No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
The behavioral and physiological effects of dog appeasing pheromone upon canine behavior during separation from owner
Abstract
Behavioral problems in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) increase the likelihood of the dog being rehomed or relinquished to a rescue shelter. Problem behaviors that result in relinquishment include unwanted elimination, destructive behavior and excessive vocalization when owners are absent. Dog Appeasing Pheromone (DAP) is currently marketed via veterinarians as a stress relief product and purported to help dogs cope in stressful situations and as a potential solution to reduce anxiety. This study investigated whether a DAP diffuser affected behavioral and physiological stress parameters in 10 dogs in a laboratory environment. A repeated measures design with and without the use of DAP, and in the presence and absence of the owner was used. Behavioral responses, such as barking, passive behavior, scratching, whining, orienting behavior, exploration and locomotion, were recorded in real time and video recorded using a focal instantaneous sampling technique. In order to control for potential bias, 10% of the videos were scored using a second blinded scorer to assess inter-rater reliability. Heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV) using Standard Deviation of Normal to Normal beats (SDNN), eye temperature and ear temperature (°C) were also collected to assess dogs’ physiological state. When dogs were separated from their owner, there was a significant increase in orienting behavior during both the DAP and without DAP application trial phase suggesting arousal due to owner absence rather than any discernible effect of DAP. A significant increase was recorded in core eye temperature when the owner was absent and the DAP diffuser was not switched on however, eye temperature also increased when the owners were present after the DAP condition suggesting that it may be the owner’s presence and the dog’s arousal levels that affect core eye temperature rather than any effect of DAP. There was no significant effect of DAP on HR or ear temperature. Overall, our results suggest that the application of a DAP diffuser did not markedly influence the behavior, heart rate, eye or ear temperature of dogs.
... No entanto, outros trabalhos não observaram alterações no comportamento após o uso dos mesmos (GAULTIER et al., 2005;TAYLOR et al., 2020), demonstrando a necessidade de mais experimentos para permitir futuras conclusões. Savalli et al. (2021) encontrou uma maior predisposição de cães cujos tutores eram do sexo feminino a apresentarem problemas relacionados a separação, assim como cães sem raça definidaevidenciando a importância de compreender a relação do comportamento animal com o contexto sociocultural em que eles estão inseridos. ...
A síndrome da ansiedade da separação (SAS) é observada em cães e gatos, com sinais que se manifestam na ausência da pessoa de apego. A gravidade dos sinais, aliada ao fato da SAS ser o segundo distúrbio comportamental mais comum em cães nos Estados Unidos, justifica a necessidade de identificar e tratar adequadamente os casos. Também, problemas comportamentais são a principal causa de abandono de cães, tornando a prevenção, diagnóstico e tratamento dos mesmos questões de importância para o bem-estar animal e a Saúde Pública. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi caracterizar e compreender a SAS em cães do município de Curitiba e Região Metropolitana/PR, por meio de um questionário aplicado on-line. A prevalência de SAS encontrada foi de 25,7% dentre 163 cães, e os comportamentos observados, significativos estatisticamente (p<0,05) foram: arranhadura de móveis/portas/janelas (p=0,002), destruição de pertences da casa (p=0,03) e eliminação imprópria (<0,001). Tais dados representam um alerta para a Síndrome da Ansiedade da Separação em cães brasileiros. É interessante que mais trabalhos sejam realizados tanto em cães quanto em gatos no país, para a melhor compreensão, prevenção e tratamento da SAS.
... In industrialized countries, it is common for people to work 6 to 8 h a day. Dogs are inevitably affected by being separated from their holders [1][2][3][4]. Various authors have reported that separation issues are one of the most common behavior problems of dogs style [13,16]. When holders scored high on attachment avoidance, they were more likely to have dogs with separation problems. ...
Simple Summary
Separation problems in dogs are common and can manifest in symptoms such as restlessness, destruction, or vocalization. This study examines how separation behavior differs between dogs with and without separation problems and the possible risk factors. An online questionnaire with 940 participants was performed. After two groups were formed, depending on whether the holders stated that the dogs showed typical symptoms during separation, the groups were examined for differences. Furthermore, a separation test with videotaping and cortisol sampling of six dogs used to being separated but without separation problems was carried out. It was found that separation problems were primarily characterized by physical activity and vocalization. Dogs with separation-related problems needed more time to relax after separation. Dogs that were greeted after separation were less likely to have separation problems than dogs that were less calm and more pessimistic, excited and persistent. During the test it was found that dogs without separation problems were mostly inactive. Understanding these differences may help to diagnose separation-related problems and modify or even avoid risk factors to improve animal welfare.
Abstract
This study examined how separation behavior differs between dogs with and without separation-related problem behavior (SRB) and the possible risk factors. The study consisted of an online survey with 940 dog holders, which, in addition to demographic facts, also includes personality, emotional disposition and the attachment by the holder. Furthermore, a separation test was carried out with six non-SRB dogs over a maximum of 6 h, in which behavior and cortisol were determined. The questionnaire revealed that SRB dogs differed significantly from non-SRB dogs regarding the following factors: symptoms with at least a medium effect size such as restlessness, excitement, whining, howling, lip licking, barking and salivation, time to relax after separation, pessimism, persistence, excitability, calmness, separation frequency, greeting of holder and type of greeting. There were several other differences, but with weak effect sizes. The test showed that non-SRB dogs were mostly inactive during separation (lying resting and lying alert). Vocalization was almost non-existent. Behavior and cortisol did not change significantly over the different time periods. The data demonstrated typical symptoms and possible risk factors, some of which may be avoided or changed to improve animal welfare.
