<FCI;< 79FH=W75H=CB G7<9A9G B9K GHF5H9;=9G G<CI@8 69 GCI;<H =B H5B

89A K=H< 79FH=W75H=CB HC 75DHIF9 ACF9 J5@I9 =B GIGH5=B56@9 D5@A C=@ GID

D@M 7<5=BG CH< *+(' DF=B7=D@9  5B8 !+(' DF=B7=D@9G  5B8  :CF

9L5AD@9 <5J9 DF=B7=D@9G 5=A98 5H F98I7=B; B9;5H=J9 GC7=5@ =AD57HG 6IH

H<9M K9F9 ACF9 :F9EI9BH@M F9DCFH98 =B7@I8=B; =B F979BH GHI8=9G 9; 5H

@95GH  C: 5@@ =AD57HG F9DCFH98 =B DI6@=75H=CBG :FCA  ,<9G9 WB8

=B;G GI;;9GH H<5H H<9 79FH=W75H=CB DF=B7=D@9G 5=A98 5H GC7=5@ =AD57HG A5M

BCH 69 9BCI;< !B :57H CB@M CB9 C:  DF=B7=D@9G =B H<9 *+(' =B=H=5H=J9 =G

5=A98 5H GC7=5@ 5GD97HG +I<5FHC 9H 5@  ,<=G =G 7CADCIB898 6M

H<9 :57H H<5H A5BM D5@A C=@ DFC8I79FG 5F9 BCH 79FH=W98 5B8 H<CG9 H<5H

5F9 79FH=W98 8C BCH B979GG5F=@M 7CAD@M K=H< H<9G9 DF=B7=D@9G +HF5H9;=9G

B998 HC 69 DIH =B D@579 HC =B7F95G9 H<9 J=G=6=@=HM 5B8 =AD@9A9BH5H=CB C:

GC7=5@ =AD57HG =B 79FH=W75H=CB G7<9A9G 5B8 HC 9B;5;9 57HCFG =B H<9 D5@A

C=@ DFC8I7H=CB J5@I9 7<5=B HC F98I79 H<9=F GC7=5@ =AD57HG 5G 89G7F=698 =B

H<=G GHI8M

!895@@M CB9 KCI@8 G99 5B =B7F95G9 =B DCG=H=J9 =AD57HG F9@5H=J9 HC B9;

5H=J9 =AD57HG CJ9F H=A9 5G GIGH5=B56=@=HM =B=H=5H=J9G H5?9 9::97H CK9J9F

CIF 85H5 :FCA D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 8C9G BCH G<CK GI7< 8=G79FB=6@9

HF9B8 +ID9FW7=5@@M H<9F9 G99AG HC 69 5 G@=;<H 897@=B9 =B H<9 BIA69F C:

F9DCFH98 D5@AC=@ 75G9G =B H<9 " ;F9M @=H9F5HIF9 CJ9F H=A9 6IH =H =G

BCH ?BCKB K<9H<9F H<=G F9@5H9G HC 5B CJ9F5@@ 897@=B9 =B 75G9G F9DCFH98 HC

" D5@A C=@ CF CH<9FK=G9 @9GG 5HH9BH=CB HC D5@A C=@ =FF9GD97H=J9 C: H<9

8=F97H=CB C: =AD57H CF =B8998 F9X97HG 5 897@=B9 =B B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG C:

D5@A C=@ HF589 !B CF89F HC 89H97H 7<5B;9G =B H<9 8=F97H=CB C: =AD57HG B9H

=AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ CJ9F H=A9 @CB;=HI8=B5@ GHI8=9G =895@@M CB GD97=W7

=B=H=5H=J9G =B CF89F HC =B:CFA DC@=7M A5?9FG CB K<=7< DC@=7M =BGHFIA9BHG

7CBHF=6IH9 HC 57<=9J=B; H<9 +G 9; +5BH=?5 9H 5@  KCI@8 69

B979GG5FM &9J9FH<9@9GG H<9F9 =G 5 B998 HC 9B:CF79 9L=GH=B; DC@=7=9G =B

7@I8=B; =B7F95G=B; 9AD<5G=G CB 577CIBH56=@=HM C: DF=J5H9 G97HCF 57HCFG

5B8 H<9=F 7CFDCF5H9 GIGH5=B56@9 DFC8I7H=CB 5B8 GCIF7=B; DC@=7=9G ,<=G

=B7@I89G H<9 =ADCFH5B79 C: =B7F95G=B; 9::CFHG HCK5F8G H<9 89J9@CDA9BH

C: 5B 9B56@=B; 9BJ=FCBA9BH 5G K9@@ 5G 9B:CF79A9BH C: GIGH5=B56@9 89J9@

CDA9BH =B=H=5H=J9G :CF GA5@@<C@89FG H<FCI;< =B7F95G98 ACB=HCF=B;

