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Cooperative Mobile Learning for the Investigation of Natural Science Courses in Elementary Schools

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Abstract and Figures

The rapid development of technologies such as tablet PCs and 4G/5G networks has further enhanced the benefits of mobile learning. Although mobile devices are convenient and provide a variety of learning benefits, they are unable to improve students’ learning outcomes without an appropriate learning strategy. Furthermore, little research has been conducted to examine the effects of using collaborative learning on mobile devices. This study proposed a cooperative learning framework using Google Docs to explore the learning outcomes of students of natural science in an elementary curriculum. The study was of a quasi-experimental design with an experimental group (cooperative learning) and a control group (personal learning). The results show that a cooperative learning approach using Google Docs improved learning outcomes, teaching interest, and understanding of campus plants, and reduced cognitive load. One conclusion of the study is that the collaborative learning approach associated with mobile learning is more effective than personal learning. In addition, this paper also provides brief recommendations to expand on the study’s limitations. Future work should investigate the impact of collaborative learning on different environments for mobile learning.
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sustainability
Article
Cooperative Mobile Learning for the Investigation of
Natural Science Courses in Elementary Schools
Po-Sen Huang 1,2, Po-Sheng Chiu 3, * , Yueh-Min Huang 1, Hua-Xu Zhong 1and Chin-Feng Lai 1
1Department of Engineering Science, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City 701, Taiwan;
phuang@tajen.edu.tw (P.-S.H.); huang@mail.ncku.edu.tw (Y.-M.H.);
k43122003@gmail.com (H.-X.Z.); cinfon@ieee.org (C.-F.L.)
2Department of Nursing, Tajen University, Pingtung County 907, Taiwan
3
Department of E-learning Design and Management, National Chiayi University, Chiayi County 621, Taiwan
*Correspondence: chiups@mail.ncyu.edu.tw; Tel.: +886-52263411 (ext. 1531)
Received: 2 July 2020; Accepted: 6 August 2020; Published: 14 August 2020


Abstract:
The rapid development of technologies such as tablet PCs and 4G/5G networks has further
enhanced the benefits of mobile learning. Although mobile devices are convenient and provide a
variety of learning benefits, they are unable to improve students’ learning outcomes without an
appropriate learning strategy. Furthermore, little research has been conducted to examine the eects
of using collaborative learning on mobile devices. This study proposed a cooperative learning
framework using Google Docs to explore the learning outcomes of students of natural science in
an elementary curriculum. The study was of a quasi-experimental design with an experimental
group (cooperative learning) and a control group (personal learning). The results show that a
cooperative learning approach using Google Docs improved learning outcomes, teaching interest,
and understanding of campus plants, and reduced cognitive load. One conclusion of the study
is that the collaborative learning approach associated with mobile learning is more eective than
personal learning. In addition, this paper also provides brief recommendations to expand on the
study’s limitations. Future work should investigate the impact of collaborative learning on dierent
environments for mobile learning.
Keywords:
cooperative learning; mobile learning; learning eects; cognitive load; learning satisfaction
1. Introduction
The rapid development of tablet PCs and 4G/5G network technology has further enhanced the
benefits of mobile learning. Numerous studies have explored learning eects of mobile and ubiquitous
learning in e-learning environments [
1
6
]. The research of Hwang and Tsai [
7
] demonstrated learning
benefits of implementing mobile learning in classrooms, including more active learning and better
learning outcomes for students.
However, most studies of mobile learning have focused on personal learning, whereas few studies
have investigated explicitly cooperative learning activities using tablet PCs as learning devices in a
mobile learning environment, for example, Dorouka, Papadakis, and Kalogiannakis [
8
] studies the use
of tablets and apps to cultivate early childhood interest and learning in STEM (science, technology,
engineering, and math) education. Chou and Feng [
9
] examined the use of tablet computers to improve
high school students’ engineering knowledge through dierent engineering activities. In addition,
some studies have integrated collaborative learning with mobile learning [
10
12
]. The combination
of mobile learning with collaborative learning methods requires further investigation of the learning
eects and the design approach.
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606; doi:10.3390/su12166606 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 2 of 14
Therefore, the current study used a cooperative learning strategy to increase the eects of mobile
learning through group interaction with peers and thus further enhance students’ learning achievement
and motivation in a mobile learning environment. The cooperative approach was used in a natural
science course of an elementary school as the learning activity, and the learning environment was a plant
garden in the elementary school. In the cooperative learning process, the students may be dispersed in
their observation of dierent kinds of plants. As a result, they are unable to directly communicate
or immediately discuss their findings with each other, thus weakening the eect of the cooperative
learning approach. To overcome this problem, Google Docs was used as a cooperative learning
platform in which students are able to hold discussions with each other using instant communication.
Furthermore, the learning platform allows instructors to understand and control the learning situation
of each student. To evaluate the eectiveness of the cooperative learning approach, pre- and post-tests
were conducted as the analysis tools to evaluate the eectiveness of learning. Thus, this study explored
the learning process of students and compared the learning achievements of cooperative learning and
individual learning. Finally, a questionnaire and interview were used to understand the applicability
of the cooperative learning approach and the satisfaction of students in natural science courses.
In this study, the cooperative learning approach was used to conduct a mobile learning activity.
The purposes of the study were as follows:
1.
What are the learning eects of using a cooperative learning approach for gaining plant knowledge
on campus?
2.
What is the cognitive load of using a cooperative learning approach for gaining plant knowledge
on campus?
3.
What is the degree of learning satisfaction, interest, and technology acceptance using a cooperative
learning approach for gaining plant knowledge on campus?
