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Application of 3D Prototyping to Promote Size-Inclusive Design Practices for Plus-Size Apparel
Abstract
Although innovative computer-aided design tools offer opportunities for advancing size-inclusive apparel design, minimal design research has been conducted to document the applications of these technologies. The purpose of this study is to identify plus-size women’s needs through mixed method research and to integrate 3D prototyping technology to enhance plus-size apparel design. The research includes a) an online survey of plus-size consumers and market analysis to identify clothing needs and perceived problems, and b) development of a virtual and physical prototype through technology integration methods. This study responds to current needs to enhance apparel design for plus-size consumers; the integration of 3D prototyping and the functional, expressive, and aesthetic (FEA) process is a novel approach that places plus-size women at the center of the model. Results from this study may also provide practical guidelines for designers and students with limited knowledge of plus-size women’s body types and bolster their interest in designing for larger body figures to promote a sense of inclusivity.
... When overweight and obese women buy the clothes they want, their behavior in the buying system is determined by the availability of the sizes ranges of the clothes. The overweight and obese women's category includes clothing sizes from size 12 to 32 [34]. As confirmed by previous studies, the need for plus-size clothing is often not met through the market. ...
... By grasping the needs of overweight and obese women and creating clothes to suit their body shape, creating a variety range is beneficial to the industry as well as to overweight and obese women [9]. According to literature, it has been confirmed that most overweight and obese women focus on and choose dark-colored clothes and neutral-colored clothes [34]. In addition, overweight and obese women try to wear clothing with similar styles to the average size of women style [34]. ...
... According to literature, it has been confirmed that most overweight and obese women focus on and choose dark-colored clothes and neutral-colored clothes [34]. In addition, overweight and obese women try to wear clothing with similar styles to the average size of women style [34]. Unique and personal styles used by a woman increase self-expression (Cervantes, 2022). ...
Purpose: At present, global trade in textiles and clothing is expanding across the world. The increase in the percentage of overweight and obese women creates tendency to focus on the demand for plus-size clothes. Prior studies confirmed that there is a low attention paid to women's plus-size clothing in Sri Lanka when compared to other countries such as the United Kingdom, Australia, and England. The main purpose of this study is to identify the factors affecting clothing satisfaction of overweight and obese women in Generation Y and Z in Sri Lanka. Design: Acknowledging Renoux’s theory of retail satisfaction, the study used three influencing factors; shopping system, buying system, and consuming system. Shopping system considers displaying plus-size mannequins, creating a separate section for plus-size cloth and providing proper and sufficient information. Buying system focuses on new clothing designs, maintaining a reasonable price range, high-quality materials, and adequate the space in the store. Consuming system focuses on body proportion, body image, and the length of time a garment is held after purchase. A self-administered questionnaire is used to gather data from 287 respondents via online survey. This study adopted quantitative analyses. Influencing factors were determined through the multiple regression analysis. Findings: Results revealed that the buying system and shopping system have statistically significant influences on overweight and obese women's clothing satisfaction and buying system recorded the highest influence. However, consuming system has an insignificant influence on overweight and obese women's clothing satisfaction. Research Implications: Under the shopping system, displaying plus-size mannequin and allocating a separate section for plus-size could stimulate clothing satisfaction of overweight and obese women. Offering a reasonable price range and providing an adequate fit-on-room are the significant factors to be considered in buying system. Future Research Suggestions: Quantitative approach limited the ability to address the problems of overweight and obese women's clothing satisfaction in depth. Shopping mechanism, the ability to do online or offline shopping, store attributes and human attributes should focus on further studies.
... Chinese traditional furniture has a long history, has high cultural value and use value, and has high reference value in the field of modern furniture design [9]. In the innovative design of new Chinese-style furniture, on the one hand, the aesthetics of the Chinese Dynasty has gradually entered people's field of vision, and innovative designs of Chinese-style furniture have emerged one after another [10]. ...
