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THE PROMINENCE OF BRANDING THROUGH
HISTORY AND ITS RELEVANCE TO MODERN
BRANDS: A LITERATURE REVIEW
Re-an Müller
North-West University (Vaal Triangle Campus), South Africa
ABSTRACT
Modern branding can be defined as the core beliefs and values of the organisation regarding all business practices
and interactions with consumers. Branding has been part of human existence for several millenniums and has evolved
from being a mark of ownership and identification, to being a method of quality assurance, to a bearer of certain
symbolic associations and, ultimately essential in creating a trust relationship between organisations and consumers.
Brands have become one of the most valuable intangible assets for an organisation. The purpose of this paper is to
investigate the significance of branding through history and how it developed to the important business asset it is
today.
Keywords: Branding, history of branding, brands, brand equity, marketing.
INTRODUCTION
Defining branding is a controversial issue in marketing (Kapferer, 2012). Each expert has their own views as to what
constitutes branding, resulting in numerous definitions for the term (Jahandoost & Bahrami, 2013). These diverse
definitions have caught the attention of several authors (De Chernatony & Riley, 1998; Maurya & Mishra, 2012; Jones
& Bonevac, 2013), who have attempted to identify the most common themes regarding branding. One widely accepted
definition of branding is that it is a mark of distinction that serves as a sign of differentiation between competitors
(Aaker, 2009; Van Zyl, 2011; Du Toit & Erdis, 2013). According to the American Marketing Association (Committee
on Definitions, 1960), this mark of distinction can be anything from “a name, term, sign, symbol, design, or a
combination of these” (p. 8). Jones and Bonevac (2013) assert that this definition reflects the origin of the term
‘branding’ as being a mark of identification. Qu et al. (2011) explain ‘identification’ to be the revelation of the source
of the product to the consumer. Therefore, the mark of identification (name/logo) identifies the producer and/or the
origin of production. However, Aaker (2014) emphasises that branding is much more than a name and logo. A brand
communicates a promise to consumers regarding the benefits of consumption, while denoting a set of values in the
consumer’s mind (Kapferer, 2012). This set of values refers to everything the consumer considers to be important
regarding the brand. Strizhakova et al. (2011) suggest that consumers use brand names as a quality assurance method,
which influences their brand choice. Quality assurance can be based on the brand’s reputation, which is maintained
by means of communication efforts with consumers (Dranove & Jin, 2010). Consumers interact with organisations on
various levels and their perception of the brand’s reputation is shaped by these interactions. Chung et al. (2013) define
a brand as the sum of all experiences from a consumer’s perspective. Middleton (2011) emphasises this by defining a
brand as being “the sum total of all things that people think, feel, suspect, imagine, believe, wish and say about a
brand” (p. 108). De Chernatony and Riley (1998) argue that a brand can be defined as an image formed in the mind
of consumers. This image is the result of how the organisation was presented to consumers. Consequently, an
organisation needs to determine what they are going to present to consumers. Moreover, the organisation needs to
know how they view themselves. Jones and Bonevac (2013) explored various definitions of branding and concluded
that a brand is “the definition of your organisation” (p. 117–118).
Collectively, these various arguments suggest that there are several aspects inherent in the concept of
branding. Consequently, branding may be defined as the core beliefs and values of the organisation concerning all
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business practices and interactions with consumers. This definition encapsulates the key aspects highlighted by the
diverse definitions of branding.
ORIGIN OF BRANDING
“Branding, as a concept, is older than the modern theory” (Herman, 2003, p. 711). For centuries, branding has served
to distinguish one producer’s goods from another (Kumar, 2014).) This suggests that branding practices have been
around for several millenniums (Moore & Reid, 2008; Eckhardt & Bengtsson, 2010). The modern-day marketing term
‘brand’ was derived from the Old Norse term ‘brandr’, meaning to burn (Roper & Parker, 2006). The term referred to
the burning of a mark of ownership onto livestock (Khan & Mufti, 2007; Maurya & Mishra, 2012). Cattle were
branded to distinguish them from other cattle on markets. Family names were often used as a brand, not only to identify
the livestock but also to serve as a quality assurance and guarantee (Sheth & Parvatiyar, 1995). While Dranove and
Jin (2010) state that the branding of cattle dates back to 2000 BC, there are indications that branding practices
indicating products’ origin of production date back even further.