4.
What is the learning behavior associated with using a cooperative learning approach for gaining
plant knowledge on campus?
2. Literature Review
2.1. Mobile Learning
Mobile learning is generally defined as “the use of mobile technology to promote learning” [
7
].
Based on the concept of computer-assisted learning, e-learning has developed the models of mobile
and ubiquitous learning [
13
15
]. Mobile learning not only has the characteristics of digital information
but also provides the mobility of learning [
16
18
]. Moreover, the mobile learning environment is more
convenient than that of e-learning because students can learn at any time and in any location.
Many studies have explored the advantages of mobile learning and noted that mobile devices
applied to teaching activities can eectively increase learning motivation and improve learning
performance [
19
21
]. In particular, the research of Kalogiannakis and Papadakis [
22
] suggests the need
for mobile learning, rather than the use of technology, to teach student-centered pedagogical learning.
These mobile learning models can be used to accomplish the target of personalized learning and thus
allow students to obtain good learning outcomes by considering their individual learning progress
and status.
2.2. A Situational Learning Environment in Mobile Learning
Situational learning emphasizes that learning occurs in a real situation, and the acquisition of
knowledge is achieved through interaction with the situation. The characteristics of contextual learning
allow learners to achieve eective results in a meaningful learning environment. However, previous
research has noted that mobile learning activities in natural science courses without appropriate
learning strategies and tools may result in disappointing student learning outcomes. Students must
deal with both the natural sciences and digital learning environment simultaneously; this learning
process may be too complex, thus aecting their learning [
1
,
6
,
20
23
]. For these reasons, the most
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 3 of 14
important issue is how to combine real situations and digital learning resources in an action learning
environment to achieve the best learning outcomes.
Although students have used mobile devices in learning activities, it was found to be necessary to
construct reliable activities in real situations [
14
,
23
,
24
]. The abstract knowledge of general teaching
without the support of a real situation is called inert knowledge, which is a challenge for the
human brain to migrate and transform. Several studies have noted that teaching in a learning
environment of real-life situations can help students understand learning objects and further enhance
their knowledge [
4
,
6
,
13
,
15
]. Some researchers used mobile devices and wireless communication
technologies as assisted-learning tools so that students could develop relative knowledge with the
interaction of a mobile learning (m-learning) system in a real environment [
2
,
6
,
15
,
21
]. In addition,
studies have also found that the use of mobile devices in a situational learning environment led to
improvements in students’ English writing skills [15,25].
2.3. A Cooperative Learning Approach
Cooperative learning is defined as an active learning format that involves working together as a
group, and the use of small groups to improve own learning and that of other group
members [26,27]
.
Several studies have identified students involved in collaborative learning processes through
group discussions, peer support, and guidance, emphasizing individual responsibility and mutual
interdependence of team members [
12
,
28
,
29
]. Cooperative learning is more ecient in an interactive
atmosphere that encourages learning discipline, problem-solving, learning motivation, a positive
attitude [12,21], and critical thinking skills [30], and has become a widely used teaching strategy.
3. Methods
3.1. A Cooperative Learning Approach in Mobile Learning System
In this study, we used the cooperative learning approach in an elementary school to observe and
understand the knowledge of natural science. The main feature of cooperative learning is that group
members cooperate with each other and mutually complete jobs by sharing information relevant to
learning tasks to achieve the learning targets or objects. The cooperative learning process had the
following elements: (1) Firstly, a heterogeneous group consisted of students of dierent achievements,
and the number of students in a group ranged from three to six. (2) The teacher was responsible for the
assignment of a learning worksheet. (3) The members of each group commonly practiced the tasks of
the learning worksheets with the teacher. (4) Students with similar ability in each group were gathered
at the same table in the homogeneous grouping method. (5) A competition was held. This cooperative
learning framework is shown in Figure 1.
This study used Google Docs and Google++ social networking sites to help students construct,
exchange, and organize knowledge, as shown in Figure 1. The Google Docs social networking site is an
information exchanging site and learning platform on which users can talk with their friends, receive
information relating to any topics from their friends or other sites, be classified into social groups
through the categorization and integration of “Hangouts”, and select messages based on the category
of the social circles. Kutluk and Gülmez [
23
] noted that Google Docs and Google++ social networking
sites can improve cooperative learning through the function of social circles and help students organize
knowledge and learning experiences. Google++ diers from other social networking sites that provide
complex information because the web interface of Google Docs is simple and consistent. Google Docs
has two major advantages in comparison to OneNote and other social networking sites. First, users can
more easily access and share the information on Google Docs. Second, Google Docs has excellent
version control, with only one version of a document easily being able to be revised and expanded by
all learners.
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 4 of 14
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
this learning process may be too complex, thus affecting their learning [1,6,2023]. For these reasons,
the most important issue is how to combine real situations and digital learning resources in an action
learning environment to achieve the best learning outcomes.
Although students have used mobile devices in learning activities, it was found to be necessary
to construct reliable activities in real situations [14,23,24]. The abstract knowledge of general teaching
without the support of a real situation is called inert knowledge, which is a challenge for the human
brain to migrate and transform. Several studies have noted that teaching in a learning environment
of real-life situations can help students understand learning objects and further enhance their
knowledge [4,6,13,15]. Some researchers used mobile devices and wireless communication
technologies as assisted-learning tools so that students could develop relative knowledge with the
interaction of a mobile learning (m-learning) system in a real environment [2,6,15,21]. In addition,
studies have also found that the use of mobile devices in a situational learning environment led to
improvements in students’ English writing skills [15,25].
