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COVID-19: Pathophysiology, treatment options, nanotechnology approaches, and research agenda to combating the SARS-CoV2 pandemic
Abstract
The recent corona virus disease (COVID-19) outbreak has claimed the lives of many around the world and highlighted an urgent need for experimental strategies to prevent, treat and eradicate the virus. COVID-19, an infectious disease caused by a novel corona virus and no approved specific treatment is available yet. A vast number of promising antiviral treatments involving nanotechnology are currently under investigation to aid in the development of COVID-19 drug delivery. The prospective treatment options integrating the ever-expanding field of nanotechnology have been compiled, with the objective to show that these can be potentially developed for COVID-19 treatment. This review summarized the current state of knowledge, research priorities regarding the pandemic and post COVID-19. We also focus on the possible nanotechnology approaches that have proven to be successful against other viruses and the research agenda to combat COVID-19.
... In severe cases of COVID-19, different drug cocktails are being used such as chloroquine (antimalarial drug), lopinavir/ritonavir (from AIDS treatments), favipiravir (against influenza), and ribavirin (from Hepatitis C treatments) (Bhavana et al. 2020). Better clinical outcomes by prevention of viral replication within the host are required, either by aiding the immune response in capturing viral particles or preventing their attachment to the ACE2 protein (Alphandéry 2020). ...
... Alphandery et al. review several options available for modification and specific targeting of NPs to SARS-CoV-2 (Alphandéry 2020). The majority of the antiviral nanotherapies involved silver NPs; this may be due to their previously established role in ameliorating other viral infections (Bhavana et al. 2020). ...
Although heart diseases continue to be the leading cause of death worldwide, advances performed in recent decades have facilitated a decrease in the mortality rate related to severe heart diseases. This is due to the recognition that has been acquiring the role of the immune system and its contribution to the progression of heart disease. Recent studies have shown that there is a close relationship between cardiac disturbances and inflammatory mediators produced by immune system cells since there is a close interaction between the innate and adaptive immune response in the pathophysiology of heart diseases. Regarding innate immune response, macrophages are the leading cells, which play a fundamental role in a wide variety of cardiac disorders. These cells produce a variety of cytokines that open up a wide range of therapeutic possibilities in the treatment of heart diseases. However, under certain circumstances, it is known that immune system cells can cause irreparable damage that contributes to heart failure. Therefore, it is essential to study the crosstalk between innate and adaptive response in order to better understand the mechanism of action of the different cardiac disturbances. In this sense, biotechnology emerges as a pioneering tool that allows on the one hand to effectively detect the various cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases, and on the other, to develop innovative therapies that result in effective treatments.
... This virus causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID- 19), whose clinical manifestations are not specific but somewhat like many viral illnesses [2]. The most common symptoms after viral incubation between 4 and 14 days are cough, fever, fatigue, anosmia, dysgeusia, headache, and sometimes nausea and diarrhea [3]. Clinical manifestations can range from mild to very severe and even fulminant disease [3]. ...
... The most common symptoms after viral incubation between 4 and 14 days are cough, fever, fatigue, anosmia, dysgeusia, headache, and sometimes nausea and diarrhea [3]. Clinical manifestations can range from mild to very severe and even fulminant disease [3]. Pandemic has promoted several strategies in all science branches to understand and solve COVID-19 conditions. ...
Despite the development of vaccines against COVID-19 disease and the multiple efforts to find efficient drugs as treatment for this virus, there are too many social, political, economic, and health inconveniences to incorporate a fully accessible plan of prevention and therapy against SARS-CoV-2. In this sense, it is necessary to find nutraceutical/pharmaceutical drugs as possible COVID-19 preventives/treatments. Based on their beneficial effects, flavonoids are one of the most promising compounds. Therefore, using virtual screening, 478 flavonoids obtained from the KEGG database were evaluated against non-structural proteins Nsp1, Nsp3, Nsp5, Nsp12, and Nsp15, which are essential for the virus-host cell infection, searching for possible multitarget flavonoids. Amentoflavone, a biflavonoid found mainly in Ginkgo biloba, Lobelia chinensis, and Byrsonima intermedia, can interact and bind with the five proteins, suggesting its potential as a multitarget inhibitor. Molecular docking calculations and structural analysis (RMSD, number of H bonds, and clustering) performed from molecular dynamics simulations of the amentoflavone-protein complex support this potential. The results shown here are theoretical evidence of the probable multitarget inhibition of non-structural proteins of SARS-CoV-2 by amentoflavone, which has wide availability, low cost, no side effects, and long history of use. These results are solid evidence for future in vitro and in vivo experiments aiming to validate amentoflavone as an inhibitor of the Nsp1, 3, 5, 12, and 15 of SARS-CoV-2.Graphical Abstract
... It is reported that the mechanism of infection and replication of SARS-CoV-2 is similar to that of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. The angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2) receptors are the primary binding receptors for the viral particle and are found highly expressed in alveolar epithelial cells of lungs, vascular endothelial cells, and enterocytes but can also be found in other organs, such as kidney, liver, and gastrointestinal tract (Azer, 2020;Bhavana et al., 2020;Harrison et al., 2020;Parasher, 2021). The internalization of the virus in host cells results in different inflammatory changes such as edema, necrosis, and tissue dysfunction. ...
... The internalization of the virus in host cells results in different inflammatory changes such as edema, necrosis, and tissue dysfunction. These changes can cause a cytokine storm, promoting changes in the immune response that cause excessive damage to the lung, gastrointestinal, neurological, and cardiopulmonary systems (Azer, 2020;Bhavana et al., 2020;Harrison et al., 2020;Rizzo et al., 2020;Xu et al., 2020;Anka et al., 2021). ...
COVID-19 is renowned as a multi-organ disease having subacute and long-term effects with a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations. The evolving scientific and clinical evidence demonstrates that the frequency of cognitive impairment after COVID-19 is high and it is crucial to explore more clinical research and implement proper diagnostic and treatment strategies. Several central nervous system complications have been reported as comorbidities of COVID-19. The changes in cognitive function associated with neurodegenerative diseases develop slowly over time and are only diagnosed at an already advanced stage of molecular pathology. Hence, understanding the common links between COVID-19 and neurodegenerative diseases will broaden our knowledge and help in strategizing prognostic and therapeutic approaches. The present review focuses on the diverse neurodegenerative changes associated with COVID-19 and will highlight the importance of major circulating biomarkers and microRNAs (miRNAs) associated with the disease progression and severity. The literature analysis showed that major proteins associated with central nervous system function, such as Glial fibrillary acidic protein, neurofilament light chain, p-tau 181, Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase L1, S100 calcium-binding protein B, Neuron-specific enolase and various inflammatory cytokines, were significantly altered in COVID-19 patients. Furthermore, among various miRNAs that are having pivotal roles in various neurodegenerative diseases, miR-146a, miR-155, Let-7b, miR-31, miR-16 and miR-21 have shown significant dysregulation in COVID-19 patients. Thus the review consolidates the important findings from the numerous studies to unravel the underlying mechanism of neurological sequelae in COVID-19 and the possible association of circulatory biomarkers, which may serve as prognostic predictors and therapeutic targets in future research.
... Recent water quality results which were obtained from various parts of the world showed positive signs on the existence of ribonucleic acid (RNA) of SARS-CoV-2 in the wastewater [159]. To date, the virus has been found in wastewater treatment plants that are located in Australia, China, the Czech Republic, Ecuador, France, Japan, Italy, Pakistan, Spain, Netherlands, USA, Turkey, and other countries [12,159,[161][162][163][164][165]). There were also published works that documented the presence of SARS-CoV-2 viruses in the treated wastewater [166,167]. ...
... The surveillance of wastewater for disease alert has gained growing interest and attention to remove viruses from wastewater efficiently [18,153,169]. Several works comprehensively discussed the occurrence and possible transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus through the water system [12,159,160,[163][164][165]. Briefly, the researchers revelated that the viruses enter the water system from the urine or stool of infected people and animals through various ways which include wastewater discharge from the hospitals, quarantine facilities, residential buildings, sewage, landfill, and drainage water. ...
Consumption of pathogenic contaminated water has claimed the lives of many people. Hence, this scenario has emphasized the urgent need for research methods to avoid, treat and eliminate harmful pathogens in wastewater. Therefore, effective water treatment has become a matter of utmost importance. Membrane technology offers purer, cleaner, and pathogen-free water through the water separation method via a permeable membrane. Advanced membrane technology such as nanocomposite membrane, membrane distillation, membrane bioreactor, and photocatalytic membrane reactor can offer synergistic effects in removing pathogen through the integration of additional functionality and filtration in a single chamber. This paper also comprehensively discussed the application, challenges, and future perspective of the advanced membrane technology as a promising alternative in battling pathogenic microbial contaminants, which will also be beneficial and valuable in managing pandemics in the future as well as protecting human health and the environment. In addition, the potential of membrane technology in battling the ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was also discussed briefly.
... Nanotechnology has huge potential for fighting the COVID-19 pandemic, since it enables targeted drug or vaccine delivery to physiologically inaccessible targets; increases drug loading and transport, and provides intrinsic/synergistic virucidal activity. 73,74 It can also possess simple, fast, and cost-effective alternative disinfection methods; provide targeted pulmonary drug delivery, and offer ways for designing better immunomodulating materials. It can generally contribute to antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, diagnostic, theranostic, therapeutic, biosensing, preventive/protective equipments, immunomodulation, and vaccination approaches against the pandemic. ...
... They can be formed in combination with each other or with inorganic NPs to form hybrid nanosystems based on specific use at the targeted site. 74 Inhalable organic and inorganic NPs ( Figure 6) 121 can be used for targeting the lung to overcome side effects from high serum concentrations of conventional administrations. 122 Nano-drug co-deliveries can reduce particle size-dependent safety issues in lung and respiratory systems. ...
A serious viral infectious disease was introduced to the globe by the end of 2019 that was seen primarily from China, but spread worldwide in a few months to be a pandemic. Since then, accurate prevention, early detection, and effective treatment strategies are not yet outlined. There is no approved drug to counter its worldwide transmission. However, integration of nanostructured delivery systems with the current management strategies has promised a pronounced opportunity to tackle the pandemic. This review addressed the various promising nanotechnology-based approaches for the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of the pandemic. The pharmaceutical, pharmacoeconomic, and regulatory aspects of these systems with currently achieved or predicted beneficial outcomes, challenges, and future perspectives are also highlighted.
... Metal nanoparticles such as gold nanoparticles (AuNP) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are vastly examined nanotechnology method to treat viral infections. Several hypothesis of nanoparticles have been prepared to progress a new strategy to improve or eliminate the infection severity [127]. In recent research, it determined that colloidal Ag with particle sizes between 3-7 nm can be very effective to treat and prevent viral infection at early stage of respiratory infections [127]. ...
... Several hypothesis of nanoparticles have been prepared to progress a new strategy to improve or eliminate the infection severity [127]. In recent research, it determined that colloidal Ag with particle sizes between 3-7 nm can be very effective to treat and prevent viral infection at early stage of respiratory infections [127]. Sarkar and coworkers has hypothesized that the use of water dispersed AgNPs (10 nm) in combination with bronchodilators in lungs via bi-level ventilation or simple nebulizer machine may induce better virucidal action [128]. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic is currently an unprecedented public health threat. The rapid spread of infections has led to calls for alternative approaches to combat the virus. Nanotechnology is taking root against SARS-CoV-2 through prevention, diagnostics and treatment of infections. In light of the escalating demand for managing the pandemic, a comprehensive review that highlights the role of nanomaterials in the response to the pandemic is highly desirable. This review article comprehensively discusses the use of nanotechnology for COVID-19 based on three main categories: prevention, diagnostics and treatment. We first highlight the use of various nanomaterials including metal nanoparticles, carbon-based nanoparticles and magnetic nanoparticles for COVID-19. We critically review the benefits of nanomaterials along with their applications in personal protective equipment, vaccine development, diagnostic device fabrication and therapeutic approaches. The remaining key challenges and future directions of nanomaterials for COVID-19 are briefly discussed. This review is very informative and helpful in providing guidance for developing nanomaterial-based products to fight against COVID-19.