"Big data" is a popular word at present, and its application in various industries has gradually become widespread. In the furniture industry, the application effect of big data in the market is more and more prominent, and the great value brought by big data to furniture enterprises is also more and more obvious. How to use big data to obtain the information advantage brought by big data is also an important problem faced by furniture enterprises. This paper introduces the application and application methods of big data in new furniture design, and discusses how furniture design can effectively use big data to seize market opportunities and achieve new business development. This paper discusses how to apply more extensive data thinking in furniture design, model development and subsequent design to improve product innovation design, so as to provide effective reference for the new development of furniture design. At the same time, we explored innovative furniture design in combination with reality, and found that using big data can effectively enhance the pertinence of furniture design and optimize user experience.
... This ongoing conversation about the significance of embodiment and materiality in fashion design often entails a critique of the fashion industry's preference for "exclusively" young, white, fit, and slim body types (Barry 2019;Grimstad Klepp and Rysst 2016;Lewis 2019). The critique has also led to concrete actions by the new generation of fashion designers, who have created collections for plus-size women or disabled children, among other groups (Hudson and Hwang 2022;McBee-Black 2022). On the other hand, in the fields of fashion and fashion research, methods of user-centered research and design have been employed only rarely until quite recently, and mostly in functional clothing design (e.g. ...
Particularly since the 1990s, there has been an active discussion on inclusive design and on the possibility of designing products that would be suitable for every kind of user. Wearable technology products that need to be in close contact with the user's skin to function must be a good fit for the user's body. As wearable technology has transitioned from a specialty of the "quantify-yourself" movement to a widespread, everyday item, the Jenni Hokka works as a specialist in research methods at the Doctoral School at Tampere University. This research is part of a project undertaken while affiliated at Aalto University in which she scrutinized design
... Three-dimensional body scanning technology is a promising way to improve apparel fit and size issue with mass customization (Senanayake and Little, 2010;Sohn et al., 2020). Mass customization can benefit plus size target market once their body shape scrutinized by the industry (Hudson and Hwang, 2020). Custom specifications by individuals or apparel companies can be applied to the overall pattern-making process with using 3D body scan JFMM technology in order to create a mass-customized clothing (Loker, 2007). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to explore body shapes among overweight and obese men and examine fit issues based on the current ASTM sizing standards related to the categorized body shapes.
Design/methodology/approach
The SizeUSA data and the additional data extracted using the ImageTwin (TC2-19) software were used. To categorize body shapes, principal component (PC) analysis with varimax rotation, hierarchical cluster analysis for an elbow method and K-mean cluster analysis were employed. Comparing the categorized body shapes and ASTM sizing charts, a cross-tabulation was performed to test associations between fit analyses for top and bottom for the body shape groups. Furthermore, an analysis of variance and pairwise comparison were performed to identify differences in mean values of size drops between two body parts across the different body shape groups.
Findings
Using a three-dimensional (3D) body scanning technology and 3D virtual avatars, three body shapes for overweight and obese men emerged: Rectangle-curvy, bottom hourglass-hip tilt and top hourglass-straight shapes. Further, overweight and obese male consumers are not likely to find a perfect fit from apparel companies who developed their sizing charts based on the men's and big men's ASTM standards. Notably, the big men's ASTM sizing standard did not work for most overweight and obese men the United States.
Originality/value
Despite the notable increase in the US population that is overweight and obese, most overweight and obese men have had fit problems due to the differences in their body shapes as compared to the standardized body shape used in the current sizing system. The results of this study suggest apparel companies who are targeting overweight and obese male consumers in the United States updating their sizing systems in order to solve fit problems.
The purpose of the study is to determine the current average clothing size of adult American women. Secondary data of average body measurements from the most recently published National Health and Nutritional Examination Surveys were compared to ASTM International industry clothing size standards. Findings suggest that, contrary to popular assumptions, the average American woman’s (AAW’s) clothing size is larger than anticipated. The AAW wears between a Misses size 16–18, which corresponds to a Women’s Plus size 20W, with greater distinctions found when considering race and ethnicity. It is suggested that updating Misses and Plus-size clothing standards should be a major priority.