2.3. A Cooperative Learning Approach
Cooperative learning is defined as an active learning format that involves working together as a
group, and the use of small groups to improve own learning and that of other group members [26,27].
Several studies have identified students involved in collaborative learning processes through group
discussions, peer support, and guidance, emphasizing individual responsibility and mutual
interdependence of team members [12,28,29]. Cooperative learning is more efficient in an interactive
atmosphere that encourages learning discipline, problem-solving, learning motivation, a positive
attitude [12,21], and critical thinking skills [30], and has become a widely used teaching strategy.
3. Methods
3.1. A Cooperative Learning Approach in Mobile Learning System
In this study, we used the cooperative learning approach in an elementary school to observe and
understand the knowledge of natural science. The main feature of cooperative learning is that group
members cooperate with each other and mutually complete jobs by sharing information relevant to
learning tasks to achieve the learning targets or objects. The cooperative learning process had the
following elements: (1) Firstly, a heterogeneous group consisted of students of different
achievements, and the number of students in a group ranged from three to six. (2) The teacher was
responsible for the assignment of a learning worksheet. (3) The members of each group commonly
practiced the tasks of the learning worksheets with the teacher. (4) Students with similar ability in
each group were gathered at the same table in the homogeneous grouping method. (5) A competition
was held. This cooperative learning framework is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Cooperative learning framework.
Figure 1. Cooperative learning framework.
In addition, Google Docs is simpler than Facebook, which has many complex messages in its
applications and advertisements, thereby interfering with learning and increasing the cognitive load.
Moreover, the account application of Google Docs is more straightforward than that of Facebook; thus,
some researchers believe that Google Docs is more suitable as a learning platform than Facebook.
Therefore, this study used the Google Docs and Google++ social networking learning platform to help
students interpret and organize their personal knowledge.
3.2. Participants
Sixty sixth-grade students of Hong WaCuo elementary school in Tainan City participated in this
experiment. To confirm their prior knowledge of the natural science course, students completed a
preliminary test. At the beginning of the learning activity, the students were randomly divided into an
experimental group and a control group, with 30 students each. Students of the experimental group
used the cooperative learning approach, whereas students of the control group used the conventional
individual learning approach.
3.3. Experimental Procedure
The learning environment of this experiment was a plant garden in the Hong WaCuo elementary
school. The plants of the plant garden included “Spindlepalm”, “Golden dewdrop”, “Variegated leaf
croton”, “Golden Leaves”, “Star Cluster”, “Bread-fruit Tree”, “Liquidambar”, “Common garcinia”,
“Golden Bamboo”, “Odour-bark cinnamon”, “Blue sky vine”, and “Devil’s lvy”. The experimental
procedure and students were randomly allocated to two groups to compare the dierent learning
approaches, and the duration of the experimental process was approximately two hours. Prior to the
learning activity, a preliminary test (pre-test) was conducted to evaluate the prior plant knowledge of
the two groups. The experimental procedure is shown in Figure 2.
The experimental and control groups observed the characteristics of plants using tablet PCs.
During the learning activity, students of the experimental group participated in the learning activity
using the cooperative learning approach. The students observed the plants and used Google Docs
to share their photos and discuss answers to the learning questions. After observing the plants,
cooperative learning was conducted to increase students’ learning motivation. The experimental
group used Google Docs to have discussions during the learning process. By comparison, students of
the control group used conventional individual learning. Students used a tablet PC to observe the
plants and answer the learning questions. After this learning activity, students prepared to take a
post-test to evaluate their understanding of plant knowledge. The students had to answer questions
related to plant knowledge based only on what they had memorized. During the post-test, students
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 5 of 14
were monitored to ensure there was no cheating. At the end of the experiment, questionnaires and
interviews were used to evaluate students’ attitudes towards the learning activity.
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14
This study used Google Docs and Google++ social networking sites to help students construct,
exchange, and organize knowledge, as shown in Figure 1. The Google Docs social networking site is
an information exchanging site and learning platform on which users can talk with their friends,
receive information relating to any topics from their friends or other sites, be classified into social
groups through the categorization and integration of Hangouts, and select messages based on the
category of the social circles. Kutluk and Gülmez [23] noted that Google Docs and Google++ social
networking sites can improve cooperative learning through the function of social circles and help
students organize knowledge and learning experiences. Google++ differs from other social
networking sites that provide complex information because the web interface of Google Docs is
simple and consistent. Google Docs has two major advantages in comparison to OneNote and other
social networking sites. First, users can more easily access and share the information on Google Docs.
Second, Google Docs has excellent version control, with only one version of a document easily being
able to be revised and expanded by all learners.
In addition, Google Docs is simpler than Facebook, which has many complex messages in its
applications and advertisements, thereby interfering with learning and increasing the cognitive load.
Moreover, the account application of Google Docs is more straightforward than that of Facebook;
thus, some researchers believe that Google Docs is more suitable as a learning platform than Facebook.
Therefore, this study used the Google Docs and Google++ social networking learning platform to help
students interpret and organize their personal knowledge.
3.2. Participants
Sixty sixth-grade students of Hong WaCuo elementary school in Tainan City participated in this
experiment. To confirm their prior knowledge of the natural science course, students completed a
preliminary test. At the beginning of the learning activity, the students were randomly divided into
an experimental group and a control group, with 30 students each. Students of the experimental
group used the cooperative learning approach, whereas students of the control group used the
conventional individual learning approach.