... Covid-19 is a systemic multi-organ damage disease causing severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2), which still causes significant death and disease in the world and continues to spread rapidly [3,11,12]. Regarding immunity to Covid-19, it is still not entirely clear what responses occur in Covid-19 and whether people recovering from Covid-19 infection are protected from a second infection [13][14][15]. With these clinical features of Covid-19, there is no specific treatment approved yet [13]. ...
... Regarding immunity to Covid-19, it is still not entirely clear what responses occur in Covid-19 and whether people recovering from Covid-19 infection are protected from a second infection [13][14][15]. With these clinical features of Covid-19, there is no specific treatment approved yet [13]. ...
Since February-2020, the world has been battling a tragic public-health crisis with the emergence and spread of 2019-nCoV. Due to the lack of information about the pathogenesis-specific treatment of Covid-19, early diagnosis and timely treatment are important. However, there is still a lack of information about routine-blood-parameteres (RBP) findings and effects in the disease process. Although the literature includes various interventions, existing studies need to be generalized and their reliability improved. In this study, the efficacy of routine blood values used in the diagnosis and prognosis of Covid-19 and independent biomarkers obtained from them were evaluated retrospectively in a large patient group. Low lymphocyte (LYM) and white-blood-cell (WBC), high CRP and Ferritin were effective in the diagnosis of the disease. The d-CWL= CRPWBC∗LYM and d-CFL= CRP∗FerritinLYM biomarkers derived from them were the most important risk factors in diagnosing the disease and were more successful than direct RBP values. High d-CWL and d-CFL values largely confirmed the Covid-19 diagnosis. The most effective RBP in the prognosis of the disease was CRP. (d-CIT) = CRP*INR*Troponin; (d-CT) = CRP*Troponin; (d-PPT) = PT*Troponin*Procalcitonin biomarkers were found to be more successful than direct RBP values and biomarkers used in previous studies in the prognosis of the disease. Finally, an open-access data source consisting of RBC was created for studies to be carried out in the fight against COVİD-19. In this study, biomarkers derived from RBP were found to be more successful in both diagnosis and prognosis of Covid-19 than previously used direct RBP and biomarkers.
... Given their simple production pathway, high plasmon resonance, excellent electrical/optical/catalytic properties, biocompatibility, and ability to simply detect antibodies, antigens, DNA, and RNA with 89-100% sensitivity, AuNPs are the most widely used metal NPs in biosensing applications for virus infections [61]. In general, AuNPs have mainly been used in second-generation biosensors because of their high surface-to-volume ratios, which improves the interaction between analyte and sensor. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 has been an immense threat to global public health and has also had a negative socioeconomic impact worldwide. However, although the pandemic is now under control, it has demonstrated that society is unprepared to use analysis methods that are applicable to various types of viruses nor apply new therapies to prevent infections, considering the extensive time needed for vaccine development. The use of nanomaterial-based diagnostics and therapeutics can provide essential strategies for both virus detection and treatment. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are the nanomaterials most commonly used to enhance virus detection because of their bioconjugation, high plasmon resonance, and excellent electrical, optical, and catalytic properties. The present review outlines the recent advances reported in the literature regarding using AuNPs for their antiviral activities with respiratory viruses, analysis techniques such as AuNP-assisted polymerase chain reaction, biosensors (electrochemical, piezoelectric, and optical), lateral flow analysis, nucleic acid assays, and gene and vaccine therapy. Finally, as a potential antiviral treatment, this review provides in vitro and in vivo toxicity results of AuNPs for respiratory viruses, as well as those related to their toxicity in humans, to evaluate their use as a future antiviral treatment.
... The development of the COVID-19 pandemic, which was caused by the new coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, has resulted in a global public health disaster, with considerable morbidity and fatality rates around the world [1,2]. The development of medication candidates has become a priority in the fight against the pandemic due to the urgent need for effective therapies [3,4]. Traditional drug development procedures can be time-consuming and costly, with a low success rate. ...
COVID-19 pandemic has spurred intense research efforts to identify effective treatments for SARS-CoV-2. In silico studies have emerged as a powerful tool in the drug discovery process, particularly in the search for drug candidates that interact with various SARS-CoV-2 receptors. These studies involve the use of computer simulations and computational algorithms to predict the potential interaction of drug candidates with target receptors. The primary receptors targeted by drug candidates include the RNA polymerase, main protease, spike protein, ACE2 receptor, TMPRSS2, and AP2-associated protein kinase 1. In silico studies have identified several promising drug candidates, including Remdesivir, Favipiravir, Ribavirin, Ivermectin, Lopinavir/Ritonavir, and Camostat mesylate, among others. The use of in silico studies offers several advantages, including the ability to screen a large number of drug candidates in a relatively short amount of time, thereby reducing the time and cost involved in traditional drug discovery methods. Additionally, in silico studies allow for the prediction of the binding affinity of drug candidates to target receptors, providing insight into their potential efficacy. However, it is crucial to consider both the advantages and limitations of these studies and to complement them with experimental validation to ensure the efficacy and safety of identified drug candidates.
... Nanotechnology-based techniques can circumvent these limitations due to their unique features (El-Sherbiny et al. 2015;Velkov et al. 2015). Furthermore, it is the science of using particles with size scales of 1 to 100 nm (Bhavana et al. 2020). Particle size influences the major mechanisms of deposition in the respiratory tract. ...
The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak spread rapidly worldwide. Yet, there is no identifiable antiviral treatment, so an effective drug is urgently needed. Preventive strategies and oxygen therapy are the main practical approaches to prevent and treat COVID-19. Clinical trials are in progress for the antiviral and immunomodulation agents that eventually are being developed for COVID-19 treatment. Pharmacological, immunotherapies, natural-based supplements, biologics, and combination therapies interventions have been established. The concept of drug repurposing was re-visited, and many conventional antivirals or immunosuppresses were evaluated for Efficacy against COVID-19 infection. Even though much has been published, the rapid progression of therapeutic strategies and unpredictable disease alterations necessitates continual information updates. This review defines drug repurposing and summarizes a medication developed for other therapeutic approaches rather than SARS-CoV-2 treatment. Furthermore, we provide data on the effectiveness of traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) on COVID-19. Additionally, biological and advanced Nano-based drug delivery systems are reviewed.
... In December 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) was notified of several cases of pneumonia of unknown origin in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China. Based on laboratory data, the cause was identified as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which causes the disease now known as COVID-19 [1]. As a result of a global effort directed towards the development of immunizers against COVID-19, several vaccines were approved by regulatory agencies and, by the end of 2021, about 58 % of the world's population had received at least one dose of the vaccine, and 49 % had completed the vaccination schedule [2]. ...
Despite the worldwide vaccination effort against COVID-19, the demand for biocidal materials has increased. One promising solution is the chemical modification of polysaccharides, such as chitosan, which can provide an-tiviral activity through the insertion of cationic terminals. In this study, chitosan was modified with (4-carboxybutyl) triphenylphosphonium bromide to create N-phosphonium chitosan (NPCS), a quaternized derivative. The resulting NPCS samples with three degrees of substitution (15.6 %, 19.8 % and 24.2 %) were characterized and found to have improved solubility in water and alkaline solutions but reduced thermal stability. The particles zeta potential exhibits positive charges and is directly correlated with the degree of substitution of the derivative. In virucidal assays, all NPCS samples were able to inhibit 99.999 % of the MHV-3 coronavirus within 5 min at low concentrations of 0.1 mg/mL, while maintaining low cytotoxicity to L929 cells. In addition to its potential application against current coronavirus strains, NPCS could also be valuable in combating future pandemics caused by other viral pathogens. The antiviral properties of NPCS make it a promising material for use in coating surface and personal protective equipment to limit the spread of disease-causing viruses.
... To date, a defined treatment for Covid-19 infection has not been introduced. There may be different therapeutic options, many of them based on symptom control, and the possibility of using one class or another depends on the disease severity and timing of onset [55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66]. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have transformed the treatment of several diseases, including cancer and inflammatory or autoimmune conditions, and are a new first line for the treatment of infectious diseases. ...
Objective:
to evaluate the efficacy of US, both qualitatively and semi-quantitatively, in the selection of treatment for the Covid-19 patient, using patient triage as the gold standard.
Methods:
Patients admitted to the Covid-19 clinic to be treated with monoclonal antibodies (mAb) or retroviral treatment and undergoing lung ultrasound (US) were selected from the radiological data set between December 2021 and May 2022 according to the following inclusion criteria: patients with proven Omicron variant and Delta Covid-19 infection; patients with known Covid-19 vaccination with at least two doses. Lung US (LUS) was performed by experienced radiologists. The presence, location, and distribution of abnormalities, such as B-lines, thickening or ruptures of the pleural line, consolidations, and air bronchograms, were evaluated. The anomalous findings in each scan were classified according to the LUS scoring system. Nonparametric statistical tests were performed.
Results:
The LUS score median value in the patients with Omicron variant was 1.5 (1-20) while the LUS score median value in the patients with Delta variant was 7 (3-24). A difference statistically significant was observed for LUS score values among the patients with Delta variant between the two US examinations (p value = 0.045 at Kruskal Wallis test). There was a difference in median LUS score values between hospitalized and non-hospitalized patients for both the Omicron and Delta groups (p value = 0.02 on the Kruskal Wallis test). For Delta patients groups the sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, considering a value of 14 for LUS score for the hospitalization, were of 85.29%, 44.44%, 85.29% and 76.74% respectively.
Conclusions:
LUS is an interesting diagnostic tool in the context of Covid-19, it could allow to identify the typical pattern of diffuse interstitial pulmonary syndrome and could guide the correct management of patients.
... 5 Para peneliti masih melakukan evaluasi terhadap perawatan baru untuk pengobatan Covid-19, namun belum ada yang terbukti efektif. 6 Pasien Covid-19 yang mengalami ARDS dan memerlukan ventilasi mekanis dan intubasi dapat mengalami syok hingga mengalami kegagalan multiorgan, walaupun sampai saat ini belum jelas apakah hal ini merupakan akibat langsung dari infeksi virus atau komplikasi penyakit kritis lain yang belum jelas. 7 Pendekatan terapeutik untuk pasien Covid-19 termasuk perawatan suportif standar yang agresif dan pengobatan koinfeksi lainnya. ...
Covid-19 merupakan penyakit yang diidentifikasi untuk pertama kalinya di Wuhan, Tiongkok, di mana penyakit ini dapat merusak paru-paru, serta organ dan sistem organ lainnya seperti jantung serta sistem kekebalan tubuh manusia. Hingga saat ini belum terdapat pengobatan khusus untuk penyakit ini, namun para ilmuwan di Tiongkok telah melakukan banyak studi klinis terhadap terapi berbasis sel untuk pasien dengan Covid-19 dan penyakit pernapasan lainnya, terutama menggunakan sel punca (stroma) mesenkim atau mesenchymal stem (stromal) cells (MSC), dengan memanfaatkan media terkondisi yang diturunkan dari MSC atau MSC-derived conditioned media (CM) atau vesikel ekstraseluler dan beberapa tipe sel lainnya. Data praklinis terbaru dari model infeksi virus pernapasan dan studi klinis yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan MSC dengan cara mengubah ekspresi cytokine proinflamasi, dan membantu memperbaiki jaringan yang rusak pada penderita Covid-19. Metode penelitian ini menggunakan metode studi kasus deskriptif. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui efektivitas terapi dengan menggunakan sel punca atau mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) pada penatalaksanaan Covid-19. Hasil dari penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat kemungkinan pemberian MSC alogenik dapat mempercepat langkah-langkah perbaikan jaringan di paru-paru dan mengurangi kebutuhan untuk aktivasi sel mesenkim lebih lanjut. Tanggapan positif pada subjek yang menerima pengobatan umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cell (UC-MSC) menunjukkan adanya penurunan cytokine inflamasi, daripada perubahan viral load. Mahalnya biaya terapi sel membuat peneliti hanya bisa mengadakan studi klinis terbatas mengenai terapi sel untuk pasien Covid-19.