Wengrow (2008) presents evidence regarding sealing practices as early as 7000 BC in the Mesopotamia region
(modern-day Iraq). Eckhardt and Bengtsson (2010) argue that these early seals served as an indication of origin as
well as a mark of quality. These early forms of branding were also used as a marking to indicate ownership. Yang et
al. (2012) suggest that stone seals discovered in the Middle East dating back to 3500 BC indicated ownership. These
early forms of branding do have some resemblances to modern branding. Wengrow (2008) analysed an ancient
commodity label from a royal tomb in Egypt, which dates back to around 3000 BC. The ancient oil label was compared
to a modern wine label to determine similarities. Both labels had an indication of quantity and region of origin, as well
as a core message being conveyed (Wengrow, 2008). There are definite similarities between this ancient commodity
label and modern-day branding practices. This verifies that branding has indeed been around for thousands of years.
Early forms of branding practices were not limited to only the Middle East region. Greenberg (1951, cited in
Eckhardt & Bengtsson, 2009) mentions the discovery of stamps on pottery dating back to 2700 BC in China. These
seals were used to identify and differentiate products. Yang et al. (2012) also refer to some craftsmen seals dating
back to 2250 BC – 2000 BC in the Indus Valley (modern-day India). Researchers discovered these craftsmen seals
attached to containers, indicating, among other things, the origin of production and even some form of brand imagery
(Moore & Reid, 2008). The seals showed all kinds of animals and, in some instances, even labels of gods such as the
fertility god label of Shiva (Moore & Reid, 2008). These findings are supported by Singh (1971), who noted that
drawings and engravings of animals and plants were discovered on broken pieces of ceramic material and steatite
seals in the region of the Indus Valley. Reddi (2009) suggests that these seals were often used as trademarks in stores.
One could argue that these brand imageries could be an ancient form of brand personality creation.
There is also evidence of branding during the middle bronze age (2000 BC – 1500 BC) in the region of Shang
China (Moore & Reid, 2008). Products in this region were mostly regulated by the king (wang) and, therefore, carried
a Zu family crest marking. These crests informed consumers of the origin of the product and served as quality
assurance. Moore and Reid (2008) argue that the Zu crests can be regarded as a form of primitive branding.
Some of the earliest evidence of consumer packaging in the form of amphorae (large ceramic containers) could be
found throughout the Mediterranean from 1500 BC to AD 500 (Grace, 1979; Twede, 2002). These containers came
in various shapes and had different identifying markings and labels, depending on the origin. Some of the containers
had very specific markings showcasing the identity of the producer, contents, date of production as well as the price.
The main purpose of these container markings was for product identification and differentiation (Holleran, 2012).
Twede (2002) reasons that the Greek containers had more personality than the Roman containers. Wine containers
from Chios were among these distinctive Greek containers. The Chios wine was the most famous wine in the region
and these containers had a distinguishing slender shape, which also appears on Chios coins (Papadopoulos & Paspalas,
1999). Twede (2002) argues that the use of this trademark shape of containers as well as displaying the shape on coins
could be tied to modern-day marketing campaigns.
Eckhardt and Bengtsson (2009) name the White Rabbit brand (needle manufacturer) as the earliest documented
complete brand, dating back to the Song Dynasty (AD 960 – AD 1127) in China. The White Rabbit brand logo was
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printed on paper in which the needles were packaged. The packaging indicated the name of the producer, details
regarding the production, usability and discount availability. The White Rabbit was an important symbol for the local
people. The brand originated from a well-known Chinese legend about Chang E. Chang E, the goddess of the moon,
was the wife of the famous archer Hou Yi. According to the legend, Chang E drank an immortality potion and rose to
the moon where she lived with a white rabbit, becoming the quintessence of feminine ideologies (Lai, 1994; Masako,
1995). The White Rabbit has symbolic as well as mythic properties for the target market (women) and, therefore,
serves as the perfect brand image to portray a feminine brand personality. Petty (2013) states that these ancient brands
had symbolic value that identified the producer and carried certain cultural meaning regarding the use of the product.
However, it is not clear whether the brand identities were central to the marketing strategy as is the case with modern
brands.
The Song Dynasty was not only the start of the first complete brand but also the start of mass advertising (Starcevic,
2015). Landa (2005) proposes that block-printing started in China during the Song Dynasty and served as a preface
for mass communication. This access to mass printing practices made it easy for manufacturers to print labels for their
products. Hamilton and Lai (1989) state that distinguishable labels that use brand names were common at marketplaces
across China from the fourteenth-century onwards. However, the invention of the modern printing press in the
fifteenth-century transformed advertising into a craft of persuasion (Danesi, 2007). Organisations could now
communicate their brand to potential consumers without being in direct contact with the consumer. This would become
essential for organisations once the industrial revolution commenced.