3.3. Experimental Procedure
The learning environment of this experiment was a plant garden in the Hong WaCuo elementary
school. The plants of the plant garden included “Spindlepalm”, “Golden dewdrop”, “Variegated leaf
croton”, “Golden Leaves”, “Star Cluster”, “Bread-fruit Tree”, “Liquidambar”, “Common garcinia”,
“Golden Bamboo”, “Odour-bark cinnamon”, “Blue sky vine”, and “Devil’s lvy”. The experimental
procedure and students were randomly allocated to two groups to compare the different learning
approaches, and the duration of the experimental process was approximately two hours. Prior to the
learning activity, a preliminary test (pre-test) was conducted to evaluate the prior plant knowledge
of the two groups. The experimental procedure is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Experimental procedure.
Figure 2. Experimental procedure.
3.4. Measuring Tools
The pre- and post-tests were based on data from the Taiwan encyclopedia and developed by
professional instructors. The pre-test was used to evaluate the basic plant knowledge of learners,
and included 20 single answer questions for a total test score of 100. The post-test was used to examine
participants’ plant knowledge following their observations of the plants on the campus, and contained
17 questions consisting of 14 single answer questions and three short answer questions, giving a
maximum overall test score of 100.
The learning satisfaction questionnaire was examined by two domain experts, who approved
its validity. The English version of the questionnaire used in this study was translated from the
Chinese. This questionnaire identified four dimensions as follows: (1) learning satisfaction; (2) learning
interests; (3) perceived ease of use; (4) perceived usefulness. The first dimension included four items,
and the goal was to collect information about the students’ learning satisfaction in the cooperative
learning approach. The second dimension of the questionnaire also included four items and aimed to
explore the students’ perceived ease of use of the proposed cooperative learning platform. The third
dimension of the questionnaire included four items and aimed to explore the students’ perceived
usefulness of the proposed cooperative learning platform. The fourth dimension of the questionnaire
contained four items and aimed to explore the students’ learning during the proposed learning
approach. Each question was rated on a seven-point Likert scale (strongly agree, agree, weak agree,
neutral, weak disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree). The reliability of the questionnaire was
analyzed with SPSS software. Cronbach’s
α
is a measure of internal consistency for each dimension of
a questionnaire. A Cronbach’s
α
value higher than 0.7 indicates high reliability. The Cronbach’s
α
values of the four dimensions in the questionnaire used in the study were 0.80, 0.72, 0.75, and 0.79.
Moreover, a cognitive load questionnaire [
31
,
32
] was applied to evaluate the cognitive load level
of the students in the two groups. The cognitive load questionnaire included two factors, namely
mental load and mental eort, to investigate the dierence in cognitive load for the two learning
approaches. The mental eort factor shows whether the instructional design increased extraneous
cognitive load and germane cognitive load. Mental load evaluated the intrinsic cognitive load related
to the diculty of the material. Each factor had two questions that were rated on a seven-point scale,
and the total score of each factor was 14. The Cronbach’s
α
value of the cognitive load questionnaire
was 0.76, indicating a high degree of reliability.
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 6 of 14
4. Results
4.1. Learning Achievement
Before the learning activity, the students completed a pre-test to evaluate their basic knowledge
of plants. Table 1shows the means and standard deviations of the pre-test for the experimental and
control groups. The results reveal that the mean of the experimental group (M =43.16, SD =8.55) was
approximately equal to that of the control group (M =46.50, SD =12.04). In addition, t-test analysis
was conducted to determine whether the means of the two groups were significantly dierent. For the
t-test analysis of the pre-test, there was no significant dierence between the two groups (t=1.24,
p>0.05).
Table 1. The t-test result of pre-test.
Variable Group N Mean SD t
Pre-test Experimental 30 43.16 8.55 1.24
Control 30 46.50 12.04
Note: SD: standard deviation.
To determine the eects of using a cooperative learning approach for learning about the plants of
the campus, Table 2shows the means and standard deviations of the post-test. The experimental group
(M =75.83, SD =13.86) in the post-test showed a better learning achievement than the control group
(M =63.16, SD =15.59). The t-test analysis showed results that were significantly dierent (
t=3.32
,
p<0.05
). The results of the post-test indicate that the experimental group using the cooperative
learning approach performed significantly better than the control group using individual learning.
Table 2. The t-test results of post-test.
Variable Group N Mean SD t
Post-test Experimental 30 75.83 13.86 3.32 *
Control 30 63.16 15.59
Note: * p<0.05, SD: standard deviation.
4.1.1. The Learning Outcomes of Students of Dierent Learning Achievement Groups
In this section, we investigate the learning achievements of students in the experimental group,
who used cooperative learning for gaining knowledge about plants, to determine if their learning
outcomes were significantly dierent. The students of the experimental group were divided into three
groups, and the 10 students achieving the highest 33.3% of scores in the pre-test were considered
a high-learning-achievement group; the 10 students who achieved the lowest 33.3% of scores in
the pre-test were regarded as a low-learning-achievement group; and the remaining 10 students
were considered a medium-learning-achievement group. The dierence between pre- and post-test
results were analyzed for the students of the high-learning-achievement group, as shown in Table 3.
The results of the post-test (M =64.5, SD =13.83) outperformed those of the pre-test (M =59,
SD =6.14
).
The results of the t-test analysis show no significant dierence (t=1.27, p>0.05).
Table 3.
The t-test results of pre- and post-test for the students of the high-learning-achievement group.
Variable Group N Mean SD t
High
achievement
Pre-test 10 59 6.14 1.27
Post-test 10 64.5 13.83
Note: SD: standard deviation.