... Figure 1 llustrates the pathophysiology and provides clinically significant biomarkers of COVID-19. ACE-2 receptor is highly expressed in pneumocytes of the lungs and present in the liver, heart, kidney, gastrointestinal tract, bladder, thyroid, and testes, implying that these organs are more vulnerable to COVID-19 infection [31][32][33]. The nucleocapsid protein carries the RNA, while the membrane and envelope proteins organize the coronavirus assembly [34]. ...
Introduction:
The COVID-19 outbreak has put enormous pressure on the scientific community to detect infection rapidly, identify the status of disease severity, and provide an immediate vaccine/drug for the treatment. Relying on immunoassay and a real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) led to many false-negative and false-positive reports. Therefore, detecting biomarkers is an alternative and reliable approach for determining the infection, its severity, and disease progression. Recent advances in liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) enable the protein biomarkers even at low concentrations, thus facilitating clinicians to monitor the treatment in hospitals.
Areas covered:
This review highlights the role of LC-MS/MS in identifying protein biomarkers and discusses the clinically significant protein biomarkers such as Serum amyloid A, Interleukin-6, C-Reactive Protein, Lactate dehydrogenase, D-dimer, cardiac troponin, ferritin, Alanine transaminase, Aspartate transaminase, gelsolin and galectin-3-binding protein in COVID-19, and their analysis by LC-MS/MS in the early stage.
Expert opinion:
Clinical doctors monitor significant biomarkers to understand, stratify, and treat patients according to disease severity. Knowledge of clinically significant COVID-19 protein biomarkers is critical not only for COVID-19 caused by the coronavirus but also to prepare us for future pandemics of other diseases in detecting by LC-MS/MS at the early stages.
... Hollow silicon nanoneedles were reported to be used in drug delivery and extraction of intracellular proteins or mRNA. 8,9 The hollow structure can maintain cellular biological activity and reusability thereof with a diameter of hundreds of nanometers, instead of lysing cells directly, 10 but it adds a new level of complexity to the nanofabrication process. Compared to a single nanoneedle, a nanoneedle array has great potential to massively parallelize the tunnel to enable high throughput applications including but not limited to stem cell monitoring, gene expression, and biological reaction catalysis; HAR has always been pursued in these applications to obtain more intracellular information and more precise delivery. ...
High aspect ratio (HAR) structures have many promising applications such as biomedical detection, optical spectroscopy, and material characterization. Bottom-up self-assembly is a low-cost method to fabricate HAR structures, but it remains challenging to control the structure dimension, shape, density, and location. In this paper, an optimized top-down method using a combination of pseudo-Bosch etching and wet isotropic thinning/sharpening is presented to fabricate HAR silicon (Si) nanopillar and nanocone arrays. To achieve these structure profiles, electron beam lithography and reactive ion etching were carried out to fabricate silicon pillars having a nearly vertical sidewall, followed by thinning or sharpening by wet etching with a mixture of hydrofluoric (HF) acid and nitric acid (HNO 3 ). For the dry etching step using the pseudo-Bosch process, the sidewall angle is largely dependent on the SF 6 /C 4 F 8 gas flow ratio, and it was found that a vertical profile can be attained with a ratio of 22/38. For the wet etching process, a very large HNO 3 /HF volume ratio is shown to give smooth etching with a slow and controllable etching rate. The final structure profile also depends on the pattern density/array periodicity. When the array period is large, silicon nanopillar is thinned down, and its aspect ratio can reach 1:135 with a sub-100 nm apex. When the pillar array becomes very dense (periodicity much smaller than height), a very sharp nanocone structure is obtained after wet etching with an apex diameter under 20 nm.
... The nanotechnology's application in medicine is called nanomedicine, which comprises the nanomaterials used in the control, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases (Yayehrad et al., 2021). Nanoparticle research has gained much attention in the last decade due to the advantages of nanoparticles such as small size, multifunctionality, better solubility, adaptability, production of better and safer drugs, nanomedicines, and early diagnosis of diseases (Bhavana et al., 2020;Pandian et al., 2021). ...
COVID-19, one of the worst-hit pandemics, has quickly spread like fire across nations with very high mortality rates. Researchers all around the globe are making consistent efforts to address the main challenges faced due to COVID-19 infection including prompt diagnosis and therapeutics to reduce mortality. Conventional medical technology does not effectively contain the havoc caused by deadly COVID-19. This signals a crucial mandate for innovative and novel interventions in diagnostics and therapeutics to combat this ongoing pandemic and counter its successor or disease if it were ever to arise. The expeditious solutions can spring from promising areas such as nanomedicine and nanotechnology. Nanomedicine is a dominant tool that has a huge potential to alleviate the disease burden by providing nanoparticle-based vaccines and carriers. Nanotechnology encompasses multidisciplinary aspects including artificial intelligence, chemistry, biology, material science, physical science, and medicine. Nanoparticles offer many advantages compared to larger particles, including better magnetic properties and a multiplied surface-to-volume ratio. Given this, the present review focuses on promising nanomedicine-based solutions to combat COVID-19 and their utility to control a broad range of pathogens and viruses, along with understanding their role in the therapy, diagnosis, and prevention of COVID-19. Various studies, reports, and recent research and development from the nanotechnology perspective are discussed in this article.
... At the same time, this paper proposes speculative antiviral components, such as ACE2-coated CDs, that can suppress the CoV (MERS, SARS) of host cells by preventing the association of the virus to the ACE2 protein. On the other hand, these components also inhibit the serine protease enzymes [131,132]. There are significant encounters in fighting viral pathogens, such as COVID-19, MERS, and SARS, because of the lack of effective drugs and vaccines [133]. ...
Since late 2019, the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has caused considerable mortality worldwide. This pandemic raised concerns and provoked research on the diagnosis and treatment of viruses-based diseases. The accurate diagnosis of a virus requires high specificity and sensitivity. Piezoelectric sensors are analytical devices that work on mass-sensitivity-based micromechanical transducers. The change in the mass by the interaction between biological elements and the frequency is recorded by measuring the alternate current and voltage. In addition to diagnosis, antiviral intervention strategies for mitigating various viral diseases are required. Nanomaterials-based antiviral therapy is efficient, particularly with carbon/metal/metal oxide (organic/inorganic) nanoparticles. Metal/metal oxide nanoparticles, such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), zinc oxide (ZnO), magnesium oxide (MgO), carbon dots (CDs), and carbon quantum dots (CQDs), are promising candidates for antiviral therapy. This review discusses the piezoelectric sensors used to detect various viruses, including COVID-19, and the various organic and inorganic nanoparticles involved in the antiviral therapy.
... The most common symptoms after viral incubation between 4 and 14 days are cough, fever, fatigue, anosmia, dysgeusia, headache, and sometimes nausea and diarrhea. Clinical manifestations can range from mild to very severe and even fulminant disease [2]. ...
COVID-19 can trigger an intense systemic inflammation and prothrombotic state, leading to a rapid and disproportionate deterioration of lung function. An effective screening tool is essential to identify the patients at risk for severe disease. This observational study was conducted on hospitalized patients with moderate and severe COVID-19 pneumonia in a general hospital in Mexico City between 1 March 2021 and 15 March 2021. Serum samples were analyzed to explore the role of biomarkers of inflammation, coagulation, oxidative stress, and endothelial damage with the severity of the disease. Our results demonstrated that Syndecan-1 and nitrites/nitrates showed a high correlation in severely ill patients. In conclusion, COVID-19 patients with elevated levels of SDC-1 were associated with severe disease. This molecule can potentially be used as a marker for the progression or severity of COVID-19. Preservation of glycocalyx integrity may be a potential treatment for COVID-19.
... According to the National Nanotechnology Initiative (2021), nanotechnology involves the manipulation of nanoparticles ranging from 1 to 100 nm, and their use is widespread in several areas, including engineering, physics and informatics. However, nanotechnology applications for pharmaceutical purposes may cause the most significant impact on human health and, because of this, has been considered the most promissory technology for treatments against degenerative pathologies such as cancer [22,23] and central nervous system disorders [24,25], as well as in antiviral therapy to aid in SARS-CoV-2 immunization and treatment [26,27]. The morphology of nano-scaled particles led to the optimization of treatments by enabling nano-materials to reach physiological sites that used to remain inaccessible, such as specific areas of the brain damaged by synucleinopathies or brain neoplasms, which require the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier to achieve therapeutic intervention success [25]. ...
Drug delivery systems are believed to increase pharmaceutical efficacy and the therapeutic index by protecting and stabilizing bioactive molecules, such as protein and peptides, against body fluids’ enzymes and/or unsuitable physicochemical conditions while preserving the surrounding healthy tissues from toxicity. Liposomes are biocompatible and biodegradable and do not cause immunogenicity following intravenous or topical administration. Still, their most important characteristic is the ability to load any drug or complex molecule uncommitted to its hydrophobic or hydrophilic character. Selecting lipid components, ratios and thermo-sensitivity is critical to achieve a suitable nano-liposomal formulation. Nano-liposomal surfaces can be tailored to interact successfully with target cells, avoiding undesirable associations with plasma proteins and enhancing their half-life in the bloodstream. Macropinocytosis-dynamin-independent, cell-membrane-cholesterol-dependent processes, clathrin, and caveolae-independent mechanisms are involved in liposome internalization and trafficking within target cells to deliver the loaded drugs to modulate cell function. A successful translation from animal studies to clinical trials is still an important challenge surrounding the approval of new nano-liposomal drugs that have been the focus of investigations. Precision medicine based on the design of functionalized nano-delivery systems bearing highly specific molecules to drive therapies is a promising strategy to treat degenerative diseases.
... It is known that nanosystems can alter the pharmacokinetic characteristics of the encapsulated drug, in addition to reducing the amount of drug required to present therapeutic effect due to prolonged and sustained release. Furthermore, nanosystems can interfere with the resistance mechanisms of the microorganisms, such as drug efflux and biofilm formation [25,27,29,33]. ...
Nanotechnology has been used for drug encapsulation with the development of more effective and less toxic nanomedicines. Some currently used antimicrobials present problems with their physicochemical characteristics and the emergence of resistant microorganisms. Thus, encapsulating these drugs in nanocarriers would be a promising alternative to overcome these problems. This systematic review aims to evaluate the development of niosomes for encapsulation of antimicrobials, highlighting studies with in vitro and in vivo research. A search was performed in the MEDLINE/PubMed and Web of Science databases from 2011 to May 2021 with an exclusion, eligibility, and classification criteria. Twenty articles were selected to write this review. It was observed that the niosomes produced presented differences in physicochemical characteristics according to the non-ionic surfactant used. The evaluation of cell and animal assays revealed that niosomes presented a significantly higher antimicrobial efficacy when compared to the free drug. A reduction in toxicity could also be observed. Thus, the development of niosome-based nanomedicines has progressed over the years and is a promising strategy to increase therapeutic efficacy and reduce drug toxicity.