Over the past decade participation in physical activity for adult women has decreased
while body size has increased. Overweight and obese individuals are considered the
majority demographic in the United States; however, plus-sized clothing sales are
minimal in comparison to other segments. Furthermore, there is little known about
the clothing practices of obese women who engage in physical activity. The current
study addresses this research gap by exploring obese heterosexual women’s clothing
practices for exercise, with an emphasis on what women wear, their perceived choices,
alternatives, and satisfaction. Lowe and Anspach’s (1978) notion of freedom of dress was the guiding conceptual framework for in-depth interviews with (n = 56) obese women. A majority of the women perceived having limited freedom in dress, and reported crossdressing in men’s clothing to engage in
physical activity, which resulted in a perceived lack of gender expression. Crossdressing
is wearing clothing of the opposite sex and gender expression is a way in which a person
acts to communicate gender within a given culture. Women in this study indicated
and the authors discuss that as clothing size increases, perceived freedom in dress
decreases. In order to increase freedom in dress, our participants tended to believe it is
their personal responsibility to lose weight.
This study focused on developing a western-style collection incorporating Ankara textiles for Nigerian women of varying body shapes. The collection was specifically designed for women participating in formal social events. The Functional, Expressive, Aesthetic (FEA) Consumer Needs model provided the conceptual framework for the study [Lamb, J., & Kallal, M. (1992). A conceptual framework for apparel design. Clothing and Textile Research Journal, 10(2), 42–47]. During Phase One of the study, 113 Nigerian women responded to an online survey. Respondents ranged in age from 18 to 55, with the majority ages 25–35 years. Respondents reviewed preliminary designs; their responses influenced refinements in the final designs. Phase Two included design refinements, creation of three final designs, and an exhibition. Based on respondents’ comments, the final designs emphasised fit, comfort, and modesty with a strong influence on Nigerian culture. This study demonstrates the applicability of the FEA model in designing culturally inspired apparel.
The article opens up fresh debate in aesthetical capacity of academic and Ghanaian traditional costumes in academic processions and sheds light on how the synergetic interaction of academic and traditional costumes spice up academic ceremonies in the University of Education, Winneba (UEW). Grounded in aesthetical balances, the study analyses the body of artistic ramifications in constructing academic pomposity, and signaling academic accomplishment and identities. Data gathered have been presented in simple narrative format. The researchers opted to offer visual interpretative account of the events—matriculation and congregation ceremonies, taking into account the symbolical essence and aesthetical dimensions of the academic and traditional costumes used in the ceremonies. Through participant observation and photographic evidences, the article delves into the aesthetical realms of academic costumes and its theatrical orchestrations in announcing visual identities of wearers. It posits that the construction of the visual iconographic identities through the use of both academic and traditional costuming in UEW is best understood in the Ghanaian conceptual and contextual cultural dialectic.
The study proposes an innovative methodology for the clothing design activity, which allows the designer to adapt basic patterns developed for type bodies in the actual body form of a certain subject, using simulation in virtual environment of body-garment fitting. For the application of this innovative technology, the paper provides theoretical and practical information on: Development of two methods for morphological assessment of subjects in order to obtain the information required in patterns design for clothing based on concrete body form of potential users; Methodology to adapt basic patterns developed for a body type to the concrete form of subjects, applying simulation technology of body-product fitting in virtual environment. The present paper is the case study on completion of basic patterns, for " women dress" by applying innovative simulation in 3D virtual space, on the correspondence between designed product and actual body of the subject. (C) 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This study assessed the reliability of the self-perceived lower-body size and shape using 3D body-scanning technology. Comparison of each participant's measurements on the relevant variables to categorized Size USA data provided a method of identifying where an individual is placed in relation to the population. Comparing perceptions (survey results) to actual placement in the population (derived from a participant's 3D body measurements) gave insight into how different categories of participants viewed themselves and how valid their self-assessments were at various locations on the body. This study also analyzed the relationship between garment fit satisfaction, body cathexis, and self-perception of lower-body size and shape for each body location because apparel companies have had difficulty in understanding fit from a consumer's perspective. The researchers expect that the analyses of the influences of body cathexis and body perceptions on fit satisfaction can help apparel companies further understand their customers' fit satisfaction goals.