5. Conclusion

9GD=H9 CB;C=B; 9::CFHG HC @=A=H CF 9@=A=B5H9 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG C:

D5@A C=@ HF589 K=89GDF958 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG CB <IA5BG 6CH< 8=F97H@M

GI7< 5G @5B8 ;F566=B; 7CBX=7HG @CK =B7CA9 5B8 DCCF <CIG=B; 7CB8=

H=CBG CF @57? C: <CIG=B; 5B8 =B8=F97H H<FCI;< 97CGMGH9A G9FJ=79G K9F9

:CIB8 %CGH GHI8=9G K9F9 =B !B8CB9G=5 5B8 %5@5MG=5 K=H< J9FM :9K :FCA

CH<9F D5FHG C: H<9 KCF@8 K<9F9 D5@A C=@ =G 7I@H=J5H98 %CF9 GHI8=9G B998

HC 69 75FF=98 CIH =B H<9G9 D@579G =B7@I8=B; =B :F=75 HC IB89FGH5B8 H<9

=AD57HG =B CH<9F D5FHG C: H<9 KCF@8 7CAD5F98 HC G=5B 7CIBHF=9G GI7<

5G !B8CB9G=5 5B8 %5@5MG=5 (5@A C=@ HF589 5@GC =AD57HG <IA5BG =B8=

UNCORRECTED PROOF

L.M. Ayompe et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) 123914 

F97H@M H<FCI;< J5F=CIG 97CGMGH9A G9FJ=79G @H<CI;< @5F;9 G75@9 5;FC=B

8IGHF=9G <5J9 :CF @CB; 699B =B7F=A=B5H98 :CF B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@

HF589 GA5@@<C@89FG 5@GC <58 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG H<5H AIGH 69 588F9GG98

&9J9FH<9@9GG H<9 9GH56@=G<A9BH C: C=@ D5@A D@5BH5H=CBG <5J9 G9J9F5@ DCG

=H=J9 =AD57HG 9GD97=5@@M CB DCCF D9CD@9 =B7@I8=B; =B7CA9 ;9B9F5H=CB 5B8

>C6 7F95H=CB 5B8 <5G H<9 DCH9BH=5@ HC 7CBHF=6IH9 HC G9J9F5@ GIGH5=B56@9

89J9@CDA9BH ;C5@G +9J9F5@ =B=H=5H=J9G 9; *+(' !+(' 5B8 +(' 5F9

=B D@579 HC @=A=H H<9 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG C: D5@A C=@ HF589 H<FCI;< 79FH=W

75H=CB GH5B85F8G /<=@9 AI7< <5G 699B 57<=9J98 :CF H<9 9BJ=FCBA9BH

ACF9 B998G HC 69 8CB9 HC =B7@I89 GC7=5@ =AD57HG =B 79FH=W75H=CB GH5B

85F8G 5B8 HC =AD@9A9BH H<9A 'IF F9GI@HG G<CK CB;C=B; B9;5H=J9 GC7=5@

=AD57HG H<5H AIGH 69 588F9GG98 6IH ACF9 =B:CFA5H=CB =G B99898 HC 7CA

D@9H9@M IB89FGH5B8 H<9 G9J9F=HM C: H<9G9 =AD57HG

,<=G GHI8M :C7IG98 CB D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 5B8 75G9G F97CF898 =B

H<9 " /<=@9 5@@ B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG F97CF898 =B H<9 " K9F9 5@GC 75D

HIF98 =B H<9 D99FF9J=9K98 @=H9F5HIF9 A5?=B; CIF GHI8M FC6IGH =B H<5H

G9BG9 H<9M G<CI@8 69 =BH9FDF9H98 K=H< 75F9 :CF H<9 :C@@CK=B; F95GCBG

=FGH@M H<9G9 F9GI@HG 5F9 >IGH 5B CJ9FJ=9K :FCA 5 F9DF9G9BH5H=J9 G5AD@9

G=B79 BCH 5@@ GHI8=9G CB GC7=5@ =AD57HG =B H<9 G7=9BH=W7 @=H9F5HIF9 K9F9 =B

7@I898 +97CB8@M AI7< C: H<9 F9G95F7< =B D5@A C=@ G97HCF =G 7CB8I7H98

6M &'G GI7< 5G // 5B8 !'* ,<9G9 &'G 8C BCH B979GG5F=@M DI6

@=G< H<9=F KCF? =B H<9 G7=9BH=W7 @=H9F5HIF9 6IH =B ;F9M @=H9F5HIF9 ,<9 "