... The pandemic situation strongly impacted the mental health of the global population due to a drop in the economics involved in sectors including agriculture, education, research, and the medical industry that may be moderated by implementing policies minimising the burden designed for the country [196]. Fighting pandemics should include identifying the hidden dangerous outcomes and how best to overcome them [197,198]. The learning health system (LHS) comprehensively integrating the collective hospital data, treatment protocol, vaccine efficiency, and morbidity on COVID-19 to discuss the disease's improvement with the lessons learned from pandemic situations is mandatory. ...
Background
Severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus-2 invades the cells via ACE2 receptor and damages multiple organs of the human body. Understanding the pathological manifestation is mandatory to endure the rising post-infection sequel reported in patients with or without comorbidities.Materials and methodsOur descriptive review emphasises the direct, indirect and post-infection damages due to COVID-19. We have performed an electronic database search according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines with selective inclusion and exclusion criteria.ResultsThe included studies substantiated the extensive damages in the multiple organs due to direct and indirect consequences of COVID-19. After an apparent recovery, the prolonged presentation of the symptoms manifests as post-COVID that can be related with persisting viral antigens and dysregulated immune response.ConclusionA few of the symptoms of respiratory, cardiovascular, and neuropsychiatric systems that persist or reappear as post-COVID manifestations. Vaccination and preventive programs will effectively reduce the prevalence but, the post-COVID, a multisystem manifestation, will be a significant tribulation to the medical profession. However, the issue can be managed by implementing public health programs, rehabilitation services, and telemedicine virtual supports to raise awareness and reduce panic.
... Carbon nanotubes (CNT) belong to the fullerene family (sized 10-100 nm). Investigators developed a new method against COVID-19 by acidizing, and RALyase modified CNTs in combination with photodynamic thermal efficacy [157]. In another investigation, researchers hypothesized that carbon dots (CDs) derived from Allium sativum (AS-CDs) may have the capability to downregulate the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and return the immunological abnormalities to normal in SARS-CoV-2 infection. ...
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) led to COVID-19 and has become a pandemic worldwide with mortality of millions. Nanotechnology can be used to deliver antiviral medicines or other types of viral reproduction-inhibiting medications. At various steps of viral infection, nanotechnology could suggest practical solutions for usage in the fight against viral infection. Nanotechnology-based approaches can help in the fight against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nanoparticles can play an essential role in progressing SARS-CoV-2 treatment and vaccine production in efficacy and safety. Nanocarriers have increased the speed of vaccine development and the efficiency of vaccines. As a result, the increased investigation into nanoparticles as nano-delivery systems and nanotherapeutics in viral infection, and the development of new and effective methods are essential for inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this article, we compare the attributes of several nanoparticles and evaluate their capability to create novel vaccines and treatment methods against different types of viral diseases, especially the SARS-CoV-2 disease.
Graphical Abstract
... Interleukin 6 (IL-6) is generated by those affected leukocytes around the area of infection. Further inflammatory markers: IL-1β, IL-8, IL-12, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interferon-gamma inducible protein 10 (IP10), macrophage inflammatory protein 1A (MIP1A), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1), and interferon-gamma inducible protein (IP10) are also increased in COVID-19 infected patients [16]. Increased amounts of these proinflammatory cytokines may be another factor causing injury to cardiac myocytes. ...
Upon initial discovery in late 2019, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, SARS-CoV-2, has managed to spread across the planet. A plethora of symptoms affecting multiple organ systems have been described, with the most common being nonspecific upper respiratory symptoms: cough, dyspnea, and wheezing. However, the cardiovascular system is also at risk following COVID-19 infection. Numerous cardiovascular complications have been reported by physicians globally, in particular cardiac tamponade Physicians must hold a high index of suspicion in identifying and treating patients with cardiac tamponade who may have contracted the novel coronavirus. This review will describe the current epidemiology and pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 and cardiac tamponade, highlighting their clinical course progression and the implications it may have for the severity of both illnesses. The paper will also review published case reports of cardiac tamponade, clinical presentation, and treatment of this complication, as well as the disease as a whole.
... The mechanism of action of AgNPs as antiviral and virucidal has been studied against several enveloped viruses. The antiviral activity of AgNPs against other viruses such as HIV, hepatitis B virus, herpes simplex virus, respiratory syncytial virus, and monkeypox virus has been demonstrated (38,39). ...
Introduction: COVID-19 is an acute respiratory tract disease caused by the emerging coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Although several options for chemoprophylaxis are under development, effective treatment for COVID-19 is not yet available. Objective: To investigate the antiviral properties of synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against SARS-CoV-2 using in vitro models. Materials and methods: This work synthesized AgNPs using an electrochemical method and characterized them using physico-chemical techniques (ICP-OES, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy). AgNPs with diameter sizes ranging between 2.6 to 30 nm and an average size of 6.2 nm were obtained by the electrochemical method. The cytotoxic effect and the antiviral activity of prepared AgNPs against SARS-CoV-2 were evaluated in vitro using Vero E6 cells. Cell viability was evaluated by MTT assay in the presence of serial dilutions of AgNPs. The antiviral effect of AgNPs was evaluated before and after the infection of Vero E6 cells by plaque assay. Results: Cytotoxic effect was observed at concentrations above 0.07 ppm. AgNPs exhibit a significant reduction of SARS-CoV-2 viral titer after a pre-post treatment strategy with inhibition of 96.5%, 64.13%, and 74.72% at 0.03, 0.017, and 0.008 ppm, respectively. Conclusion: Our results suggest that AgNPs could reduce SARS-CoV-2 replication with a low cytotoxic effect. Still, additional in vitro and in vivo studies are required to define its potential therapeutic application in humans.
... As such, the need to establish research priorities in the global response to the unhealthy lifestyle, chronic diseases, and COVID-19 pandemics to address the broad health and wellbeing, social and economic impacts is clear. Several groups have previously set out areas for consideration that have mostly centered on the development of effective treatment, management strategies [12][13][14] and to address factors associated with living in forced isolation. [15][16][17][18] To date, there has been little attention directed to the lasting impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the additive effect of multiple ongoing public health crises. ...
We have been amid unhealthy living and related chronic disease pandemics for several decades. These longstanding crises have troublingly synergized with the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The need to establish research priorities in response to COVID-19 can be used to address broad health and wellbeing, social and economic impacts for the future is emerging. Accordingly, this paper sets out a series of research priorities that could inform interdisciplinary collaboration between clinical sciences, public health, business, technology, economics, healthcare providers, and the exercise science/sports medicine communities, among others. A five-step methodology was used to generate and evaluate the research priorities with a focus on broad health and well-being impacts. The methodology was deployed by an international and interdisciplinary team from the Healthy Living for Pandemic Event Protection (HL- PIVOT) network. This team were all engaged in responding to the Pandemic either on the ‘front-line’ and/or in leadership positions ensuring the currency and authenticity of the process. Eight research priorities were identified clustered into two groups: i) Societal & Environmental, and ii) Clinical. Our eight research priorities are presented with insight from previously published research priorities from other groups.
... Because nanotechnology facilitates targeted medication or vaccine administration to biologically unapproachable locations, enhances loading and transporting drugs, and offers inherent virucidal action, it has enormous potential in combating the COVID-19 pandemic [83,84]. It may also include alternate disinfection techniques that are easy, quick, and cost-effective, as well as focused pulmonary medication delivery and approaches to build better immunomodulating materials. ...
The COVID-19 is a pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has instigated major health problems and prompted WHO to proclaim a worldwide medical emergency. The knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 fundamental structure, aetiology, its entrance mechanism, membrane hijacking and immune response against the virus, are important parameters to develop effective vaccines and medicines. Liquid crystals integrated nano-techniques and various nanoformulations were applied to tackle the severity of the virus. It was reported that nanoformulations have helped to enhance the effectiveness of presently accessible antiviral medicines or to elicit a fast immunological response against COVID-19 virus. Applications of liquid crystals, nanostructures, nanoformulations and nanotechnology in diagnosis, prevention, treatment and tailored vaccine administration against COVID-19 which will help in establishing the framework for a successful pandemic combat are reviewed. This review also focuses on limitations associated with liquid crystal-nanotechnology based systems and suggests the possible ways to address these limitations. Also, topical advancements in the ground of liquid crystals and nanostructures established diagnostics (nanosensor/biosensor) are discussed in detail.
... Therefore, fundamental knowledge of nanotechnology is crucial. Nanotechnology can be comprehensively characterized as the plan and utilization of a few materials and devices of at least one dimension should be under 100nm [9][10][11][12] . Throughout the long term, nanoparticles have been widely utilized and concentrated because of their extraordinary properties, like small size, further developed dissolvability, surface versatility, and multifunctionality, bringing about the improvement of better and more secure medications, tissue-designated medicines, customized nanomedicines, and early conclusion and avoidance of diseases 13,14 . ...
The rise of ongoing Covid SARS-CoV-2 drove pandemic disease has created the perpetual interest for the assessment and improvement of reasonable progressed materials for controlling this and future unexpected viral diseases. One of the fundamental worries about this pandemic situation is the analysis and identification of infected patients. In this regard, the utilization of zinc-based nanomaterials to identify the vital biological markers of the SARS-CoV-2 remains a prevalent bother, whereas the advancement of particular and delicate devices is the essential objective. To obstruct virus proliferation, the expanding interest for self-disinfected covering requires elective materials to satisfy this problem. In this unique situation, zinc nanomaterials have given a fundamental commitment to the administration of Covid-19. Zinc nanomaterials have displayed huge antiviral action against a few infections like flu and Covids. This review delineates the importance of nanotechnology mediation in settling this tough condition.
... Sarkar and participants estimated that the use of AgNPs dispersed water by mixing with bronchodilators in the lungs by inhaling a bilevel air or direct nebulizer machine may result in better viracidal activity. Finally, it is still high in the air that colloidal Ag with a molecular size between 3 and 7 nm can be very effective in treating and preventing bacterial infections at the beginning of the respiratory stage [90,91]. AgNPs have attractive colloid type that also includes active amine particles SiO 2 -Fe 3 O 4 indicating a promising nanosystem to block infection. ...
The global outbreak of coronavirus disease has sent an ominous message to the field of innovative and advanced technology research and development (COVID-19). To accomplish this, convectional technology and recent discoveries can be combined, or new research directions can be opened up using nanotechnology. Nanotechnology can be used to prevent, diagnose, and treat SARS-CoV-2 infection. As the pandemic spreads, a thorough examination of nanomaterials' role in pandemic response is highly desirable. According to this comprehensive review article, nanotechnology can be used to prevent, diagnose, and treat COVID-19. This research will be extremely useful during the COVID-19 outbreak in terms of developing rules for designing nanostructure materials to combat the outbreak.
... Carbon-based nanomaterials such as graphene, carbon dots and fullerenes with physical and chemical properties such as strength, corrosion resistance, excellent electrical and thermal conductivity as well as stability also proves to show the antiviral properties (Innocenzi and Stagi 2020;Yu et al. 2021). In fact, these inorganic nanomaterials have been discussed to be used as the future management against COVID-19 that does not limit to diagnosis, vaccine and therapies development (Palestino et al. 2020;Bhavana et al. 2020;Yu et al. 2021). Thus, it is not surprising that inorganic nanomaterials are incorporated into the synthesis of effective antiviral PPE against COVID-19. ...