MODERN BRANDING PRACTICES
The Industrial Revolution that occurred during the eighteenth-century focused on the efficiency of production (Varey,
2011). Consequently, production moved from individual producers to big factories. Consumers were no longer buying
products from a local producer whom they knew personally. Generic products came from various factories from far
away. Subsequently, the Industrial Revolution generated a need for organisations to create a personal certification to
overcome the anonymity of these generic products (O'Barr, 2007). Roper and Parker (2006) argue that the Industrial
Revolution set modern branding in motion.
Organisations had to present consumers with a brand with which they could start building a relationship that
would lead to trust and loyalty. Therefore, organisations started using personification to create brands that could
replace the trustworthy shopkeeper. Klein (2000) explains that this is why familiar personalities like Dr. Brown, Uncle
Ben and Aunt Jemima were used as brand names during the nineteenth-century. Subsequently, advertising became
more competitive. O'Barr (2007) explains that Ivory Soap had a distinctive appearance, logo and package design, and
was advertised with scientific claims in the late 1800s. For that reason, Pears’ Soap, a direct competitor of Ivory Soap,
advertised their product using romantic images (O’Barr, 2007). Klein (2000) argues that by the start of the 1900s
several organisations realised that brands could evoke a feeling. Ford was the leading automobile producer in the early
1900s until they were overtaken by General Motors (GM), who was selling more than just a car (Moreton, 2006). GM
sold a feeling by telling the story about people who drove their cars, making it “something personal, warm and human"
(Klein, 2000). Organisations had to adapt to and start selling more than only product features to convince consumers
that their product was better than that offered by their competitors. Creating a brand with which consumers could
connect with and relate to became essential.
Branding soon became part of most organisations’ marketing campaigns but it was not until the 1940s that
branding became part of a corporate identity (Suchman, 2007). Daffey and Abratt (2002) suggest that corporate
identity moved from corporate image in the 1950s to corporate personality in the 1970s and 1980s, which eventually
led to corporate brand management. Corporate branding became central to organisations and was defined by their
unique identity and core values (Villagra & Lopez, 2015). Branding became such a central part of organisations that
certain laws were put in place to protect brands. Petty (2016) argues that brand identity protection, such as trademarks,
is necessary to protect organisations from imitators breaking consumers’ trust. The development of modern brands
was dependent on the development of trademarks (Duguid, 2009). These trademarks are of exceptionally high value
and a well-established trademark may be sold for millions.
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Maurya and Mishra (2012) argue that the focus on branding peaked during the 1980s, based on the increase
in mergers and the very high valuation of brands as an intangible asset. In 1988, Kraft was bought for a staggering
US$12.6 billion, while the company was only valued at US$2.1 billion (Newman, 2001). Moore (2003) referred to
this defining transaction as “the brand equity mania of the eighties” (p. 338). The staggering price difference was paid
towards the word Kraft (Moore, 2003). For the first time, a quantifiable amount was assigned to a previously
unquantifiable organisational aspect - a brand name (Klein, 2000). This transaction changed the way branding was
viewed. Brands became an intangible asset with a balance sheet value (Balmer & Gray, 2003). Consequently,
organisations had to restructure to accommodate this newly identified asset.
The turn of the second millennium in 2000 marked a definite change in the composition of the management
of organisations as brand directors and brand managers began to form an integral part of the team (Middleton, 2011).
Jones and Bonevac (2013) propose that branding is probably a marketer’s most important job nowadays. All
organisations need to realise the importance of branding.
IMPORTANCE OF BRANDING
Brands may be classified as one of the most important intangible assets of an organisation (Chung et al., 2013).
Consequently, branding is recognised as one of the most important marketing activities (Srinivasan et al., 2011) and
has become a top management priority (Keller & Lehmann, 2006). Todor (2014) argues that branding research
increased over the past decades due to the prominent influence it has on an organisation’s performance. Branding is
of value to both the organisation and the consumers (Ankomah Opoku et al., 2007).
From the consumers’ perspective, a brand fundamentally helps the consumer to identify the producer of the
product (Kotler & Armstrong, 2013). Consumers are bombarded with a vast number of different brands in an
overcrowded marketplace. Therefore, branding is essential to help consumers find what they are looking for. Branding
is especially valuable when consumers need to choose between products that are quite similar (Herman, 2003).