The purpose of this study was to investigate clothing needs of adolescent girls with disabilities with the application of the Functional, Expressive and Aesthetic (FEA) Consumer Needs Model (Lamb, J.M. and Kallal, M.J., 1992. A conceptual framework for apparel design. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 10, 42–47). Survey data were collected from 33 adolescent girls with disabilities. Functional, expressive and aesthetic considerations of the FEA Model were used to analyse responses regarding satisfaction with specific garment types and general clothing needs. While functional considerations were most often reported, adolescents also indicated a number of expressive and aesthetic considerations. Regardless of their level of clothing interest, the common functional considerations identified were issues with fit and difficulty donning and doffing including difficulty with garment fasteners. Safety was not a consideration identified in the FEA Model but was identified by the adolescents as important when considering their level of satisfaction. Based on the results of this study, recommendation for future applications of the FEA Consumer Needs Model is presented.
The case describes a hugely successful example of IT-driven strategy, the Lands' End custom tailored apparel initiative. In less than a year, 40% of Lands' End customers buying chinos and jeans from the firm's web site were buying tailored products. Over 20% of these customers never made a purchase over the web before. The case explores mass customization and web-based customer service initiatives while providing a rich opportunity to discuss the sustainability of competitive advantage derived from IT-driven strategic initiatives. The case also describes the cross-organizational and cross-border supply chain that Lands' End and its business partner, Archetype Solutions, Inc constructed as well as Archetype's extension of that chain to other retailers.
Why and how do marginalized consumers mobilize to seek greater inclusion in and more choice from mainstream markets? We develop answers to these questions drawing on institutional theory and a qualitative investigation of Fatshionistas, plus-sized consumers who want more options from mainstream fashion marketers. Three triggers for mobilization are posited: development of a collective identity, identification of inspiring institutional entrepreneurs, and access to mobilizing institutional logics from adjacent fields. Several change strategies that reinforce institutional logics while unsettling specific institutionalized practices are identified. Our discussion highlights diverse market change dynamics that are likely when consumers are more versus less legitimate in the eyes of mainstream marketers and in instances where the changes consumers seek are more versus less consistent with prevailing institutions and logics.
This study employed qualitative methods with a sample of overweight and obese adults to identify and describe their subjective experiences of weight bias. Participants (274 females and 44 males) completed an online battery of self-report questionnaires, including several open-ended questions about weight stigmatization. These questions asked them to describe their worst experiences of weight stigmatization, their perceptions of common weight-based stereotypes, their feelings about being overweight and their suggestions for strategies to reduce weight stigma in our culture. Participants reported experiencing weight stigma across a range of contexts and involving a variety of interpersonal sources. Close relationship partners (such as friends, parents and spouses) were the most common source of their worst stigmatizing encounters. Participants challenged common weight-based stereotypes (notably, that obese individuals are 'lazy') and reported that they would like the public to gain a better understanding of the difficulties of weight loss, the causes of obesity and the emotional consequences of being stigmatized. Education was reported as the most promising avenue for future stigma-reduction efforts. The experiences and opinions expressed were not significantly different for men versus women or overweight versus obese individuals. A minority of participants expressed beliefs suggestive of self-blame and internalization of weight-based stereotypes. These results indicate that while obese individuals experience weight bias across many domains, more stigma-reduction efforts should target stigmatizing encounters in close relationships, including parents, spouses and friends of obese persons.