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 7 of 14
Table 4shows the means and standard deviations of pre- and post-tests for the students of the
medium-learning-achievement group. The results indicate that the results of the post-test (M =64,
SD =13.70
) were higher than those of the pre-test (M =47.5, SD =3.53). The results of the t-test analysis
show that this dierence was significant (t=3.91, p<0.01).
Table 4.
The t-test results of pre- and post-testfor the students of the medium-learning-achievement group.
Variable Group N Mean SD t
Medium
achievement
Pre-test 10 47.5 3.53 3.91 **
Post-test 10 64 13.70
Note: ** p<0.01; SD: standard deviation.
The means and standard deviations of pre- and post-tests for the students of the low-learning-
achievement groups are shown in Table 5. The results of the post-test (M =61,
SD =15.23
) were higher
than those of the pre-test (M =33, SD =6.32). The results of the t-test analysis show that the dierence
was significant (t=5.85, p<0.01).
Table 5.
The t-test results of pre- and post-test for the students of the low-learning-achievement group.
Variable Group N Mean SD t
Low
achievement
Pre-test 10 33 69.32 5.85 **
Post-test 10 61 15.23
Note: ** p<0.01; SD: standard deviation.
4.1.2. The Relationship of Learning Achievement among Three Groups
The relationship between the results of the post-test and the progressive rate for the students
of dierent learning achievements is shown in Table 6. The results indicate that the results of the
post-test of the high-achievement group (M =64.5, SD =15.23) were higher than those of medium
(M =64, SD =13.70) and low-achievement groups (M =61, SD =13.83). However, the results of the
analysis of variance (ANOVA) analysis show that there was no significant dierence in the results
of the post-test for the students of the three groups (F=0.17, p>0.05). In contrast, the ANOVA
analysis showed there was a significant dierence in the progressive rate of learning outcomes (F=6.4,
p<0.01
), and the results of the low-learning-achievement group (M =28, SD =15.12) were significantly
higher than those of both the medium-learning-achievement group (M =16.5, SD =13.34) and the
high-learning-achievement group (M =5.5, SD =13.63).
Table 6.
ANOVA analysis results of the post-test and progressive rate for the students of dierent
learning achievement groups.
Variable Group N Mean SD FPairwise Comparisons
Post-test
Low 10 61 13.83 0.17
Medium 10 64 13.70
High 10 64.5 15.23
Progressive rate
Low 10 28 15.12 6.4 ** (Low >High) **
Medium 10 16.5 13.34
High 10 5.5 13.63
Note: ** p<0.01; SD: standard deviation.
4.2. Cognitive Load
To further investigate the reason for the dierences in the learning achievements of the students of
the experimental group, and whether the cooperative learning approach aected the learning process
of students, the cognitive load questionnaire was used to evaluate the cognitive load level for this
learning activity. Table 7indicates that the mental load and mental eect of the experimental group
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 8 of 14
were lower than those of the control group. In addition, t-test analysis indicated a significant dierence
for the mental load (t=2.60 and p<0.05) and mental eect (t=2.03, p<0.05).
Table 7. The t-test result of the cognitive load levels of the experimental group.
Variable Group N Mean SD t
Mental load
Experimental
30 5.30 3.39 2.60 *
Control 30 6.96 1.92
Mental eect
Experimental
30 5.93 3.64 2.03 *
Control 30 7.10 1.84
Note: * p<0.05; SD: standard deviation.
Moreover, the results of the ANOVA analysis of the cognitive load levels for the students of
dierent learning achievement groups are shown in Table 8. The results indicated there was no
significant dierence in mental load (F=0.64, p>0.05) and mental eect (F=0.60, p>0.05) for the
students of the three groups. The mental load of the high-achievement group (M =4.3, SD =2.31) were
lower than that of the medium (M =5.9, SD =4.17) and low-achievement groups (M =5.7, SD =3.56).
Furthermore, the mental eect of the high-achievement group (M =5.1, SD =2.68) was lower than that
of the medium (M =5.8, SD =3.85) and low-achievement groups (M =6.9, SD =4.35).
Table 8.
ANOVA analysis results of cognitive load levels for the students of dierent learning
achievement groups.
Variable Group N Mean SD FPairwise Comparisons
Mental load
Low 10 5.7 3.56 0.64
Medium 10 5.9 4.17
High 10 4.3 2.31
Mental eect
Low 10 6.9 4.35 0.60
Medium 10 5.8 3.85
High 10 5.1 2.68
Note: SD: standard deviation.
4.3. Learning Satisfaction
Table 9shows the mean and standard deviation of the learning satisfaction dimension for the
experimental group; the results indicate an average rating of 5.9 and a standard deviation of 1.27.
Students in the experimental group had a high degree of learning satisfaction in the cooperative
learning approach, and they were satisfied with the cooperative learning approach, which provided
information that allowed them to understand easily (M =6.03 and SD =1.21). Moreover, most of
the students recognized that the cooperative learning approach helped them learn the necessary
knowledge (M =5.73 and SD =1.33). In addition, students would recommend the cooperative learning
approach to other learners (M =5.97 and SD =1.37).
Table 9. Analysis of the students’ learning satisfaction in the proposed approach.