Branding simplifies the choice by helping consumers to identify brands that have satisfied their needs in the past
(Keller, 2013). Consumers know the reputation of the brand based on past experiences. Branding provides a level of
reassurance regarding the quality of the product (Cant, 2011). Kotler and Keller (2012) argue that branding can provide
an indication of consistency for consumers. The brand becomes a mark of quality assurance. When consumers
repeatedly receive quality, it creates a sense of trust (Keller & Lehmann, 2006). Strong brands create a trust
relationship with consumers based on the quality certification (Jobber, 2010). This sense of trust leads to a reduction
of risk for the consumer when purchasing the brand (Mugesh, 2015).
Keller (2013) suggests that brands have a functional meaning as well as symbolic qualities for consumers.
Consumers use brands to symbolise their self-image and to express themselves (Cant, 2011; Kim & Hall, 2014).
Certain brands exhibit certain symbolic qualities. Consumers use brands to enhance their own image (Kotler &
Armstrong, 2013). Consequently, consumers purchase these brands to portray a specific public image and to fit in
among a specific crowd. The symbolic meanings attached to a brand are either assigned by consumers or designated
by the brand’s marketers (Sung et al., 2015). Organisations can use this symbolism attached to a brand strategically
to position the brand within the market to influence consumer behaviour. Furthermore, branding also offers
organisations several benefits.
From an organisational perspective, organisations essentially use brands as a form of identification to simplify
logistics and to serve as a marker of the organisation’s offerings (Mugesh, 2015). Branding also helps the organisation
to communicate information regarding the product to their consumers (Chung et al., 2013). Wood (2000) contends
that a brand often provides the key distinction between competitive offerings, which could be crucial for the success
of the organisation. There are several brand-related aspects, influential to the organisation’s competitive advantage,
which could be protected by intellectual property rights. The brand name can be protected in the form of registered
trademarks, packaging by means of copyright and unique production processes by patents (Keller, 2013). These
aspects have an impact on how consumers perceive the organisation. By protecting these brand-related aspects, the
organisation can keep their competitive advantage. This ensures that competitors cannot use the brand’s success for
their own gain. For this reason, organisations spend vast amounts of money on the development and protection of their
brands (Masterson & Pickton, 2010).
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As indicated earlier, brands communicate information regarding a product as well as a promise regarding the
quality. If an organisation continually delivers on this promise, consumers will return time after time. Branding creates
a platform for consumers to become brand loyal (Du Toit & Erdis, 2013). As such, consumers start to link the brand
with dependability. Furthermore, loyal consumers will be less likely to switch to another brand, even if there is a price
increase (Cant & Van Heerden, 2013). Consequently, an organisation with a strong brand is able to charge premium
prices, which will lead to higher profits (Jobber, 2010). In addition, new products can be introduced with greater ease
if an organisation has an established brand. Loyal consumers are familiar with the brand and, as such, are more likely
to trust the new product based on their familiarity with the brand. Therefore, branding can assist in the selling of new
products and in faster consumer acceptance, based on the reputation of an established brand (Lamb et al., 2011; Du
Toit & Erdis, 2013).
Brands can influence consumer behaviour and guarantee sustainable future profits (Keller, 2013). For this
reason, brands have become an extremely valuable intangible asset for an organisation. Jobber (2010) suggests that
strong brands enhance the financial value of an organisation; hence, a brand is a financial asset for an organisation
(Mugesh, 2015). Masterson and Pickton (2010) point out that the financial value of a brand can be referred to as the
brand equity.
BRAND EQUITY
The strength of a brand can be measured with brand equity by means of adding a monetary value to the brand name
(Jobber, 2010; Lamb et al., 2010). Aaker and Joachimsthaler (2012) define brand equity as all the assets or liabilities
associated with a brand name. Brand equity adds to the value provided by the product or service and may, therefore,
be explained as the positive differential effect that a brand name has on a consumer’s behaviour (Kotler et al., 2010).
That is, branding is the increase in profit or demand based on the influence of the brand’s name (Kapferer 2008).
Brand equity is a complex phenomenon and the measurement thereof is widely debated (Wood, 2000).
Veloutsou et al. (2013) identify two different approaches to brand equity, namely the consumer-based approach and
the firm-based approach. The consumer-based brand equity approach focuses on the consumers’ perception of the
brand over time (Kotler & Keller, 2012). The firm-based brand equity approach focuses on the financial value of the
brand (Aggarwal et al., 2013). Schiffman and Kanuk (2014) argue that consumer perceptions of the brand’s superiority
influence the financial value of the brand. Consequently, brand equity may be considered a consumer-based concept.