The past 20 years have seen growth in exposure and academic outlets for design scholarship through new journals, special topics sessions and conferences, and PhD programs. Yet, there is a lack of strong published examples of design scholarship in textiles and apparel as designer scholars and administrators still struggle to understand how to conduct, document, and evaluate design scholarship. This issue, long overdue, looks at the current state of design research in our textile and apparel discipline and provides examples that begin to fill the gap in our shared understanding of a way forward.
With the rapid growth of the older population, older women represent high purchasing power in the fashion market. However, the lack of attention from the fashion industry makes older women hard to find appropriate apparel in terms of fit and style. The purpose of this study was to explore ways to improve apparel fit and design attributes for older women by investigating practical design applications through the use of various emerging technology in the apparel industry. Findings indicated that integrating 2D and 3D computer-aided design technologies into the apparel design process can provide flexibility and effective visual analysis as well as save time and materials compared to the traditional design method of cut and sew. Therefore, our study presented a case for a particular target population in terms of technology integration methods to better respond to the current needs.
Three-dimensional (3D) virtual prototyping and problem-solving have been becoming increasingly important for apparel design students entering the industry. Repeated use of 3D virtual prototypes in computer-aided design (CAD) patternmaking can improve students’ interaction skills with the software. Furthermore, it can develop their 3D visualisation and problem-solving skills. The present study examined students’ use of 3D virtual prototypes in three consecutive projects. The sequence and content of the projects steered student learning and skill development when using 3D simulations. Findings confirmed that interaction, imagining, and problem-solving skills significantly increased between the first and the last projects. Especially working in pairs had a significant positive impact on students’ patternmaking problem-solving abilities and skills as demonstrated in creating 3D simulations. Implications of this study can be used to inform practices when teaching apparel CAD patternmaking and introducing projects with 3D in both academia and industry.
U.S. plus-size female consumers account for 28% of
the nation’s apparel purchasing power (Binkley 2013).
This group of women, who wear size 14 or larger
clothing, believe that fashion retailers do not
understand their clothing needs. Despite the
apparently under-tapped potential of the plus-size
apparel market, there is a limited amount of
information on how this demographic is affected by
the retail store environment. Therefore, the purpose
of this study is to examine attributes (clothing
availability, fitting rooms, mannequins, in-store
signage, sales associates, and human crowding) of
mainstream retail clothing store shopping
environments and determine how they affect the
satisfaction and dissatisfaction of plus-size female
consumers. Results reveal that the store attributes of
clothing availability, fitting rooms, mannequins, and
in-store signage are significant predictors of plus-size
consumers’ satisfaction with a retailer. Additionally,
results indicate that while the human attributes of
sales associates significantly impact this market’s
satisfaction with a retailer, human crowding does not.
These findings are useful to retailers, marketers, and
apparel manufacturers as they attempt to satisfy this
under-served market for ready-to-wear apparel.
Key issues regarding the design of apparel for the overweight and obese population are examined with reference to how the body changes shape as weight is gained, understanding of the different body shapes of the plus sized consumer and sizing requirements for plus sizes. Most importantly, plus size customers are found to be similar to missy sized customers in that they both want stylish and fashionable clothing that fits. Future trends in plus sizes are discussed.
Computer is becoming an ever increasing important tool for apparel designing. Advanced computer systems of 2 or 3 dimensional concept design are used widely in developed countries. This technology is beneficial for rationalization of production, analysis of fashion and forecast, as well as in pattern grading and marking. The advent of CAD is giving designers new freedom to explore and manipulate design in a relatively easy and inexpensive ways. Now with advance computer technology system, the designer can visualize a realistic garment design along with folds; creases etc., and also restyle a design, change color, fabric prints and plaids thus producing better designs in seconds along with a perfect drape and fit. Designers can use Computer Aided Design (CAD) to create, edit and evaluate designs with fast computer graphics and three-dimensional color perspectives. CAD specifications are more accurate than manual drafting and CAD systems can store standard designs, names and dimensions of components. Computer systems can model production functions for manufacturing firms to improve the productivity of inputs and outputs. A number of software are used in apparel designing such as CorelDraw, Adobe Illustrator, Karat cad whereas TUKACad concentrates on the practical use of computers in pattern design and product development.