K<=7< F9DF9G9BHG CIF ;F9M @=H9F5HIF9 8C9G BCH 7CBH5=B F9DCFHG CB DCG=H=J9

=AD57HG A5?=B; =H <5F8 HC K9=;< 6CH< G=89G C: H<9 GHCFM :FCA ;F9M @=H

9F5HIF9 $5GH@M H<9 A5>CF=HM C: H<9 GHI8=9G K9F9 :FCA G=5 K=H< <=;<9F

D9F79BH5;9G =B !B8CB9G=5 5B8 %5@5MG=5 K<=7< A95BG H<5H CIF F9GI@HG

A5M BCH B979GG5F=@M F9X97H H<9 G=HI5H=CB =B ACGH CH<9F 7CIBHF=9G CK

9J9F H<9 7CBH=BI98 <=;< :F9EI9B7M C: F9DCFH98 B9;5H=J9 =AD57HG =B H<9G9

7CIBHF=9G =B F979BH M95FG =G KCFF=GCA9 ,<9 A5;B=HI89 C: H<9G9 =AD57HG

B998G :IFH<9F =BJ9GH=;5H=CB

Declaration of competing interest

,<9 5IH<CFG 897@5F9 H<5H H<9M <5J9 BC ?BCKB 7CAD9H=B; WB5B7=5@ =B

H9F9GHG CF D9FGCB5@ F9@5H=CBG<=DG H<5H 7CI@8 <5J9 5DD95F98 HC =BXI9B79

H<9 KCF? F9DCFH98 =B H<=G D5D9F

Acknowledgement

/9 57?BCK@98;9 :IB8=B; :FCA H<9 -# *9G95F7< 5B8 !BBCJ5H=CBG

@C65@ <5@@9B;9G *9G95F7< IB8 -#*! * H<FCI;< H<9 ,F589 9

J9@CDA9BH 5B8 H<9 BJ=FCBA9BH I6 DFC>97H DFC>97H BIA69F

++

Appendix A. Supplementary data

+IDD@9A9BH5FM 85H5 HC H<=G 5FH=7@9 75B 69 :CIB8 CB@=B9 5H <HHDG8C=

CF;>>7@9DFC

Uncited references

9=BHF9B=9 9H 5@ =66G 9H 5@ "9@GA5 9H 5@

+5BH=?5 9H 5@ 5+5GK5HH97<5 9H 5@ 

+7<FT89F 9H 5@ 

References

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C=@ D5@A 7CAAIB=HM D@5BH5H=CB :5FA9FG =B H<9 *=5I 5F95 58>5< %585 !BH " IG 

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Interlinkages Between Agri‐Food Trade and the SDGs at the Global, Regional and Local Level

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2025
J Int Dev

This study is a structured review on the interlinkages between agri‐food trade and the SDGs in the environmental, social and economic dimensions to identify any missed opportunities that agri‐food trade could positively impact the SDGs and provide policy guidance for the missed opportunities at the global, regional and national levels. A great deal of diversity in the papers at the global level, and papers at the regional level are similar, but there is additional analysis on promoting regional markets and value chains. Papers at the local level are product‐specific to emphasise how the trade of specific agricultural commodities would affect the achievement of particular SDGs in question. There is a concern regarding whether agri‐food trade can promote sustainability and the attainment of the SDGs. This is particularly important given that gains from trade are not entirely equitable. Questions relating to concrete innovations, policies and behavioural changes that can ensure systemic transformations remain critical and need to be addressed.