Questionnaire Items Mean SD
1. I was satisfied at the cooperative learning approach to help me learn the necessary knowledge.
5.73 1.33
2. I was satisfied at the cooperative learning approach which provides information to facilitate
me to understand easily. 6.03 1.21
3. I was satisfied at the cooperative learning approach which meets my learning needs. 5.87 1.19
4. I would like to recommend the cooperative learning approach to other learners. 5.97 1.37
4.4. Usage Intention
Results from the usage intention dimension of the questionnaire for the experimental group are
shown in Table 10 and indicate an average rating of 5.6 and a standard deviation of 1.51. Furthermore,
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 9 of 14
students of the experimental group indicated they would like to use the cooperative learning approach
(M =5.87 and SD =1.50). The results show that they intended to increase the use of the cooperative
learning approach (M =5.37 and SD =1.58) and most of the students stated that they would continue
to use the cooperative learning approach in the future (M =5.50 and SD =1.50).
Table 10. Analysis of the students’ usage intentions in using the proposed approach.
Questionnaire Items Mean SD
1. I would like to use the cooperative learning approach. 5.87 1.50
2. I am pleased to use the cooperative learning approach. 5.67 1.47
3. I tend to increase the use of the cooperative learning approach. 5.37 1.58
4. I think that I can continue to use the cooperative learning approach in the future. 5.50 1.50
4.5. The Perceived Ease of Use and Perceived Usefulness
Table 11 shows the means and standard deviations of the perceived ease of use and perceived
usefulness of the proposed learning platform. The results show that students of the experimental group
agreed that the proposed learning platform was easy to use and useful, with an average rating of 5.85
and a standard deviation of 1.14. In addition, its ease of use was demonstrated by the items “It is easy
for me to learn how to use the designed interface of the learning platform” (M =5.70 and
SD =1.29
),
and “It is easy for me to operate the proposed learning platform” (M =5.77 and
SD =1.10
). Students
considered that the proposed learning platform was very useful for them (M =5.8 and
SD =1.09
)
and indicated that they were very interested in the presented information of the proposed learning
platform (M =6.13 and SD =1.10).
Table 11.
Analysis of the perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness in using the proposed
learning platform.
Questionnaire Items Mean SD
1. It is easy for me to learn how to use the designed interface of learning platform. 5.70 1.29
2. It is easy for me to operate the proposed learning platform. 5.77 1.10
3. It is very clear and easy to understand for me about using the proposed learning platform.
5.87 1.12
4. I feel the functions of the proposed learning platform are very to use. 5.83 1.14
5. I think this proposed learning platform is very useful for me. 5.80 1.09
6. I was very interested in the presented information of proposed learning platform. 6.13 1.10
4.6. Interview Results
To further explore the learning satisfaction of students in this learning activity, the instructor
randomly selected five students of the control group to assess their learning attitude. They indicated
they needed to move to many places to observe ten kinds of plants and answer ten questions about
plant knowledge by themselves. However, this was dicult for the students because the learning task
was too demanding. Due to the time limit of the experiment, students were unable to complete all
learning tasks, resulting in lower post-test scores. In addition, the instructor interviewed four students
of the three dierent learning achievement groups separately in the experiment group. The results of
the interview are shown in Table 12.
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 10 of 14
Table 12. Interview results of students in the experiment.
Dierent Groups Interview Results
Experimental group
High-achievement group:
This learning activity is very interesting, and Tablet PC can help me take picture into plants
and upload the photos of plants to share with my partners on Google++. Meanwhile, I can
use Google Doc to communicate with each other when we are distributing in dierent places.
This learning is very special and funny for me.
Medium-achievement group:
I consider this learning approach is very useful for me. Everyone only observes 1/3 part of
plants through cooperative learning, and it reduces my burden. We can discuss the best
solution with each other to answer the question. For this reason, I confirm the benefits of
this learning approach.
Low-achievement group:
In this learning activity, I feel unpressured because my partners of high learning
achievement can teach me how to observe the plants and help us solve the more dicult
learning questions in the learning process. Therefore, I like cooperative learning, and this
learning approach is very useful for me.
Control group
In this learning activity, I have to move to many places to observe ten kinds of plants and
answer ten questions of plant knowledge by myself. However, I think it is dicult for me
because the learning task is too heavy. Due to the limit of experimental time, I seem not to
complete all learning tasks, resulting in my scores of pro-test is lower. I hope someone can
share my learning tasks, and I feel very tired after this learning activity. Therefore, I don’t
like this individual learning approach.
5. Discussion
In this study, a cooperative learning approach was proposed to enhance the eect of learning
about plants. Based on the experimental results, the experimental group performed better than the
control group in the post-test. The results of the t-test analysis of the post-test show that there was
a statistically significant dierence in the two learning approaches, indicating that the cooperative
learning approach could achieve a better learning outcome than individual learning.
5.1. Learning Eects of Using Cooperative Learning
The standard deviation of the post-test results of experimental and control groups was higher
than those of the pre-tests. The control group may have had a higher standard deviation in its results
because some students were not familiar with tablet devices, which may represent a learning obstacle.
In addition, the learning approach of the experimental group facilitates heterogeneous grouping,
which can achieve more eective learning outcomes. Thus, students of low and high achievement
levels were grouped, allowing students of the high-achievement group to teach students of other
achievement levels. Moreover, students of the high-achievement group may be motivated to work
harder by learning to teach students of the low-achievement group. In addition, group activities may
occur due to favorability among group members because of learning problems.
The possible reason for the above results is that the mobile collaborative learning model was
distributed to each team member for some tasks, and some tasks may have been completed before
being shared with others. Team members actively gained plant knowledge due to the progress of
the entire group via the peer pressure of healthy competition. Another possible consideration in the
implementation of mobile learning activities is that it is necessary to choose student-centered pedagogy
to motivate students [
22
]. The eectiveness of cooperative learning is superior to that of individual
learning in the learning environment of a real-life situation. This may imply that collaborative learning
may be an appropriate approach to implement mobile learning. In the past, teaching activities related
to plant knowledge have required the development of specific mobile digital learning platforms,
such as mobile learning systems, to allow students to benefit from a learning eect [
4
,
11
,
28
,
32
,
33
].