Numerous brand equity models have been developed, of which the two most prevalent models are Keller’s
(1993) and Aaker’s (1996) (Klopper & North, 2011; Jooste et al., 2012; Kotler & Keller, 2012). Keller’s model is a
consumer-based brand equity model that focuses on brand knowledge. Keller’s model is subdivided into two
dimensions of brand knowledge, namely brand awareness (brand recall and brand recognition) and brand image (type,
favourability, strength and uniqueness of brand associations). The model focuses on the brand image dimension by
going into more detail regarding the types of brand association specifically. The types of brand association include
attributes (product-related and non-product-related), benefits (functional, experiential and symbolic) and attitudes.
There are some definite similarities between Keller’s model and Aaker’s Brand Equity model, also known as the
Brand Equity Ten. Aaker (1996) describes market behaviour, brand awareness, perceived quality, brand loyalty and
brand associations as indicators of brand equity. David Aaker is considered the father of modern branding based on
his ground-breaking work regarding brand equity (Adamson, 2015). For the purposes of this paper, Aaker’s Brand
Equity Ten will be used to outline the factors that influence brand equity. Furthermore, the two dimensions (brand
awareness and brand associations) identified by Keller (1993) are also covered under Aaker’s Brand Equity model.
Aaker’s Brand Equity model
According to Aaker (1996), a brand equity model comprises the five categories of market behaviour, brand awareness,
perceived quality, brand loyalty and brand associations.
The market behaviour of a brand is the only brand equity measure (of the Brand Equity Ten) where no
consumer inputs are required, as the measure utilises market share, market price and distribution coverage (Aaker,
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1996). Consequently, this measure is relatively objective and quantifiable (Phipps et al., 2010). It should be noted that
market behaviour aspects are not applicable when measuring consumer-based brand equity as it is considered as a
firm-based approach to brand equity (Veloutsou et al., 2013). The remaining four categories are classified as
consumer-based approaches to brand equity.
Brand awareness may be defined as the extent to which a consumer can recall and recognise a particular
brand (Du Toit & Erdis, 2013). Macdonald and Sharp (2003) suggest that no communication can take place between
the organisation and consumer without brand awareness. A consumer needs to be aware of a brand before they will
purchase the brand. The strategic importance of brand awareness is often underestimated (Aaker & McLoughlin,
2010). Brand awareness forms the foundation of brand equity (Kotler & Keller, 2012) and is the groundwork for all
other connections with the brand (Jooste et al., 2012). Brand awareness plays a vital role in the recall and recognition
of a brand (Saleem et al., 2015). Most organisations want to be recognised by potential consumers (Cant & Van
Heerden, 2013). When brand awareness exists, an organisation’s brand forms part of a consumer’s consideration set
(Macdonald & Sharp, 2003). If a consumer considers the brand when making a purchase decision, the chance of an
actual purchase exists. Therefore, organisations need to strive to achieve brand awareness among potential consumers.
Several authors (Yoo et al., 2000; Berry, 2000; Kim & Hyun, 2011) indicate that there is a positive relationship
between brand awareness and brand equity. However, Neerakkal (2012) suggests that brand awareness alone is not a
sufficient measure of brand equity and needs to be used in collaboration with other brand equity dimensions.
Perceived quality may be defined as the subjective judgement consumers have regarding the brand’s quality
and superiority compared to its closest competitors (Zeithaml, 1988; Chi et al., 2009; Keller, 2013). Consumer
perceptions regarding the quality of a brand impact brand preference as well as the brand’s equity (Gill & Dawra,
2010). Organisations can position their brand based on quality to differentiate the brand from competitors (Jooste et
al., 2012). Yoo et al. (2000) argue that brands that are perceived as being of a higher quality are often viewed as being
superior to competitors’ offerings. The superiority of a brand may be measured using leadership measures, as
mentioned by Aaker (1996) as part of the Brand Equity Ten. Leadership measures strive to determine the brand’s
popularity and perception of innovativeness among consumers. Leadership measures also aim to determine whether
consumers view the brand as one of the top brands in a product class (Aaker, 1996). Consumers will be more willing
to purchase a brand that is considered as the top brand in a product category based on the quality assurance.