Bridging the Gap - The Role of Palm Oil in Shaping Global Trade and International Relations: A Review

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2025

Loso Judijanto

Palm oil plays a pivotal role in global trade as one of the most widely consumed vegetable oils, contributing significantly to the economies of major producers like Indonesia and Malaysia. Accounting for approximately 85% of global supply, it has become essential in various industries, including food, cosmetics, and biofuels. However, its influence extends beyond economics, shaping international relations and sparking debates on sustainability. This review explores the multifaceted role of palm oil in global trade and international relations. Economically, palm oil drives export revenues and rural development while fostering competitive dynamics between producing nations. Politically, it has become a contentious issue in trade policies, particularly with the European Union’s stringent environmental regulations, which have led to geopolitical tensions with Southeast Asian nations. Sustainability challenges further complicate its trajectory; while palm oil is highly efficient compared to alternatives, its production is unfairly accused of being linked to deforestation, biodiversity loss, and social inequities. Efforts such as sustainability certifications (e.g., RSPO) and zero-deforestation commitments aim to mitigate these impacts but face implementation hurdles. The review concludes that balancing economic benefits with environmental and social responsibilities is critical. Policymakers must prioritize sustainable practices through robust governance frameworks and equitable support for smallholders. Future research should focus on innovative solutions to enhance productivity by expanding plantations more sustainably, mechanisms for resolving trade disputes, and strategies for aligning global sustainability standards. By addressing these areas, palm oil can evolve into a model of sustainable development while maintaining its central role in global trade and diplomacy.

Budi Daya Bersama: Merangkul Kesejahteraan Komuniti melalui Projek Kebun Komuniti “Social Lab” untuk Mencapai Matlamat Pembangunan Mampan - PP 149-161

Chapter

Full-text available

Apr 2025

Sabah mencatatkan kadar kemiskinan tegar enam kali ganda daripada kadar nasional dan terus meningkat akibat daripada ketidaksetaraan dan pembangunan yang tidak seimbang daripada pelbagai sudut termasuk pendapatan, pendidikan dan infrastruktur. Hal ini menyebabkan Malaysia agak sukar mencapai Agenda Pembangunan Mampan 2030 untuk Matlamat Pembangunan Mampan 1 (SDG 1), yang memberi penekanan untuk menamatkan kemiskinan dan kekurangan lain. Oleh itu, Syarikat Tumparak Sdn. Bhd. berhasrat membantu komuniti petani di Kampung Kuyungon, Tambunan, Sabah untuk meningkatkan hasil tanaman menerusi projek Kebun Komuniti Social Lab. Projek ini dimulai dengan tinjauan awal, beberapa siri perkongsian ilmu bersama peserta projek, penyediaan tapak, pembangunan rumah hijau, semaian biji benih, pemindahan anak benih ke batas, penjagaan dan penyelenggaraan tanaman, penyelenggaraan lepas tuai, dan pembungkusan dan penjualan. Ilmu yang dipindah kepada peserta termasuklah pengeluaran makanan mampan dan pengurusan lepas tuai, pengurusan air dan pengurusan pengairan, pemasaran dan penjualan hasil pertanian. Sayuran seperti timun taiwan, peria katak, tomato ceri, sawi kerinting, sawi bunga, terung putih, sawi taiwan, lada benggala, kacang panjang, dan lobak merah ditanam secara berperingkat mulai 5 Disember 2023. Hasil tanaman ini telah mula dijual di pasaran tempatan pada 10 Januari 2024. Projek ini menunjukkan impak positif iaitu petani mampu memperoleh hasil jualan sekurang-kurangnya RM1000.00 – RM1800.00 sebulan daripada satu rumah hijau bergantung pada jenis tanaman. Selain itu, penggunaan baja organik sepenuhnya kepada tanaman di dalam membolehkan petani berpeluang untuk memohon pensijilan myGAP kelak. Kejayaan projek ini adalah hasil komitmen penuh daripada peserta, pemantauan berkala yang dilaksana oleh pihak syarikat Tumparak Sdn. Bhd., sokongan dana daripada Asas Pelaksanaan Pelan Gerakan Malaysia - Pelan Pembangunan Mampan berasaskan SDG (APPGM), serta khidmat nasihat daripada Jabatan Pertanian Sabah dan Universiti Putra Malaysia. Keseluruhannya, gabungan komitmen komuniti petani, syarikat swasta dan agensi kerajaan membuktikan SDG1; tiada kemiskinan, SDG2; kelaparan sifar, dan SDG10; mengurangi ketidaksetaraan boleh dicapai.

Food or cash? Trade-offs between support for food and non-food agricultural production Food or cash?