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a worldwide outbreak. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus can be transmitted human-to-human through droplets and close contact where personal protective equipment (PPE) is imperative to protect the individuals. The advancement of nanotechnology with significant nanosized properties can confer a higher form of protection. Incorporation of nanotechnology into facemasks can exhibit antiviral properties. Nanocoating on surfaces can achieve self-disinfecting purposes and be applied in highly populated places. Moreover, nano-based hand sanitizers can confer better sterilizing efficacies with low skin irritation as compared to alcohol-based hand sanitizers. The present review discusses the incorporation of nanotechnology into nano-based materials and coatings in facemasks, self-surface disinfectants and hand sanitizers, in the hope to contribute to the current understanding of PPE to combat COVID-19.
... Carbon-based nanomaterials such as graphene, carbon dots and fullerenes with physical and chemical properties such as strength, corrosion resistance, excellent electrical and thermal conductivity as well as stability also proves to show the antiviral properties (Innocenzi and Stagi 2020;Yu et al. 2021). In fact, these inorganic nanomaterials have been discussed to be used as the future management against COVID-19 that does not limit to diagnosis, vaccine and therapies development (Palestino et al. 2020;Bhavana et al. 2020;Yu et al. 2021). Thus, it is not surprising that inorganic nanomaterials are incorporated into the synthesis of effective antiviral PPE against COVID-19. ...
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a worldwide outbreak. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus can be transmitted human-to-human through droplets and close contact where personal protective equipment (PPE) is imperative to protect the individuals.
The advancement of nanotechnology with significant nanosized
properties can confer a higher form of protection. Incorporation of nanotechnology into facemasks can exhibit antiviral properties. Nanocoating on surfaces can achieve self-disinfecting purposes and be applied in highly populated places. Moreover, nano-based hand sanitizers can confer better sterilizing efficacies with low skin irritation as compared to alcohol based hand sanitizers. The present review discusses the incorporation of nanotechnology into nano-based materials and coatings in facemasks, self-surface disinfectants and hand sanitizers, in the hope to contribute to the current understanding of PPE to combat COVID-19.
... Nanomedicine has been used successfully to enhance treatment for a wide range of illnesses including neural, cancer, cardiopulmonary, and communicable diseases like HIV-1, HBV, influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus [86][87][88][89][90][91]. Nanotechnology could play a potential role in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of COVID-19 [92][93][94]. Furthermore, numerous CoV-related patents have been enrolled in the area of nanotechnology [86]. The global effect of the current pandemic is terrifying, and vaccine is the most effective option for preventing the transmission and combating novel CoV outbreaks [95]. ...
... On the one hand, measures were taken to reduce the spread of the virus, such as social isolation, wearing masks, public transportation regulations, and curfew; on the other hand, investigations were conducted to treat infected cases (2,3). Although many drugs have been used to manage the disease in the early days, there is still no definitive method to treat the infection (4). The high mortality rate in hospitalized patients, the long hospitalization period of the patients, the significant rate of patients in need of intensive care, and the extensive mortality have pointed that other resolutions should be queried. ...
Introduction: This study was aimed to define the demographic structure of vaccinated patients admitted to the emergency
room (ER) with COVID-19 symptoms, and their hospitalization status, length of stay (LoS) in hospital, and mortality status.
Material and Method: This research is a retrospective, cross-sectional and descriptive study. Furthermore, it includes the
period between 15.01.2021 and 30.04.2021.
Results: An 887 COVID-19 vaccinated patients who applied to ER. Of these, 383 (42.2%) were male, and 504 (56.8%) were
female. The mean age of the patients was 52±18.6 years. The number of single-dose vaccinated patients was 696 (78.5%),
and the two-dose vaccinated was 191 (21.5%). CoronaVac (Sinovac Life Sciences) vaccine was applied to 755 (85.1%), and
BNT162b2 (Pfizer & Biontech) vaccine was applied to 132 (14.9%) patients before.
In 317 (35.7%) cases, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (Rt-PCR) positivity was detected in the ER application
after vaccination. Of the total patients, 86 (9.7%) were hospitalized, 14 (1.4%) patients died in the hospital.
The mean time between vaccination and application to ER was 25 (±21.9) days. Also, this period was 28.1 (±18) days in two�dose vaccinated patients.
Conclusion: People who are vaccinated with the COVID-19 vaccine continue to have hospital admissions with COVID-19
symptoms. Rt-PCR positivity, need for hospitalization, and mortality may continue to be seen in vaccinated individuals.
Keywords: Pandemic, COVID-19, vaccine, emergency room
... Though the nanoparticles can pass through cell membranes mostly anionic and it is only happening due to surface charge modification. Nanotechnology in combination with large porous micro-particles (lpmp), solid lipid microparticles (slms) can be used to deliver drugs and can be adapted at antiviral drug therapy (Bhavana et al. 2020;mcgrath et al. 2020;Zhu et al. 2020). The current technique for the detection of the virus is through reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction which is highly time-consuming given the rate of progression of the disease (Wong et al. 2020; Bhadra et al. 2020;lu et al. 2020). ...
The sphere of Nanotechnology encompasses most of our lives and houses biomedicine and biomedical advancements. Nanoparticles owing to their minuscule sizes and due to various physicochemical and electrical properties have been exploited in pharmaceutical industries, agriculture, packaging, cosmetic, food industries. Nanomedicine is a laboratory-designed molecular-level pharmaceutical material that has revolutionized diagnostic techniques and therapeutics. Nanoscience and nanotechnology and their wide applications have become spread field worldwide because nanomaterials have novel and unique properties. Nanotechnology involves understanding and manipulating materials normally in the size range of 1 to 100 nm, where they show completely novel physicochemical properties from their bulk counterpart. The capacity to study compounds at the molecular level has aided the hunt for materials with exceptional qualities for medical applications. Nanotechnology in recent days is applied in the designing of nano biosensors. Nanobiosensors are biological molecules immobilized onto the surface of a signal transducer. The application of nano biosensors in the field of disease detection has increased in recent years which has influenced in research of cancer and biosensing. Due to the high surface area of nanoparticles, they are important in the production of nano biosensors with high levels of sensitivity and diminish the response times. However, a comprehensive review regarding the type, mode of function, and their application in various diseases is missing. Nano Deterministic lateral displacement technology that provided exosome splitting based on size differences has resulted in providing the much-needed boost to cancer research. The time taken for cancer screening has been reduced drastically. that This review aims to describe the utilization of nano deterministic lateral displacement technology, nano biosensors, and their applications in certain disease diagnoses.
... 3 Vitamin c has an established antioxidant effect or property but its clinical significance has not been fully established. Although there are reports that a high dose of intravenous vitamin c is used as part of treatment of acute respiratory distress syndrome associated with COVID-19 infection [17,18] Antipyretic drugs It is used for the significant relief of fever, headaches and muscular pains. It is a compulsory step in the COVID-19 management protocol. ...
In December of 2019, an outbreak of a disease began at Wuhan, China and would later be named the coronavirus disease2019 (covid-19) by the World Health Organization and further declared a global pandemic. Since the onset of this disease, the pattern of day to day activities had been disrupted in a bid to curb this menace to society. This paper work touches on basic viral classification, as well as structure of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the main causative agent of covid-19. This review work also sheds light on symptoms associated with this disease, mode of transmission, method of diagnosis and medications available in treating the symptoms. Potential vaccines available in India are also discussed here.
... Although many drugs have been tried against the COVID-19, a definitive treatment could not be developed till now. 1 Due to the heavy burdon on economic, social, and health systems caused by the pandemic, it needs to be brought under control as soon as possible, for which vaccine development research commenced worldwide. 2 The vaccine for COVID-19 is required to protect from this disease, especially preventing severe morbidity and mortality, and reducing the need of hospitalization, the intensive care requirement, and shortening the length of stay (LoS) in the hospital. ...
Objective: This study examined COVID-19 Reporting and Data System (CO-RADS) scores, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) positivity, and COVID-19 vaccination status of COVID-19 patients who reported to the emergency room (ER). Thus, it aimed to present how much effective the vaccines were. Methodology: It was a cross-sectional, retrospective, descriptive research, covering the period between Results: One hundred four cases were included in the study, of which 61 (58.7%) were male, and 43 (41.3%) were female. Of the patients, 35 (33.6%) had no COVID-19 vaccination, 46 (44.2%) had two-doses CoronaVac, one (1%) had two-doses BNT162b2. Out of 104 patients, 12 had a CO-RADS-3 score, 17 had a CO-RADS-4 score, and 60 patients had a CO-RADS-5 score. No significant difference was recognized between unvaccinated cases and vaccinated patients with two CoronaVac doses in terms of hospitalization, RT-PCR positivity and mortality (respectively: x2 = 0.176, SD = 1, p = 0.675; x2 = 0.025, SD = 1 , p = 0.874; x2 = 0.830, SD = 1, p = 0.362). Two doses CoronaVac vaccinated patients' length of stay in the hospital was determined to be more succinct than cases who had never been inoculated (U = 596.500, p = 0.045, z = 2.003, r =-0.22). Conclusion: Prolonged time after CoronaVac vaccination may reduce the vaccine's protection against COVID-19 pneumonia. The protection of two doses of BNT162b2 against COVID-19 pneumonia presents promise in the fight against the pandemic. Those inoculated with at least two doses of CoronaVac or BNT162b2 had a shorter hospital stay than those not vaccinated. RT-PCR positivity may continue to be observed in vaccinated patients.
... Further, NPs can be used as a carrier for antigens or as an adjuvant, and design new generation vaccines against COVID19 (Rai et al., 2021). As carbon nanoparticles are known for their inhibitory properties against various microorganisms, it would be essential to learn about their binding and inhibitory potential against SARS-CoV-2 targets (Bhavana et al., 2020). An interesting association between cancer and COVID-19 was illustrated to make it emergently effective for immunocompromised patients proposing the use of nanotechnology for vaccine development (Walls et al., 2020). ...
The present study aimed to predict the binding potential of carbon nanotube and nano fullerene towards multiple targets of SARS-CoV-2. Based on the virulent functions, the spike glycoprotein, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, main protease, papain-like protease, and RNA binding domain of the nucleocapsid proteins of SARS-CoV-2 were prioritized as the molecular targets and their three-dimensional (3D) structures were retrieved from the Protein Data Bank. The 3D structures of carbon nanotubes and nano-fullerene were computationally modeled, and the binding potential of these nanoparticles to the selected molecular targets was predicted by molecular docking and molecular dynamic (MD) simulations. The drug-likeness and pharmacokinetic features of the lead molecules were computationally predicted. The current study suggested that carbon fullerene and nanotube demonstrated significant binding towards the prioritized multi-targets of SARS-CoV-2. Interestingly, carbon nanotube showed better interaction with these targets when compared to carbon fullerene. MD simulation studies clearly showed that the interaction of nanoparticles and selected targets possessed stability and conformational changes. This study revealed that carbon nanotubes and fullerene are probably used as effectual binders to multiple targets of SARS-CoV-2, and the study offers insights into the experimental validation and highlights the relevance of utilizing carbon nanomaterials as a therapeutic remedy against COVID-19.
... These limitations desperately urge scientists worldwide to investigate potential therapies. The main protease (M pro ) of SARS-CoV-2 offers a frequent target for developing specific anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents due to its considerable role in the viral life cycle, gene replication and expression [25][26][27]. ...
Background/aim:
SARS-CoV-2 is one of the coronavirus families that emerged at the end of 2019. It infected the respiratory system and caused a pandemic worldwide. Fluoroquinolones (FQs) have been safely used as antibacterial agents for decades. The antiviral activity of FQs was observed. Moreover, substitution on the C-7 position of ciprofloxacin enhanced its antiviral activity. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the antiviral activity of 7-(4-(N-substituted-carbamoyl-methyl)piperazin-1yl)-chalcone in comparison to ciprofloxacin against SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro ).