Consequently, higher quality brands can often charge premium prices based on the higher value attached to the brand
(Dibb et al., 2012). Quality brands may, therefore, be viewed as more valuable from an organisation’s perspective,
and may lead to higher brand equity.
Brand loyalty may be defined as the willingness or preference of a consumer to purchase the same brand
recurrently (Jooste et al., 2012; Lamb et al., 2013). Brand loyalty is at the core of brand equity (Aaker, 1996;
Moisescu, 2007) as it can be considered as the ultimate consumer-learning outcome for an organisation (Schiffman et
al., 2010). Tong and Hawley (2009) agree, stating that brand loyalty may be considered as the most important brand
equity dimension. Loyal consumers are often returning consumers, who are exceptionally valuable to an organisation.
Jooste et al. (2012) suggest that it is more expensive to attract a new consumer than retain a current consumer.
Furthermore, Reichheld (2001) suggests that loyal consumers help to keep costs down by lowering new consumer
acquisition costs through effective word-of-mouth marketing. A loyal consumer base may be viewed as an asset and,
therefore, an important aspect of brand equity. Aaker and McLoughlin (2010) explain that brand loyalty is an asset as
it is difficult to persuade loyal customers to consider an alternative brand. Loyal consumers are also less price-sensitive
and would be willing to pay more for a familiar brand than for competitors’ products with the same benefits. Aaker
(1996) refers to this phenomenon as the price premium part of the Brand Equity Ten and argues that price premium
may be the most reliable indicator of brand equity, as a change in all the other measures will directly influence the
price a consumer would be willing to pay for a particular brand.
Brand associations may be defined as “all brand-related thoughts, feelings, perceptions, images, experiences,
beliefs, attitudes…” that the consumer attaches to a brand (Kotler & Keller, 2012, p. 164). Keller (2013) highlights
the importance of the strength, favourability and uniqueness of all the brand associations as a differential response
that constitutes brand equity. Chen (2001) suggests that brand associations are a result of a link between two nodes in
the consumer’s mind. In other words, a consumer links a certain memory with the brand, resulting in specific brand
associations (Fayrene & Lee, 2011). These associations may be directly or indirectly related to the brand (Aaker &
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Mcloughlin, 2010). Aaker (1996) argues that brand associations may be viewed from three different perspectives,
namely the brand as an organisation, a person or a product.
The perception of the brand as a product focuses on the value proposition that a brand creates (Aaker, 1996).
Brown and Dacin (1997) define organisational associations as all the perceptions, beliefs, emotions and information
about an organisation in the consumer’s mind. The last aspect that may influence brand associations is the perception
of the brand as a person. Aaker (1996) states that this perception is effective when the brand is consumed in a social
setting and may enhance the consumer’s image visibly. Keller (1993) classifies brand personality as a non-product-
related attribute that influences emotions and feelings regarding a brand. A brand can sometimes reflect personality
traits and values similar to those of consumers (Keller, 2001), which, consequently, may influence their behaviour.
Brand personality is a key factor influencing brand associations and brand equity (Pappu et al., 2005). Furthermore,
Masterson and Pickton (2010) argue that brand personality is at the core of an organisation and influences brand
identity, brand image and, ultimately, brand equity.
CONCLUSIONS AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
This paper analysed various definitions of branding to derive at a new definition for the term branding. This definition
guided a literature review to identify branding practices through history. Branding has has evolved over the past nine
milliniums from only being a mark of ownership to the most important distinguishing factor for the modern brand.
The increase in competitors in the market led to the use of branding as a differentiator by means of emotional
associations to the brand. Competition became so fierce that it was crucial for organisations to implement branding as
part of their corporate image. Consumers became acquainted with brands and the associations attached to them, and
started using these associations to help them to make purchasing decisions. Likewise, organisations realised the
importance of branding for the organisation’s success. Brands became a valuable intangible asset with financial worth.
This sparked a change in how organisations viewed and managed brands. Brand equity became an important
component of measuring a brand’s success. Organisations need to be aware of what branding entails and the prominent
role it plays in the overall success of the organisation.
As with all studies, this paper do have certain limitations. This paper focused on the development of brands
through history until the early 2000’s. The influence of the digital age in the twenty-first century on branding was not
assessed. Future research can further analyse the influence of the internet and specifically social media on branding
of modern brands and how consumers engage with brands. Furthermore, this paper only looked at the measurement
of brand equity from the perspective of Aaker (1996) and Keller (1993). Future research could also consider other
measures of brand equity.
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