Technical Report

Full-text available

Mar 2025

2025. Food or cash?; Trade-offs between support for food and non-food agricultural production. Wageningen, Wageningen Social & Economic Research, Report 2025-057. 52 pp.; 11 fig.; 6 tab.; 55 ref. Trade-offs occur between food and cash crop production in terms of food security, social and environmental impacts, but synergies are also possible. Cash crop production for agricultural income generation can have a positive impact on food security, especially when done together with food crop production, because it combines two dimensions of food security: food availability and food accessibility. Environmental damage can be reduced by integrated and sustainable agricultural practices that can also achieve high yields. Smallholder farmers are greatly helped by financial, institutional and knowledge support for the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices that also allows them to reap economic benefits. The findings of this report are based on empirical evidence from literature review.

A Structural Equation Model to Assess the Impact of the Economic and Environmental Benefits to the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) Adoption

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2025

Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) was established initially to protect the national interest. However, the implementation level of ISPO still needs to be improved, mainly by smallholders. The low interest of smallholders is closely related to rational reasons such as economic and environmental benefits. Therefore, this study fills the gap by analyzing the economic and environmental benefits of adopting ISPO certifications using 300 respondents (150 ISPO and 150 non-ISPO) from four regencies (Batanghari, Muaro Jambi, Tebo, and Tanjung Jabung Barat) in Jambi Province, Indonesia. The study employed a closed-ended questionnaire to collect the farmers’ perspective data and utilized the Structural Equation Model (SEM) to address the research question. SEM can capture the perceptions of respondents and describe the impact of economic and environmental benefits to the ISPO adoption. The results found that the intention to adopt ISPO directly impacted the adoption rate. The intention to adopt by smallholders can be influenced by two variables, namely economic benefits and controlling behavior. The impact of the environmental advantages on the adoption intention was found to be insignificant. In addition, economic benefits have a dominant influence on all latent variables that compose intentions to adopt, such as subjective norms, attitudes toward sustainable management, and perceived control behavior. The study recommends that stakeholders pursue measures to disseminate the economic benefits of ISPO implementation to smallholders through various channels, including governmental and private extension. The government should also carry out a policy to create a supporting ecosystem to boost farmers' participation in adopting ISPO certification.

Investing in Oil Palm: Balancing Investor Objectives and Concerns PLEASE CLICK ON THE SECTION OF YOUR CHOICE

Technical Report

Full-text available

Mar 2025

Should investors and others concerned with supporting Sustainable Development Goals engage with oil palm cultivation, and if so, how? Voluntary Sustainability Standards (VSS) have played a pivotal role in improving social and environmental sustainability in the sector. However, risks and opportunities vary across regions, making their implementation challenging. Despite their importance in the oil palm sector, integrating and developing smallholder farmers within the supply chain remains difficult. Financial and other constraints make certification unattainable for most smallholders, requiring more scalable and flexible solutions guided by the principles underlying VSS. Investors must be aware of local realities and limitations, invest in safeguards, build local capacities, and enhance information flows and dialogue among sector stakeholders.

Balancing agricultural sustainability and conservation: Strategies for resource intensive systems in Spain and beyond

Article

Full-text available

May 2025

Environmental Impacts and the Food vs. Fuel Debate: A Critical Review of Palm Oil as Biodiesel

Article

Full-text available

May 2025

Palm oil is an efficient feedstock for biodiesel production due to its high oil yield and cost‐effectiveness, positioning it as a key component in the global biofuel industry. However, the expansion of oil palm plantations has raised substantial environmental and socio‐economic concerns. This review critically assesses the environmental impacts of palm oil biodiesel, including greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and the degradation of water and soil resources. Additionally, it explores the “food versus fuel” debate, emphasizing how competition for land and resources between biodiesel production and food cultivation affects global food security, particularly in developing nations. What distinguishes this review is its focus on Southeast Asian producer countries, particularly Indonesia and Malaysia, where biodiesel policies and land‐use changes intersect with food and environmental systems in unique ways. Unlike previous studies, this article delves into the often‐overlooked consequences of peatland conversion, highlighting its role in exacerbating carbon emissions and biodiversity loss. By providing a detailed analysis of the socio‐economic trade‐offs and sustainability challenges linked to palm oil biodiesel, the review offers insights into the complex interplay between renewable energy, food security, and environmental stewardship. It also evaluates technological innovations and best practices that can mitigate negative impacts. Furthermore, the review critically examines certification initiatives like the roundtable on sustainable palm oil (RSPO) and the indonesian sustainable palm oil (ISPO) and their effectiveness in promoting sustainable practices. By integrating case studies, this article demonstrates practical applications of these principles, offering actionable recommendations for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers in the field.