Mass customization MC service is a pertinent industrial practice in the fashion industry. To foster trust and enhance demand, some brands now allow dissatisfied customers to return the MC fashion product for a full refund minus a service charge. The service charge is a measure to avoid the abuse of the return right and to subsidize the operations cost e.g., shipping and loss from the return. Motivated by this observed industrial practice, this paper analytically examines the optimal return service charge policy. We separate the study into two cases---those of risk-neutral and those of risk-averse MC companies, respectively. For each case, we derive the closed-form expression of the optimal return service charge, and we conduct analytical sensitivity analysis to illustrate how different important parameters in the model affect the optimal return service charge. In addition, by comparing the two cases, we reveal how the MC service provider's level of risk aversion affects the optimal return service charge policy. Finally, we derive the conditions under which it is optimal to offer a zero return service charge i.e., free return with a full refund. These conditions provide insight on the real-world practice in which some fashion companies offer free return service to their registered members but not to every customer.
To encourage students to think of designing garments for special needs as part of a general designframework, a problem-solving approach that does not distinguish between functional apparel design and fashion design is presented. A model for assessing user needs and wants incorporates functional, expressive, and aesthetic (FEA) considerations. Examples of how the, framework has been used in design projects are presented Suggested uses for the FEA model are offered.
Purpose
This paper explores fashion availability, fit and affordability in the UK stores especially for those women who wear size 16 and over; and examines their satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the retail experience.
Design/methodology/approach
The satisfaction of customer needs remains a fundamental tenet of marketing theory, research and application. This survey was an exploratory study into satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the fashion provision and shopping environments for women in the UK. A questionnaire solicited the views of 250 women thereby enabling the researchers to gauge consumers' views on sizing, fit and fashion availability, perception of current offers, pricing and shopping environments.
Findings
A large percentage of females, particularly those who wear size 16 and over, are dissatisfied with retail environments, fashion and sizing provision among major UK market players. While most women shopped from the high street and department stores, the larger woman had great difficulty in finding well‐fitting fashionable clothing in general, and with certain categories being most problematic. Respondents' views would appear to contradict previously accepted wisdom that clothing consumption activity is leisure and pleasure orientated; many negative experiences prevailed leaving them unhappy and disenfranchised.
Research limitations/implications
The findings presented are the views of women's experiences in one city in the UK. Future research could include a wider sample from more cities.
Practical implications
Marketers should be aware of the need for affordable fashions for larger women. Lack of appropriate sizes is a major source of dissatisfaction. This creates negative emotions in terms of: merchandise choice, visual merchandising, store environment, sales personnel attitude, pricing policies and promotional activities. These factors are the very foundations of consumer satisfaction and the evidence of consumer dissatisfaction resulting in avoidance behaviour should be particularly worrying for retailers, given that they are operating in an increasingly competitive and saturated fashion environment.
Originality/value
This paper provides an initial indication of what creates consumer satisfaction or dissatisfaction about fashion, fit, affordability and retail environments in the UK particularly among larger women. This paper shows areas of specific concern for marketers.
The women's plus-size apparel category is a growing market segment in the USA as more than two-thirds (64%) of American women are considered either overweight or obese (Flegal et al., 201012.
Flegal , K. M. 2010. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2008. Journal of the American Medical Association, 303(3): 235–241. Available from: http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/303/3/235 [Accessed 6 July 2010] [CrossRef], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®]View all references. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2008. Journal of the American Medical Association, 303 (3), 235–241. Available from: http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/303/3/235 [Accessed 6 July 2010]). Pisut and Connell (200724.