Materials and methods:
Vero cells were infected with SARS-CoV-2. After treatment with ciprofloxacin and the chalcone at the concentrations of 1.6, 16, 160 nM for 48 hours, SARS-CoV-2 viral load was detected using real-time qPCR, SARS-CoV-2 infectivity was determined using plaque assay, and the main protease enzyme activity was detected using in vitro 3CL-protease inhibition assay. The activity of the chalcone was justified through molecular docking within SARS-CoV-2 Mpro , in comparison to ciprofloxacin.
Results:
The new chalcone significantly inhibited viral load replication where the EC50 was 3.93 nM, the plaque formation ability of the virus was inhibited to 86.8%±2.47. The chalcone exhibited a significant inhibitory effect against SARS-CoV-2 Mpro in vitro in a dose-dependent manner. The docking study into SARS-CoV-2 Mpro active site justified the importance of adding a substitution to the parent drug. Additionally, the assessment of the drug-likeness properties indicated that the chalcone might have acceptable ADMET properties.
Conclusion:
The new chalcone might be useful and has new insights for the inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro .
... The global outbreak and prevalence of COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 demands a protracted therapeutic intervention to control and mitigate the evolving pandemic [50]. Unfortunately, limited specific vaccines or targeted antiviral drugs or formulation are available to prevent (Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, Moderna COVID-19 vaccine, and Janssen COVID-19 vaccine) [51], treat and manage such a highly infectious viral disease [52] with global cumulative statistics of 490,478 new cases, 124, 928, 590 confirmed cases and 2,746,180 deaths as of 25 th March 2021 [3]. ...
Nanoparticles (NPs) are projected to play a significant role in fighting against coronavirus disease (COVID-19). The various properties of NPs like magnetic and optical can be exploited to build diagnostic test kits. The unembellished morphological and physiochemical resemblances of SARS-CoV-2 with synthetic NPs make them a potent tool for mediation. Nanoparticles can be analytically functionalized with different proteins, polymers, and functional groups to perform specific inhibitory functions while also serving as delivery vehicles . Moreover, NPs can also be employed to prepare broad-spectrum respiratory drugs and vaccines that can guard seasonal flu and prepare the human race for the pandemic in the future. The present review outlines the role of NPs in detection, diagnostic and therapeutic against members of the coronavirus family. We emphasize nanomaterial-based approaches to address coronaviruses in general and SARS-CoV-2 in particular. We discuss NPs based detection systems like graphene (G-FET), biosensors, and plasmonic photothermal associated sensors. Inorganic, organic virus-like & self-assembly protein (VLP), and photodynamic inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 are also presented as therapeutic approaches exploiting NPs.
... COVID-19 is transmitted to healthy individuals through small airborne droplets exhaled by an infected person, personal contact (shaking hands), and by touching contaminated surfaces [5,6]. The ingestion of droplets into the lungs leads to lower respiratory tract infections ranging from mild respiratory infections to severe acute respiratory syndrome [7]. ...
Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) is caused by coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) and has produced a global pandemic. As of 22 June 2021, 178 million people have been affected worldwide, and 3.87 million people have died from COVID-19. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of the United States, COVID-19 virus is primarily transmitted between people through respiratory droplets and contact routes. Since the location of initial infection and disease progression is primarily through the lungs, the inhalation delivery of drugs directly to the lungs may be the most appropriate route of administration for treating COVID-19. This review article aims to present possible inhalation therapeutics and vaccines for the treatment of COVID-19 symptoms. This review covers the comparison between SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV/MERS, inhalation therapeutics for the treatment of COVID-19 symptoms, and vaccines for preventing infection, as well as the current clinical status of inhaled therapeutics and vaccines.
... Nanomedicine has been used successfully to enhance treatment for a wide range of illnesses including neural, cancer, cardiopulmonary, and communicable diseases like HIV-1, HBV, influenza virus, and respiratory syncytial virus (Ahmad et al., 2014b;Ghosh et al., 2019Ghosh et al., , 2021aAbd Ellah et al., 2020;Srivastava et al., 2021). Nanotechnology could play a potential role in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of COVID-19 (Bhavana et al., 2020;Campos et al., 2020;Noori et al., 2020). Furthermore, numerous CoV-related patents have been enrolled in the area of nanotechnology (Abd Ellah et al., 2020). ...
The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in Wuhan, China, was triggered and unfolded quickly throughout the globe by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The new virus, transmitted primarily through inhalation or contact with infected droplets, seems very contagious and pathogenic, with an incubation period varying from 2 to 14 days. The epidemic is an ongoing public health problem that challenges the present global health system. A worldwide social and economic stress has been observed. The transitional source of origin and its transport to humans is unknown, but speedy human transportation has been accepted extensively. The typical clinical symptoms of COVID-19 are almost like colds. With case fatality rates varying from 2 to 3 percent, a small number of patients may experience serious health problems or even die. To date, there is a limited number of antiviral agents or vaccines for the treatment of COVID-19. The occurrence and pathogenicity of COVID-19 infection are outlined and comparatively analyzed, given the outbreak’s urgency. The recent developments in diagnostics, treatment, and marketed vaccine are discussed to deal with this viral outbreak. Now the scientist is concerned about the appearance of several variants over the globe and the efficacy of the vaccine against these variants. There is a need for consistent monitoring of the virus epidemiology and surveillance of the ongoing variant and related disease severity.
... Potential antiviral drugs currently being used for treatment are lopinavir, ritonavir, remdesivir, umifenovir, oseltamivir, tenofovir disoproxil and lamivudine and interferon β -1a [2,3]. ...
Background: An outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) infection or COVID 19 has caused serious threats to all around the world. Until an effective and safe vaccine for novel coronavirus is developed by scientists, current drug therapy should be optimized for the control and treatment of COVID 19.
Objective: In this manuscript, we present a perspective on possible benefits of reformulating antiviral drug dosage form with nanoemulsion system against novel coronavirus infection.
Methods: Literature review has been done on COVID 19, treatment strategies, novel drug delivery systems and the role of pulmonary surfactant in lung protection.
Results: Nanoemulsion system and its components have certain biophysical properties which could increase the efficacy of drug therapy. Antiviral drugs, delivered through a nanoemulsion system containing P-gp inhibitor (surfactant and co-solvent), can minimize the cellular resistance to drugs and would potentiate the antiviral action of drugs. Pulmonary Surfactant (PS) assisted antiviral drug delivery by nanoemulsion system could be another effective approach for the treatment of COVID 19. The use of functional excipients like Pulmonary Surfactant (PS) and Surfactant Proteins (SPs) in the formulation of the antiviral drug-loaded nanoemulsion system can improve the treatment of coronavirus infection.
Conclusion: In our opinion, for synergizing antiviral action, lipid and protein portion of PS and their commercial analogs should be explored by pharmaceutical scientists to use them as a functional excipi-ent in the formulation of antiviral drug-loaded nanoemulsion system.
Chronic pulmonary diseases often include inflammation in the upper or lower respiratory tract causing severe/extreme discomfort. To subside inflammation, currently, small molecules are administered to patients. Nano-based therapies have the potential to replace drugs by significantly increasing efficacy and decreasing dosage for long-term relief. In this chapter, we discuss the various nanotherapeutics being employed in preclinical and clinical settings to ameliorate inflammation. We also describe different nano-drug delivery systems used for diverse modes of treatment. To specifically target pulmonary inflammation, nanoparticles developed and tested via inhalation are also discussed. Recent developments summarizing the last 20 years for a variety of pulmonary diseases are explored. Although these nano-based studies are promising, long-term toxicity and clearance strategies are still debated and must be investigated.KeywordsInflammationNanoparticlesRespiratoryDrug deliveryNano-based therapyAirway disease
Viruses have a worldwide impact on healthcare as well as on social and economic growth because they are the largest cause of mortality worldwide due to infectious diseases. Long-term conventional drug usage also comes with substantial risks to public health, such as the rapid evolution of drug resistance and the emergence of secondary side effects. Therefore, it is high time to create new methods of treatment. The use of nanomaterials-based nanomedicines possesses tremendous advantages over the traditional treatment approach. Nanomaterials-based drug delivery systems have unique features that make them promising candidates for studying in the pursuit of therapeutic benefits. In this review, we have laid out the many biocompatible nanomaterials that show promise as nanomedicines for anti-viral therapy. We have also included how current developments in nanomedicine are being used to treat and prevent the most common viral illnesses like flu, AIDS, COVID-19 and monkeypox.
As the world emerges from the COVID-19 pandemic, clinicians and researchers across the world are trying to understand the sequelae in patients recovered from COVID-19 infection. In this article, the authors review post-acute sequelae of SARS-COV-2, interstitial lung disease, and other lung sequelae in patients recovering from COVID-19 infection.
COVID-19 pandemic has spread across the world in over 185 countries, with millions of infections and hundreds of thousands of deaths. The current pandemic has made the situation worse, forcing the development of better treatment. In this work, the binding ability of covid receptors with silymarin has been analyzed using AutoDock 1.4.6. Further, it is compared with the standard drug remdesivir. Silymarin, a potential phytochemical compound obtained from the seeds of the Silybum marianum (milk thistle) plant, has been documented as the antiviral agent against several viruses. So silymarin can also be an effective compound in the treatment of COVID-19. This study aims to determine the binding ability of COVID-19 receptors towards silymarin and further comparative analysis by remdesivir. Drug Discovery Studio version 2021 software was been used to analyse ligand and target. AutoDock 1.4.6 software was used to perform the docking study. Among the various receptors, 5N11 (Human beta1-coronavirus (β1CoV) OC43), 7MJP (SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain in complex with neutralizing antibody COVA2-39), 7JMO (SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain in complex with neutralizing antibody COVA2-04) receptors showed the highest binding ability of -8.09, -7.23, -6.96 towards silymarin compared to the standard remdesivir having the docking score of -5.21, -3.76, -2.97, respectively. By the comparative analysis, silymarin has a better and highest binding ability.
Resumen
Objetivo
El propósito principal de este estudio es caracterizar y comparar la población que recibió tofacitinib con aquella que no fue tratada con este fármaco para la COVID-19 en la Clínica Unión Médica del Norte, durante el año 2020.
Métodos
Se realizó un estudio de tipo observacional, retrospectivo transversal de tipo exploratorio y de fuente secundaria. Se analizaron las características de los participantes y su tratamiento en relación con los parámetros de laboratorio y las características clínicas.
Resultados
Se incluyeron 507 pacientes ingresados en la unidad de COVID-19 de la Clínica Unión Médica del Norte. Se determinó que las defunciones fueron menores en el grupo que se medicó con tofacitinib (6,45%) en comparación con el grupo que no utilizó dicho fármaco. Asimismo, los medicados con esta terapia ameritaron en menos proporción soporte ventilatorio, sin embargo, hubo más proporción de ingresos a la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos. Además, se identificó una reducción mayor en la glucemia en aquellos pacientes medicados con tofacitinib, aunque mayores niveles de ferritina y dímero D.
Conclusiones
El fármaco tofacitinib puede actuar de manera beneficiosa en relación con la mortalidad y la reducción del uso de ventilación mecánica. En adición, podría colaborar con la evolución de los pacientes. No obstante, nuestra investigación no es concluyente. Es necesario realizar futuras investigaciones confirmatorias de la eficacia de la terapia con tofacitinib para los pacientes con COVID-19.
Cytokine storm in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients leads to acute lung injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome, multiorgan dysfunction, shock, and thrombosis thus contributing to significant morbidity and mortality. Several agents like steroids, ascorbic acid, vitamins (C, D, E), glutathione, N-acetylcysteine have been used and several studies are underway to identify its efficacy in addressing undesirable effects due to COVID-19 illness. Among several experimental modalities based on expert opinion and anecdotal data, melatonin is one molecule that appears promising. Owing to its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and immunomodulatory properties, melatonin can be an important agent used as a component of multimodal analgesia in COVID-19 patients, suspected patients, and patients with exposure to positive patients undergoing emergency or urgent surgeries. Further research is required to know the optimal time of initiation, dose, and duration of melatonin as an adjunct.