The impact of macroeconomic variables on crude palm oil price in Malaysia

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2024

Crude Palm Oil (CPO) has been a cornerstone of Malaysia's economy for decades, serving as one of the nation's most valuable export commodities. The persistent volatility of CPO prices reflects the inherent uncertainty of commodity markets, necessitating informed decision-making and robust risk management strategies. This dynamic environment requires continued research to unravel the complex relationships between crude palm oil prices and key economic variables, ensuring Malaysia's palm oil industry remains competitive and resilient in a rapidly changing global market. Thus, this study aims to examine the impact of macroeconomic variables on crude palm oil price in Malaysia. The study employs structural vector autoregressive (SVAR) model, spanning the period from 1971 to 2023. The findings suggest that real GDP positively influences CPO prices, though the response was statistically insignificant. Government expenditure showed a delayed positive impact on CPO prices. The CPI's negative and significant relationship with CPO prices underscores the cost-push effects of inflation. Similarly, the delayed negative impact of interest rates on CPO prices emphasizes the need for careful monetary policy adjustments to support agricultural investment and production. JEL classification: C32, E0, Q1.

Steering fatty acid composition of yeast microbial oil via genetic modification and bioprocess adjustment

Preprint

Full-text available

Mar 2025

The increasing demand for palm oil has drastic effects on the ecosystem as its production is not sustainable. To that end, developing a sustainable alternative to fatty acids and oils is urgent and of utmost interest. Oils produced by oleaginous yeasts present a promising solution, particularly because the fatty acid profile of the oil produced by these yeasts is comparable to that of plant-based oils and fats. The fatty acid composition of the oil determines its physiological properties, thereby determining its potential applications. Accordingly, the production of microbial oil with an optimal composition profile for a specific application is of great importance. In this study, we evaluated the variation that occurred in fatty acid composition due to different cultivation parameters (temperature, C/N ratio, carbon, and nitrogen sources) and applied genetic modifications to improve the lipid accumulation of Cutaneotrichosporon oleaginosus and Yarrowia lipolytica . We showed that specific fatty acid profiles associated with a particular application can be obtained by carefully selecting the microorganism and cultivation conditions.

Which forests could be protected by corporate zero deforestation commitments? A spatial assessment

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2020
ENVIRON RES LETT

The production of palm oil, soy, beef and timber are key drivers of global forest loss. For this reason, over 470 companies involved in the production, processing or distribution of these commodities have issued commitments to eliminate or reduce deforestation from their supply chains. However, the effectiveness of these commitments is uncertain since there is considerable variation in ambition and scope and there are no globally agreed definitions of what constitutes a forest. Many commitments identify high conservation value forests (HCVFs), high carbon stock forests (HCSFs) and forests on tropical peatland as priority areas for conservation. This allows for mapping of the global extent of forest areas classified as such, to achieve an assessment of the area that may be at reduced risk of development if companies comply with their zero deforestation commitments. Depending on the criteria used, the results indicate that between 34% and 74% of global forests qualify as either HCVF, HCSF or forests on tropical peatland. However, we found that the total extent of these forest areas varies widely depending on the choice of forest map. Within forests which were not designated as HCVF, HCSF or forests on tropical peatland, there is substantial overlap with areas that are highly suitable for agricultural development. Since these areas are unlikely to be protected by zero-deforestation commitments, they may be subject to increased pressure resulting from leakage of areas designated as HCVF, HCSF and tropical peatland forests. Considerable uncertainties around future outcomes remain, since only a proportion of the global market is currently covered by corporate commitments. Further work is needed to map the synergies between corporate commitments and government policies on land use. In addition, standardized criteria for delineating forests covered by the commitments are recommended.

Field evidence for positive certification outcomes on oil palm smallholder management practices in Colombia