Pisut , G. and
Connell , L. J. 2007. Fit preferences of female consumers in the USA. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 11(3): 366–379. [CrossRef]View all references. Fit preferences of female consumers in the USA. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 11 (3), 366–379) and Simmons et al. (200427.
Simmons , K. P. ,
Istook , C. L. and
Devarajan , P. 2004. Female figure identification technique (FFIT) for apparel, part II: development of shape sorting software. Journal of Textile and Apparel Technology and Management, 4(1): 1–16. View all references. Female figure identification technique (FFIT) for apparel, part II: development of shape sorting software. Journal of Textile and Apparel Technology and Management, 4 (1)) reported that women today reflect a more pear-shaped silhouette than in previous decades. Kurt Salmon Associates (200017.
Kurt Salmon Associates. Annual consumer outlook survey. Paper presented at the American Apparel and Footwear Association apparel research committee. Orlando, FL. View all references. Annual consumer outlook survey. Paper presented at the American Apparel and Footwear Association apparel research committee, Orlando, FL) reported that more than half the women have trouble finding well-fitting clothes. Consumers' figure types play a significant role in affecting sizing measurements of apparel (Njagi, R.K. and Zwane, P.E., 2011. Variation in measurements across different brands of same style ladies' pants in Swaziland. International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology, and Education, 4 (1), 51–57). Apparel patterns are made for hourglass-shaped women and are graded from an average size, assuming that women's measurements increase proportionally as size increases. Based on SizeUSA, a national dataset, women were classified into each size category based on their bust, waist and hip measurements, and their measurements were compared to American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards. Results showed a significant difference for most size categories. Within each size category, fewer participants satisfied all three measurements of bust, waist and hips. From these measurements, women's hip shape was determined and evaluated for sizes 14W–32W. Analysis of hip shape revealed that different hip shapes exists within a given apparel size. Research methods and implications are discussed.
As a method specifically intended for the study of messages, content analysis is fundamental to mass communication research. Intercoder reliability, more specifically termed intercoder agreement, is a measure of the extent to which independent judges make the same coding decisions in evaluating the characteristics of messages, and is at the heart of this method. Yet there are few standard and accessible guidelines available regarding the appropriate procedures to use to assess and report intercoder reliability, or software tools to calculate it. As a result, it seems likely that there is little consistency in how this critical element of content analysis is assessed and reported in published mass communication studies. Following a review of relevant concepts, indices, and tools, a content analysis of 200 studies utilizing content analysis published in the communication literature between 1994 and 1998 is used to characterize practices in the field. The results demonstrate that mass communication researchers often fail to assess (or at least report) intercoder reliability and often rely on percent agreement, an overly liberal index. Based on the review and these results, concrete guidelines are offered regarding procedures for assessment and reporting of this important aspect of content analysis.
The purpose of this study is to explore the effectiveness of 3D simulation technology for enhancing spatial visualization
skills in apparel design education and further to suggest an innovative teaching approach using the technology. Apparel design
majors in an introductory patternmaking course, at a large Midwestern University in the United States, participated in this
study. Three different teaching methods (lecture, 3D simulation instruments, and paper patternmaking) were employed in consecutive
instructional phases, within a single day. A short questionnaire devised to assess students’ visualization abilities and overall
evaluation on the three different teaching methods was administered to the students after each of the three phases. Overall,
students’ abilities to visualize 2D patterns onto a human body were improved by all three teaching methods. The 3D simulation
instruments anchored positive effects of training on spatial visualization abilities between lecture and paper patternmaking
practices. The results affirm that 3D simulation technology has positive potential as an efficient instructional tool for
improving students’ visualization skills in apparel design.
Keywords3D simulation–Spatial visualization–Patternmaking–Apparel design education
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The Average American Woman Is Now ‘Plus-Size,’ But Stores Still Don’t Stock Clothes for Her
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The Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Approach to Creativity, Problem-Solving and the Process of Reaching Goals
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