Background
COVID-19 pandemic information is critical in order to study it further, but the virus has still not been confined. In addition, even if there is no longer any threat, more knowledge may be gathered from these resources.
Methods
The data used in this study was gathered from several scientific areas and the links between them. Due to the fact that the COVID-19 pandemic has not been fully contained and additional information can be gleaned from these references, bibliometric analysis of it is important.
Results
In total 155 publications on the topic of "COVID-19" and the keyword "nanotechnology" were identified in the Scopus database between 2020 and 2021 in a network visualization map
Conclusion
As a result, our analysis was conducted at the appropriate time to provide a comprehensive understanding of COVID-19 and nanotechnology and prospective research directions for medicinal chemistry.
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) caused the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the World Health Organization, this pandemic continues to be a serious threat to public health due to the worldwide spread of variants and their higher rate of transmissibility. A range of measures are necessary to slow the pandemic and save lives, which include constant evaluation and the careful adjustment of public-health responses augmented by medical treatments, vaccines and protective gear. It is hypothesized that nanostructured particulates underpinned by nanoscience and quantum science yield high-performing antiviral strategies, which can be applied in preventive, diagnostic, and therapeutic applications such as face masks, respirators, COVID test kits, vaccines, and drugs. This review is aimed at providing comprehensive and cohesive perspectives on various nanostructures that are suited to intensifying and amplifying the effectiveness of antiviral strategies. Growing scientific literature over the past eighteen months indicates that quantum dots, iron oxide, silicon oxide, polymeric and metallic nanoparticles have been employed in COVID-19 diagnostic assays, vaccines, and personal protective equipment (PPE). Quantum dots have displayed their suitability as more sensitive imaging probes in diagnostics and prognostics, and as controlled drug-release carriers that target the virus. Nanoscience and quantum science have assisted the design of advanced vaccine delivery since nanostructured materials are suited for antigen delivery, as mimics of viral structures and as adjuvants. Furthermore, the quantum science-and nanoscience-supported tailored functionalization of nanostructured materials offers insight and pathways to deal with future pandemics. This review seeks to illustrate several examples, and to explain the underpinning quantum science and nanoscience phenomena, which include wave functions, electrostatic interactions, van der Waals forces, thermal and electrodynamic fluctuations, dispersion forces, local field-enhancement effects, and the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This review discusses how nanostructured materials are helpful in the detection, prevention, and treatment of the SARS-CoV-2 infection, other known viral infection diseases, and future pandemics.
Penyakit menular akibat virus merupakan salah satu masalah kesehatan global yang mempengaruhi sistem kesehatan masyarakat dan ekonomi di seluruh dunia. Hal tersebut mendorong disusunnya artikel ini untuk mendiskusikan relevansi dan pentingnya imunoterapi dalam menentukan pilihan terapetik terkait infeksi virus, dengan menitikberatkan pembahasan pada ketersediaan pilihan vaksin dan obat yang telah ditemukan untuk membantu manusia melawan berbagai jenis infeksi yang disebabkan oleh virus. Penulisan artikel review naratif ini dilakukan menggunakan metode analisis pustaka primer maupun sekunder terkait yang berhasil dikumpulkan dari database online Google Scholar dan NCBI-PubMed. Selain itu, sumber acuan pustaka juga diambil dari beberapa buku teks akademik. Imunoterapi merupakan bidang yang berkembang melalui interaksi bidang imunologi, farmakologi dan farmakoterapi yang memiliki perkembangan yang pesat terutama dalam kondisi pandemi COVID-19 yang dihadapi saat ini. Meskipun terapi dan obat-obatan yang digunakan dalam bidang imunofarmakologi masih terbatas serta banyak hal yang belum dapat ditemukan, namun teknologi baru dan kemajuan pesat dalam pengetahuan tentang regulasi sistem imun telah menjadikan imunofterapi sebagai bidang yang memiliki potensi besar dan menjanjikan dalam penanganan infeksi virus maupun patogen lain. Oleh karena itu, konsep imunoterapi serta relevansinya dengan penyakit manusia merupakan salah satu solusi yang menawarkan pilihan baru untuk kebutuhan medis yang belum terpenuhi terkait penyakit infeksi akibat virus.
Given the high mortality of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), having severe COVID-19 may be a life-threatening event, especially for individuals at high risk of complications. Therefore, in the article we try to answer two questions that are relevant to public mental health: Can we define groups who are at higher risk of developing pandemic-related PTSD? How can health specialists prepare for it? Given the results of previous research on PTSD in epidemic (e.g., SARS) survivors, we suggest that mental health professionals in countries touched by the pandemic should prepare for an increase in the PTSD prevalence, specifically in: individuals who have had severe COVID-19; family members of these patients and of patients who have died; and frontline healthcare workers witnessing COVID-19 patients’ sudden deaths, or numerous life-threatening situations. We postulate that these groups at risk should be routinely screened for PTSD in primary medical and pediatric care. Mental health services should prepare for providing therapeutic interventions for individuals with PTSD in the vulnerable groups, and support to their families, especially children.
Since it was first identified, the epidemic scale of the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in Wuhan, China, has increased rapidly, with cases arising across China and other countries and regions. Using a transmission model, we estimate a basic reproductive number of 3.11 (95% CI, 2.39–4.13), indicating that 58–76% of transmissions must be prevented to stop increasing. We also estimate a case ascertainment rate in Wuhan of 5.0% (95% CI, 3.6–7.4). The true size of the epidemic may be significantly greater than the published case counts suggest, with our model estimating 21 022 (prediction interval, 11 090–33 490) total infections in Wuhan between 1 and 22 January. We discuss our findings in the light of more recent information.
This article is part of the theme issue ‘Modelling that shaped the early COVID-19 pandemic response in the UK’.
Since the first reports that the novel coronavirus was showing human-to-human transmission characteristics and asymptomatic cases, the number of patients with associated pneumonia has continued to rise and the epidemic has grown. It now threatens the health and lives of people across the world. The governments of many countries have attached great importance to the prevention of SARS-CoV-2, via research into the etiology and epidemiology of this newly emerged disease. Clinical signs, treatment, and prevention characteristics of the novel coronavirus pneumonia have been receiving attention worldwide, especially from medical personnel. However, owing to the different experimental methods, sample sizes, sample sources, and research perspectives of various studies, results have been inconsistent, or relate to an isolated aspect of the virus or the disease it causes. Currently, systematic summary data on the novel coronavirus are limited. This review combines experimental and clinical evidence into a systematic analysis and summary of the current progress of research into SARS-CoV-2, from multiple perspectives, with the aim of gaining a better overall understanding of the disease. Our report provides important information for current clinicians, for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 pneumonia.
A global epidemic caused by highly transmittable COVID-19 is causing severe loss of human life. In this study, two aspects of reducing transmission of COVID-19 virus, due to surface contact, are discussed: first refers to the effect of nanocarbon fullerene C60 coating on surface, that causes lipid peroxidation on the phospholipid layer present in the outer envelope of COVID-19; the second aspect refers to creating hydrophobic surfaces by texturing them, so that the contact area between virus and surface is minimized due to the presence of entrapped air between the topographies. These can be similar to micro-/nano-multiscale textured surfaces that have anti-biofouling properties. Fullerene-coated surfaces can be seen as a possible solution to decrease the adhesion of virus on the surface, as they will be hydrophobic as well as toxic to the envelope.
The ongoing outbreak of the novel coronavirus pneumonia COVID-19 has caused great number of cases and deaths, but our understanding about the pathogen SARS-CoV-2 remains largely unclear. The attachment of the virus with the cell-surface receptor and a co-factor is the first step for the infection. Here, bioinformatics approaches combining human-virus protein interaction prediction and protein docking based on crystal structures have revealed the high affinity between human dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) and the spike (S) receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV-2. Intriguingly, the crucial binding residues of DPP4 are identical to those as bound to the MERS-CoV-S. Moreover, E484 insertion and adjacent substitutions should be most essential for this DPP4-binding ability acquirement of SARS-CoV-2-S compared with SARS-CoV-S. This potential utilization of DPP4 as a binding target for SARS-CoV-2 may offer novel insight into the viral pathogenesis, and help the surveillance and therapeutics strategy for meeting the challenge of COVID-19.
On the 30th of January 2020, the World Health Organization fired up the sirens against a fast spreading infectious disease caused by a newly discovered Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and gave this disease the name COVID-19. While there is currently no specific treatment for COVID-19, several off label drugs approved for other indications are being investigated in clinical trials across the globe.
In the last decade, theranostic nanoparticles were reported as promising tool for efficiently and selectively deliver therapeutic moieties (i.e. drugs, vaccines, siRNA, peptide) to target sites of infection. In addition, they allow monitoring infectious sides and treatment responses using noninvasive imaging modalities. While intranasal delivery was proposed as the preferred administration route for therapeutic agents against viral pulmonary diseases, NP-based delivery systems offer numerous benefits to overcome challenges associated with mucosal administration, and ensure that these agents achieve a concentration that is many times higher than expected in the targeted sites of infection while limiting side effects on normal cells.
In this article, we have shed light on the promising role of nanoparticles as effective carriers for therapeutics or immune modulators to help in fighting against COVID-19.
Global health is facing the most dangerous situation regarding the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome called coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and is widely known as abbreviated COVID-19 pandemic. This is due to the highly infectious nature of the disease and the possibility to cause pneumonia induced death in approximately 7% of infected individuals (data until 24 April 2020). The pathogen causing COVID-19 is called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is believed to be originated from the Wuhan Province in China. Unfortunately, an effective and approved vaccine for SARS-CoV-2 virus is still not available making the situation more dangerous and available medical care futile. This unmet medical need thus requires significant and very urgent research attention to develop effective vaccine to address the SARS-CoV-2 virus. In this review, the state-of-the-art drug design strategies against the virus are critically summarized including exploitations of novel drugs and potentials of repurposed drugs. The applications of nanochemistry and generally nanotechnology were also discussed to give the status of nanodiagnostic systems for COVID-19.
A pneumonia outbreak with unknown etiology was reported in Wuhan, Hubei province, China, in December 2019, associated with the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market. The causative agent of the outbreak was identified by the WHO as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), producing the disease named coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). The virus is closely related (96.3%) to bat coronavirus RaTG13, based on phylogenetic analysis. Human-to-human transmission has been confirmed even from asymptomatic carriers. The virus has spread to at least 200 countries, and more than 1,700,000 confirmed cases and 111,600 deaths have been recorded, with massive global increases in the number of cases daily. Therefore, the WHO has declared COVID-19 a pandemic. The disease is characterized by fever, dry cough, and chest pain with pneumonia in severe cases. In the beginning, the world public health authorities tried to eradicate the disease in China through quarantine but are now transitioning to prevention strategies worldwide to delay its spread. To date, there are no available vaccines or specific therapeutic drugs to treat the virus. There are many knowledge gaps about the newly emerged SARS-CoV-2, leading to misinformation. Therefore, in this review, we provide recent information about the COVID-19 pandemic. This review also provides insights for the control of pathogenic infections in humans such as SARS-CoV-2 infection and future spillovers.
There are no effective antiviral drugs available against the pandemic causing COVID 19 virus. The complex protein - protein interaction between the virus and host is yet to be determined for designing of precise antiviral drugs against corona virus. The pandemic had claimed several thousand lives and had resulted most devastating effects on our mankind. In this scenario a potent drug is needed which will kill the viruses with minimal side effects on human body. Here I propose a novel antiviral therapy for effective killing of COVID19 with minimal side effects.