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2019
J CLEAN PROD

The globalization of food systems has created new challenges for sustainability governance. Voluntary certification schemes, or eco-labels, have emerged as the primary mechanism to improve production practices in complex commodity supply chains. However promising, these programs are difficult to assess in practice, and evidence of their effectiveness is mixed. In the oil palm sector, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) has become the standard for sustainable production but there has been no evaluation of whether certification actually improves social and environmental practices on farms. To our knowledge, this study provides the first farm-level assessment of certification programs in the oil palm sector by focusing on RSPO and Organic (IFOAM) certified smallholders in Magdalena, Colombia. We conducted field surveys to evaluate management practices using a case-control pair-wise matching approach and non-parametric tests to assess outcome variables between certified and non-certified groups. We found evidence for better environmental practices among certified producers including the substitution of synthetic fertilizers with organics, less agrochemical use, and larger areas of farms being set-aside for conservation. Socio-economic outcomes were mixed, with certified producers paying higher wages, but employing fewer workers due to lower yields. Price premiums were an important motivation for smallholders to both join and remain in certification schemes. In the degraded oil palm landscapes of Colombia and elsewhere in Latin America, certification standards could be improved by including provisions for increased habitat restoration on plantations and smallholder plots. We find that certification is making progress but is not a panacea for transforming the industry. Going forward, new strategies should be sought in tandem with certification to overcome smallholder informality, enhance inclusion, and capture more value in sustainable supply chains.

Replanting policy of Indonesian palm oil plantation in strengthening the implementation of sustainable development goals

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2019

Jan Horas Veryady Purba

Abstract. Indonesia's palm oil industry is one of the National strategic commodities. This industry is inclusive and has a very broad impact on Indonesia's economic development, regional development, poverty alleviation, the country's foreign exchange resources and attempted to help overcome Indonesia's balance of payments deficit. Along with the end of the first 25 years of age in most of oil palm plantations in Indonesia, the replanting policy has become an important momentum, because it concerns the future of the Indonesian oil industry, then continued with the second milestone of the 2040s. With replanting, Indonesia also improves productivity and is followed by improvements in technical culture. Indonesian oil palm productivity is directed to reach the 35-26 scenario, which is the production of 35 tons of FFB per ha and 26 percent yield so that Indonesia's palm productivity will shift from productivity levels of 4.4 tons of CPO per hectare to 9 tons of CPO per hectare. With this level of productivity, Indonesia's CPO production will increase from 77.17 million tons in 2050 to 94.64 million tons. The purpose of this study is not merely to look at oil palm plantations from an economic standpoint because in a broader scope, oil palm plantations have four multifunction agriculture, namely green functions, blue functions, yellow functions, and white functions. The replanting policy of Indonesian palm oil also plays a role in strengthening Indonesia's palm oil industry in the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, which includes the economic fields (8 SDGs), social fields (6 SDGs) and the environment (3 SDGs).

The challenge of the oil palm: Using degraded land for its cultivation

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2019

Henk Mutsaers

Palm oil is a valuable product used all over the world in a vast number of products for daily use. The oil palm, once well established, is very productive, captures large amounts of carbon and provides good protection to the soil. The use of residues as fuel makes oil extraction plants self-sufficient in energy and produces surplus electricity. A large part of the plant nutrients can be recycled by composting empty fruit bunches, with palm oil mill effluent and ashes added. Smallholders contribute close to 50% of the palm oil traded worldwide. The crop has acquired a bad reputation, however, because of the forests which have been and continue to be cleared for new plantations. The rate of forest clearing has been particularly high in Indonesia and Malaysia, with Thailand and some African countries following at a distance. Forests on peat soils are also increasingly used, releasing even larger amounts of CO 2 from peat decomposition. In the ecologies where oil palm thrives, vast expanses of speargrass ( Imperata cylindrica) have resulted from logging and injudicious land use, including poorly managed plantations. Although speargrass is hard to get rid of, a sequence of annual and perennial plant species is capable to suppress the grass, opening a window for planting oil palm in the degraded land. A well-established oil palm crop will then keep the grass out, because of the latter’s intolerance for shade. Thus, the oil palm’s image in the eyes of the public as an ecological disaster can be converted into its opposite: that of a tool to restore the productive capacity of degraded lands. Vast numbers of smallholders can thereby safeguard their livelihood. The oil palm industry has the means and skills to make this happen.

Changing landscapes, livelihoods and village welfare in the context of oil palm development