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 11 of 14
This study found that mobile learning implemented with an appropriate teaching strategy can achieve
good learning even without using a self-designed mobile learning system.
Moreover, the relationship between the dierent learning groups and learning achievements was
investigated in this study. The findings showed that students of lower achievements had the highest
progressive rate of student learning outcomes. Thus, the cooperative learning approach can improve
learning eects. This result was similar to related research [
12
,
16
,
20
], which indicated students of low
achievement increase their motivation and learning confidence.
5.2. The Cognitive Load of Using A Cooperative Learning
The cognitive load questionnaire showed that the cognitive load of the experimental group was
lower than that of the control group. These results thus showed that participants who were able to utilize
the teaching strategies could enhance learning outcomes and reduce cognitive load. Such findings are
consistent with other cooperative learning [14,15,18,28], and mobile learning studies [34].
In the questionnaire analysis, the vast majority of students agreed on a collaborative learning
approach and that the experiment was fun and interesting and enhanced their learning. For some
students, this result related to the cognitive load perhaps because the time allowed for the operating
instructions was too short and, because not every student had a tablet PC at home, their levels of
familiarity with tablet PCs will dier. In addition, some students had operating problems with their
tablet PCs due to network instability, which may cause learning barriers.
5.3. The Learning Satisfaction, Interest, and Technology Acceptance of Using A Cooperative Learning
Previous research found that mobile learning is not intended to be a complex learning process but
should facilitate the learning process of students. Appropriate application development combined
with mobile devices can enhance educational outcomes [
12
,
16
,
20
]. These results are consistent
with previous studies, which indicated that mobile learning can be applied to improve students’
satisfaction [
34
,
35
] and technology acceptance [
35
]. The experimental group used Google Docs rather
than application development to simplify the learning process and thus enhance students’ learning
outcomes. In particular, due to the human desire for mutual support and cooperation, it is necessary to
use cooperative learning to enhance students’ ability to work together [
36
]. Cooperative learning can
enhance students’ learning performance and promote the development of social and friendship bonds
with their peers [
37
]. The experimental results show the use of the competition in the mobile learning
model, compared to the previous model of mobile learning, enhanced students’ learning motivation
and improved their learning outcomes.
5.4. The Learning Behavior of Cooperative Learning
In this study, using tablet PCs as a learning tool overcomes the limits of traditional screens in
mobile learning and enhances their operation and reading, providing a better learning environment
for students. The cooperative learning method of this study combined the Google Docs social network
learning platform with a plant course at an elementary school to evaluate the eectiveness of the
method. Cooperative learning and individual learning were compared in the teaching and learning
environment of a real situation. The study showed that using mobile collaborative learning methods
in the experimental group resulted in better learning outcomes than those of the control group.
These results are consistent with Costa et al. [
11
], who noted that it is appropriate to apply the
collaborative learning pedagogy on mobile learning or systems. The use of eective cooperative
learning tools and learning strategies can overcome traditional learning deficiencies. In this study,
achievement of students in the experimental group was improved. The feedback questionnaire also
indicated that most of the students who used the mobile collaborative learning method believed
the method could improve their academic performance. Therefore, it was concluded that action
contest collaborative learning methods can help students discuss and improve cooperation in the field
of knowledge.
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 12 of 14
6. Limitations and Future Work
In this study, because of time, manpower, and resource constraints, only sixth-grade student test
subjects were considered. In addition, student grades in natural sciences did not take account other
factors, such as sample size, scope, favorability, and computer literacy. A small sample is not sucient
to provide reliable research evidence; thus, we are unable to generalize the study conclusions, and the
results of this study and inference apply only to small samples under the studied test environment.
In future research, it is recommended that the same tablet experiment is expanded in scope and
direction with larger samples to consider gender, dierent levels of computer literacy, dierent levels
of education, etc. In addition, subsequent research could consider other action-learning environments
or outcomes to better show the benefits of the grouping method and for reference and comparison.
In particular, collaborative learning could be implemented in dierent environments using mobile
devices. A key question is whether students experience dierent learning eects depending on the
learning environment. Future work should investigate the impact of collaborative learning in dierent
environments on mobile learning. Due to advancing technology, the use of electronic paper has
matured. Materials have evolved from fragile glass into a more resilient plastic; color can be displayed,
rather than only black and white; and the technology of e-book readers better replicates the eects of
paper than tablet PCs. Thus, electronic paper devices may be more suitable for this type of teaching
experiment and could be taken into account in future studies.
7. Conclusions and Suggestions
This study proposed a new and eective pedagogical approach, which used a collaborative
teaching framework for mobile learning to improve elementary school students’ academic achievement,
satisfaction, and interest, and reduce cognitive load. There are two significant practical implications
of our findings. First, the findings of this study reveal that teachers can promote students’ eective
learning when implementing mobile learning systems through appropriate instructional strategies (e.g.,
cooperative learning). Second, the results of this study reveal that providing appropriate competition
and other instructional strategies can increase peer engagement in learning activities and encourage
working together in cooperative learning. Therefore, this study suggests that teachers should focus
on instructional design and quality rather than the use of technology to maximize students’ learning
benefits. Moreover, teachers can use appropriate competitive strategies to integrate collaborative
learning; appropriate competition can support learning outcomes, and help students discuss and
improve their knowledge through collaboration.