BACKGROUND:
Despite limited and conflicting data on the use of hydroxychloroquine in patients with Covid-19, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has authorized the emergency use of this drug when clinical trials are unavailable or infeasible. Hydroxychloroquine, alone or in combination with azithromycin, is being widely used in Covid-19 therapy based on anecdotal and limited observational evidence.
METHODS:
We performed a retrospective analysis of data from patients hospitalized with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection in all United States Veterans Health Administration medical centers until April 11, 2020. Patients were categorized based on their exposure to hydroxychloroquine alone (HC) or with azithromycin (HC+AZ) as treatments in addition to standard supportive management for Covid-19. The two primary outcomes were death and the need for mechanical ventilation. We determined the association between treatment and the primary outcomes using competing risk hazard regression adjusting for clinical characteristics via propensity scores. Discharge and death were taken into account as competing risks and subdistribution hazard ratios are presented.
RESULTS:
A total of 368 patients were evaluated (HC, n=97; HC+AZ, n=113; no HC, n=158). Rates of death in the HC, HC+AZ, and no HC groups were 27.8%, 22.1%, 11.4%, respectively. Rates of ventilation in the HC, HC+AZ, and no HC groups were 13.3%, 6.9%, 14.1%, respectively. Compared to the no HC group, the risk of death from any cause was higher in the HC group (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.61; 95% CI, 1.10 to 6.17; P=0.03) but not in the HC+AZ group (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.14; 95% CI, 0.56 to 2.32; P=0.72). The risk of ventilation was similar in the HC group (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.43; 95% CI, 0.53 to 3.79; P=0.48) and in the HC+AZ group (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.43; 95% CI, 0.16 to 1.12; P=0.09), compared to the no HC group.
CONCLUSIONS:
In this study, we found no evidence that use of hydroxychloroquine, either with or without azithromycin, reduced the risk of mechanical ventilation in patients hospitalized with Covid-19. An association of increased overall mortality was identified in patients treated with hydroxychloroquine alone. These findings highlight the importance of awaiting the results of ongoing prospective, randomized, controlled studies before widespread adoption of these drugs.
The present outbreak associated with corona virus [CoVs] in China which is believed to be one of the massive eruptions towards mankind in 2019–2020. In the present scenario CoVs has been transmitted to the European and American regions through the travellers from wide spread countries like China and Japan. The viral disease is spreading through the contact in any form by the infected persons or patients and creating huge risk of mortality. CoVs are a single positive-sense RNA virus; mutation rates are higher than DNA viruses and indicate a more effective survival adaption mechanism. Human CoVs can cause common cold and influenza-like illness and a variety of severe acute respiratory disease such as pneumonia. Early in infection, CoVs infects epithelial cells, macrophages, T-cells, dendritic cells and also can affect the development and implantation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. It mainly produces the melanoma differentiation associated with protein-5, retinoic acid inducible gene-1 and endosomal toll-like receptor 3. How CoVs affects the function of the immune system is still unclear due to lack of this knowledge. No Food and Drug Administration approved treatment is available till date. In this review, we are tried to explore the epidemiology, pathogenesis and current treatment of CoVs infection. The promising therapeutics molecules against CoVs and future prospective have been also discussed which will be helpful for researchers to find out the new molecules for the treatment of CoVs disease.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and represents a potentially fatal disease of great global public health importance. As of March 26, 2020, the outbreak of COVID-19 has resulted in 462,801 confirmed cases and 20,839 deaths globally, which is more than those caused by SARS and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) in 2003 and 2013, respectively. The epidemic has posed considerable challenges worldwide. Under a strict mechanism of massive prevention and control, China has seen a rapid decrease in new cases of coronavirus; however, the global situation remains serious. Additionally, the origin of COVID-19 has not been determined and no specific antiviral treatment or vaccine is currently available. Based on the published data, this review systematically discusses the etiology, epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and current intervention measures related to COVID-19 in the hope that it may provide a reference for future studies and aid in the prevention and control of the COVID-19 epidemic.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a viral respiratory illness caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), may predispose patients to thrombotic disease, both in the venous and arterial circulations, due to excessive inflammation, platelet activation, endothelial dysfunction, and stasis. In addition, many patients receiving antithrombotic therapy for thrombotic disease may develop COVID-19, which can have implications for choice, dosing, and laboratory monitoring of antithrombotic therapy. Moreover, during a time with much focus on COVID-19, it is critical to consider how to optimize the available technology to care for patients without COVID-19 who have thrombotic disease. Herein, we review the current understanding of the pathogenesis, epidemiology, management and outcomes of patients with COVID-19 who develop venous or arterial thrombosis, and of those with preexisting thrombotic disease who develop COVID-19, or those who need prevention or care for their thrombotic disease during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Background
SARS-CoV-2 is the causative agent of COVID-19; that has been declared a global pandemic by the WHO in 2020. The COVID-19 treatment guidelines vary in each country, and yet there is no approved therapeutic for COVID-19.
Aims of the study
this review aimed to report any evidence of therapeutics used for the management of COVID-19 patients in clinical practice since the emergence of the virus.
Methods
A systematic review protocol was developed based on PRISMA Statement. Articles for review were selected from electronic databases (Embase, Medline and Google Scholar). Readily accessible peer-reviewed, full articles in English published from December 1st , 2019 to March 26th , 2020 were included. The search terms included combinations of: COVID, SARS-COV-2, glucocorticoids, convalescent plasma, antiviral and antibacterial. There were no restrictions on the type of study design eligible for inclusion.
Results
As of March 26th, 2020, of the initial manuscripts identified (n=449); forty-one studies were included. These consisted of clinical trials (n=3), case reports (n=7), case series (n=10), retrospective (n=11) and prospective (n=10) observational studies. Thirty-six studies were conducted in China (88%).
The most commonly reported medicine in this systematic review was corticosteroids (n=25), followed by Lopinavir (n=21) and Oseltamivir (n=16).
Conclusions
This is the first systematic review to date related to the therapeutics used in COVID-19 patients. Only 41 research articles on COVID-19 and therapeutics were found eligible to be included, most conducted in China. Corticosteroid therapy was found to be the most studied medicine in the literature.
COVID-19 has now been declared a pandemic. To date, COVID-19 has affected over 944,181 people worldwide, resulting in over 47,312 reported deaths. Numerous preventative strategies and non-pharmaceutical interventions have been employed to mitigate the spread of disease including careful infection control, the isolation of patients, and social distancing. Management is predominantly focused on the provision of supportive care, with oxygen therapy representing the major treatment intervention. Medical therapy involving corticosteroids and antivirals have also been encouraged as part of critical management schemes. However, there is at present no specific antiviral recommended for the treatment of COVID-19, and no vaccine is currently available. Despite the strategic implementation of these measures, the number of new reported cases continues to rise at a profoundly alarming rate. As new findings emerge, there is an urgent need for up-to-date management guidelines. In response to this call, we review what is currently known regarding the management of COVID-19, and offer an evidence-based review of current practice.
Cytokine storm is an excessive immune response to external stimuli. The pathogenesis of the cytokine storm is complex. The disease progresses rapidly, and the mortality is high. Certain evidence shows that, during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemic, the severe deterioration of some patients has been closely related to the cytokine storm in their bodies. This article reviews the occurrence mechanism and treatment strategies of the COVID-19 virus-induced inflammatory storm in attempt to provide valuable medication guidance for clinical treatment.
In early December 2019, an outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), occurred in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China. On January 30, 2020 the World Health Organization declared the outbreak as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. As of February 14, 2020, 49,053 laboratory-confirmed and 1,381 deaths have been reported globally. Perceived risk of acquiring disease has led many governments to institute a variety of control measures. We conducted a literature review of publicly available information to summarize knowledge about the pathogen and the current epidemic. In this literature review, the causative agent, pathogenesis and immune responses, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and management of the disease, control and preventions strategies are all reviewed.
Currently, there are no approved specific antiviral agents for novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In this study, 10 severe patients confirmed by real-time viral RNA test were enrolled prospectively. One dose of 200 mL of convalescent plasma (CP) derived from recently recovered donors with the neutralizing antibody titers above 1:640 was transfused to the patients as an addition to maximal supportive care and antiviral agents. The primary endpoint was the safety of CP transfusion. The second endpoints were the improvement of clinical symptoms and laboratory parameters within 3 d after CP transfusion. The median time from onset of illness to CP transfusion was 16.5 d. After CP transfusion, the level of neutralizing antibody increased rapidly up to 1:640 in five cases, while that of the other four cases maintained at a high level (1:640). The clinical symptoms were significantly improved along with increase of oxyhemoglobin saturation within 3 d. Several parameters tended to improve as compared to pretransfusion, including increased lymphocyte counts (0.65 × 10 ⁹ /L vs. 0.76 × 10 ⁹ /L) and decreased C-reactive protein (55.98 mg/L vs. 18.13 mg/L). Radiological examinations showed varying degrees of absorption of lung lesions within 7 d. The viral load was undetectable after transfusion in seven patients who had previous viremia. No severe adverse effects were observed. This study showed CP therapy was well tolerated and could potentially improve the clinical outcomes through neutralizing viremia in severe COVID-19 cases. The optimal dose and time point, as well as the clinical benefit of CP therapy, needs further investigation in larger well-controlled trials.
Posttraumatic stress symptoms and attitude toward crisis mental health services among clinically stable patients with COVID-19 in China - Hai-Xin Bo, Wen Li, Yuan Yang, Yu Wang, Qinge Zhang, Teris Cheung, Xinjuan Wu, Yu-Tao Xiang
Over the last two decades, the world experienced three outbreaks of coronaviruses with elevated morbidity rates. Currently, the global community is facing emerging virus SARS-CoV-2 belonging to Betacoronavirus, which appears to be more transmissible but less deadly than SARS-CoV. The current study aimed to track the evolutionary ancestors and different evolutionary strategies that were genetically adapted by SARS-CoV-2. Our whole-genome analysis revealed that SARS-CoV-2 was the descendant of Bat SARS/SARS-like CoVs and bats served as a natural reservoir. SARS-CoV-2 used mutations and recombination as crucial strategies in different genomic regions including the envelop, membrane, nucleocapsid, and spike glycoproteins to become a novel infectious agent. We confirmed that mutations in different genomic regions of SARS-CoV-2 have specific influence on virus reproductive adaptability, allowing for genotype adjustment and adaptations in rapidly changing environments. Moreover, for the first time we identified nine putative recombination patterns in SARS-CoV-2, which encompass spike glycoprotein, RdRp, helicase and ORF3a. Six recombination regions were spotted in the S gene and are undoubtedly important for evolutionary survival, meanwhile this permitted the virus to modify superficial antigenicity to find a way from immune reconnaissance in animals and adapt to a human host. With these combined natural selected strategies, SARS-CoV-2 emerged as a novel virus in human society.
Infectious diseases remain a leading cause of concern worldwide. Conventional vaccine methods to elicit immune responses have limitations in effectively controlling new and re-merging pathogens. Nanoparticle-based vaccines show promise in overcoming these limitations due to their versatility and tunability to protect antigen from premature degradations, facilitate their intracellular uptakes and elicit prolonged immunity against infectious diseases. Nanoparticle can be categorized as purely organic or inorganic based on the components that construct the structure. Most organic materials are biocompatible, biodegradable, and nontoxic, while most inorganic materials have a smaller particle size, improved stability, controlled tunability, enhanced permeability, high antigen loadings, and a triggered release profile. This review will focus on the different type of organic and inorganic nanoparticles used as vaccine against infectious diseases.