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2019
LAND USE POLICY

The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals underscore the need for improved understanding of relationships between changes in landscapes, livelihoods, and social welfare, and how these relate to tackling poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation. Such assessments are especially relevant in the context of oil palm agricultural expansion, which has rapidly replaced traditional livelihoods and generates ongoing political debates around the world. Proponents of the oil palm industry have used economic objectives to justify expansion, while opponents have raised the negative socioecological impacts on communities. To assist the debate, we assessed the association between the change in land-uses and climate, the change in village primary livelihoods towards monocultural oil palm cultivation, and the change in village welfare after adopting oil palm across Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, between 2000 and 2014. We show that the change in village primary livelihoods towards monocultural oil palm cultivation during this period was associated with complex interrelations between the expansion of agricultural industries, and conducive climate and market conditions for supporting agricultural production. The shift to oil palm monoculture brought significant economic benefit to villages, but this was limited to those with past exposure to plantation management and the market economy, such as in polyculture plantation villages. For villages where the majority of communities practiced traditional subsistence-based livelihoods (farming, foraging and fishing), the economic benefit from a shift to oil palm lasted only a few years after transition, while the socioecological welfare deteriorated. Furthermore, the shift to oil palm monoculture jeopardized food security among these subsistence livelihood villages. Baseline economic and socioecological conditions of villages, therefore, critically determine the success of the oil palm sector in providing economic benefits over the long term. Our study urgently calls for considering oil palm development objectives not only in terms of regional economic gain, but also the future maintenance of socioecological welfare of village communities.

Social impacts of oil palm in Indonesia: A gendered perspective from West Kalimantan

Book

Jan 2015

M.. Li T

The GHG emissions and economic performance of the Colombian palm oil sector; current status and long-term perspectives

Article

Feb 2020
J CLEAN PROD

Increasing oil palm plantations, both for obtaining crude palm oil (CPO) and for the production of biobased products, have generated growing concern about the impact of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on the environment. Colombia has the potential to produce sustainable biobased products from oil palm. Nevertheless, national GHG emissions have not yet been reported by this sector. Achieving the collection of the total primary data from the oil palm sector, in Colombia, entails a tremendous challenge. Notwithstanding, for this study, the data collection of 70% of the production of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) was achieved. Therefore, current situation of CPO production in Colombia is analyzed, including 1) GHG emissions calculation, 2) net energy ratio (NER), and 3) economic performance. Moreover, the analysis includes two future scenarios, where the CPO production chain is optimized to reduce GHG emissions. Future scenario A produces biodiesel (BD), biogas, cogeneration, and compost; while future scenario B produces BD, biogas, cogeneration, and pellets. The methodology, for all the scenarios, includes life-cycle assessment and economic analysis evaluation. The results show a significant potential for improving the current palm oil production, including a 55% reduction in GHG emissions. The impact of land-use change must be mitigated to reduce GHG emissions. Therefore, a sustainable oil palm expansion should be in areas with low carbon stock or areas suitable/available to the crop (e.g., cropland, pastureland). Avoiding the deforestation of natural forests is required. Besides, crop yield should be increased to minimize the land use, using biomass to produce biobased products, and capture biogas to reduce methane emissions. In the biodiesel production life-cycle, the NER analysis shows the fossil energy consumed is lower than the renewable energy produced. Regarding the economic performance, it shows that in an optimized production chain, the capital expenditure and operational expenditure will decrease by approximately 20%.

Understanding local perceptions of the impacts of large-scale oil palm plantations on ecosystem services in the Brazilian Amazon

Article

Sep 2019
FOREST POLICY ECON

An investigation of the environmental sustainability of palm biomass supply chains via dynamic simulation modeling: A case of Malaysia

Article

Jul 2019
J CLEAN PROD

An integrated carbon footprint accounting and sustainability index for palm oil mills

Article

Jul 2019
J CLEAN PROD

Palm oil industry has received criticism from various parties on the issue of sustainability and the greenhouse gases. Carbon footprint accounting are widely used as a metric of climate change impacts and the main focus of many sustainability policies among companies and authorities. However, carbon footprint accounting has limitation to represent sustainability as a whole and may resulting inaccurate selection of further mitigation. This paper evaluates sustainability and greenhouse gases simultaneously using an integrated palm oil mill carbon footprint accounting (POMCFA) and palm oil mill sustainability index (POMSI) method. The integration was performed via the adoption of data synchronization of the carbon footprint accounting and sustainability assessment. The analysis shows that highest carbon dioxide equivalent emission was contributed by palm oil mill effluent followed by diesel consumption and water consumption. In terms of sustainability scoring, the results show that the environmental aspect achieved the lowest scores compared to other aspects (social and economy). Weaknesses identified include diesel consumption, palm oil mill effluent and boiler emission. The assessment analysed in terms of carbon dioxide equivalent and sustainability scoring demonstrates its potential to provide comprehensive mitigation selection purposes.

Towards sustainable palm oil production: The positive and negative impacts on ecosystem services and human wellbeing

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