This study provides several suggestions that aim to improve mobile learning research and
education. First, instructions should be explicitly designed to improve the quality of teachers’ teaching.
Depending on the content, appropriate instructional strategies may be provided (e.g., competition,
collaboration, challenging tasks), and dierent instructional strategies can be combined to generate
dierent learning benefits for students. Second, it is important to pay attention to students’ use of
social networking sites and software. To provide students with learning assistance through the use of
social networking sites, teachers need to know how students perceive and use them. Furthermore,
it is important to understand students’ learning behaviors and their learning desires. Finally, teachers
should be provided with a framework or learning system to facilitate mobile learning for students.
This teaching framework needs to be complete and practical for teachers. In addition, the system needs
to be a mobile learning system that is flexible and easy to use, so that teachers can change subjects and
thus teach more easily. These suggestions and challenges are critical. In particular, the application to
other subjects (e.g., STEM or medical education) is currently an important consideration and influence
on mobile learning.
Sustainability 2020,12, 6606 13 of 14
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, P.-S.H. and P.-S.C.; methodology, P.-S.C.; software, Y.-M.H.; validation,
P.-S.H.; formal analysis, P.-S.C.; investigation, Y.-M.H.; resources, P.-S.C.; data curation, H.-X.Z.; writing—original
draft preparation, P.-S.H.; writing—review and editing, H.-X.Z.; visualization, C.-F.L.; supervision, Y.-M.H.; project
administration, Y.-M.H.; funding acquisition, C.-F.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding:
This research was funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, under Grant
no. MOST108-2511-H-415-003-MY3.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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This study examines the relationship between anxiety, psychological factors and the motivation to learn science among elementary school students. The research employs a quantitative approach with a correlational design. Purposive sampling was used to select the sample which consisted of 438 elementary school students from Jakarta, Indonesia. Data were gathered through a questionnaire focused on the variables of interest. The data analysis was conducted using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with the SMART-PLS 3.0 software. The findings reveal a significant value of 0.000 (p < 0.05) indicating a positive and significant relationship between anxiety, psychological conditions, and students' motivation to learn science. Anxiety and psychological factors are critical elements influencing students' motivation to learn. Teachers can better monitor students' learning progress by identifying and addressing these three factors. Properly managed anxiety and favorable psychological conditions can lead to enhanced motivation and support from teachers in fostering a conducive environment. Understanding students' psychological needs plays a crucial role in helping students achieve better academic outcomes in science.
... Mobile applications are interactive in nature, providing an effective means for students to understand scientific concepts and retain information (Wang et al., 2015). Collaborative learning is another aspect of mobile applications which helps students to learn from each other, discuss scientific concepts, and develop a deeper understanding of science (DeWitt et al., 2014;Huang et al., 2020). In other words, it fosters communication and teamwork, allowing students to connect, share resources, and collaboratively solve problems, thereby enhancing their overall learning experience. ...
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As smartphone and tablet usage becomes more prevalent among young children, educational applications offer a wide range of learning opportunities. The benefits and capability of digital applications are well-suited to complement science education. This study investigates the role of educational digital applications available on the Android Play Store in enhancing science process skills in early childhood education. By addressing the potential of digital applications to foster science process skills, this study contributes to the understanding of digital applications' educational value in early childhood science education. The analysis revealed that digital applications contain elements that could aid in the improvement of science process skills. Moreover, observation emerges as the skill most prominently featured in digital applications. Based on the study findings, it can be inferred that digital applications have the potential to enhance children's scientific process skills.
... This is in accordance with the ndings (Rakimahwati & Ardi, 2019) that interactive games can improve students' digital literacy skills. Moreover, (Huang et al., 2020) proposed that collaborative learning approaches are more effective than personalized learning for mobile learning. The presence of learning media such as educational games can also guide students in independent learning (Bada & Olusegun, 2015). ...
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The purpose of this study is to develop a natural science learning game oriented toward local Papuan culture for grade IV elementary school students that is feasible and effective. This research uses a qualitative approach with research and development (R&D) research methods with the Lee and Owen development model. The results of the formative evaluation showed an average feasibility test of 3.94 for material experts, learning design experts, and media experts, with good conclusions; one-to-one evaluations,with students obtaining an average of 3.05 with good conclusions;small group evaluations, with an average of 3.43 with very good conclusions; and field trial evaluations, withan average score of 3.61 with a very good conclusion. Therefore, it was concluded that the science learning game oriented toward local Papuan culture for Grade IV elementary school students was very good. The effectiveness of science learning game development oriented toward local Papuan culture was tested through t tests. The results show a Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.000 < 0.05, so there is a significant difference between science learning outcomes in the pretest and posttest data, so it can be concluded that science learning games oriented toward local Papuan culture are effective in improving the learning outcomes of Grade IV elementary school students.
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The adoption of digital technologies in early childhood settings attracts the attention of an increasing number of researchers and scholars throughout the globe. Despite the proliferation of investigations focusing on learning through digital technologies in preschool and early-primary education, there are fields of knowledge in which the impact of digital technologies has yet to be explored. A typical example is that of Nano-Science and nano-Technology (NST). NST is a new interdisciplinary field with products and applications (apps) that utilize the cutting-edge technology and is increasingly penetrating into today's everyday life, promising to solve global challenges. The objectives of this paper are to (a) examine, based on relevant literature, whether digital technologies could enhance the teaching of concepts related to NST in early childhood settings (b) present the perspectives of mobile devices and their educational apps in young childrens learning procedure. The study concludes with a theoretical analysis of the research findings and a brief proposal for future research.
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