... For example, the study described previously involving DAP in the clinic [58], also noted a marked carry over effect among the dogs who were tested with DAP first. Unfortunately, this was not recognized in the design of a recent study hoping to examine the effect of DAP on the response of dogs to separation [60]. In this study, dogs were exposed to DAP and the authors report they could find no convincing evidence of a statistically significant effect of DAP. ...
Both the public and clinicians are interested in the application of scientific knowledge concerning problem animal behaviour and its treatment. However, in order to do this effectively it is essential that individuals have not only scientific literacy but also an appreciation of philosophical concepts underpinning a particular approach and their practical implications on the knowledge generated as a result. This paper highlights several common misunderstandings and biases associated with different scientific perspectives relevant to clinical animal behaviour and their consequences for how we determine what may be a useful treatment for a given patient. In addition to more reflective evaluation of results, there is a need for researchers to report more information of value to clinicians; such as relevant treatment outcomes, effect sizes, population characteristics. Clinicians must also appreciate the limitations of population level study results to a given case. These challenges can however be overcome with the careful critical reflection using the scientific principles and caveats described.
... To the authors' knowledge, there are no published studies assessing the action of DAP on the autonomic stress response in dogs undergoing veterinary examination. However, the results of the present study are in agreement with those that emerged from a similar study that tested the efficacy of a DAP diffuser on heart rate and eye and ear temperature of healthy dogs separated from the owner in a laboratory setting, concluding that the treatment did not markedly affect any of these parameters in the absence of the owner [88]. Although different experimental settings and methods of measurement have been used, both studies agree that the autonomic response in dogs facing a stressful situation may not benefit from treatment with DAP. ...
The veterinary visit is necessary for safeguarding the health of dogs, but it can be stressful and threaten both the welfare of the patient and the accuracy of the examination. This randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study aims at evaluating how dog appeasing pheromone (DAP) in a novel gel formulation influences the behavioral and physiological stress responses of 28 dogs undergoing a standardized clinical examination, while staying in the waiting room (WR) and visited in the examination room (ER). Behavioral responses were studied through behavioral categories and subjective scales (WR and ER). Autonomic response considered heart rate (WR and ER), blood pressure (WR and ER), respiratory rate (ER), and rectal temperature (ER). Neuroendocrine response considered salivary cortisol (WR and ER). In the waiting room, the use of DAP was associated with a significant reduction of lip licking (p = 0.0189), an increase in panting (p = 0.0276), and a reduction close to significance (p = 0.0584) of low body postures. No significant differences were observed within the physiological responses. In the examination room, neither behavioral nor physiological differences were found.
... In canines with separation anxiety, IRT applied in the same thermal window has detected an increase in ocular temperature when the owner is absent; however, an increase was also registered when the animal was in contact with the owner. These results show that, although ocular temperature responds to autonomic activity, it can have positive and negative valence [52]. ...
Infrared thermography (IRT) has been proposed as a method for clinical research to detect local inflammatory processes, wounds, neoplasms, pain, and neuropathies. However, evidence of the effectiveness of the thermal windows used in dogs and cats is discrepant. This review aims to analyze and discuss the usefulness of IRT in diverse body regions in household animals (pets) related to recent scientific evidence on the use of the facial, body, and appendicular thermal windows. IRT is a diagnostic method that evaluates thermal and circulatory changes under different clinical conditions. For the face, structures such as the lacrimal caruncle, ocular area, and pinna are sensitive to assessments of stress degrees, but only the ocular window has been validated in felines. The usefulness of body and appendicular thermal windows has not been conclusively demonstrated because evidence indicates that biological and environmental factors may strongly influence thermal responses in those body regions. The above has led to proposals to evaluate specific muscles that receive high circulation, such as the bicepsfemoris and gracilis. The neck area, perivulvar, and perianal regions may also prove to be useful thermal windows, but their degree of statistical reliability must be established. In conclusion, IRT is a non-invasive technique that can be used to diagnose inflammatory and neoplastic conditions early. However, additional research is required to establish the sensitivity and specificity of these thermal windows and validate their clinical use in dogs and cats.
... However, no such obvious effectiveness of DAP has been shown in studying the effects of pheromones on barking intensity or frequency, and stress-related behaviors in the shelter (Hermiston et al., 2018). When conducting laboratory experiments during separation from owner, the effect of DAP on the behavior, heart rate, eye or ear temperature of dogs was also not shown (Taylor et al., 2020). Another study showed that the use of DAP can reduce separation-induced anxiety, anxiety and fear in inpatient patients and, possibly, facilitate recovery in hospitalized dogs (Kim et al., 2010). ...
Stress has a significant impact on the health and well-being of dogs and can seriously affect the quality of daily life, veterinary clinics procedures and shelters routine. That means veterinary specialists need to be armed with valid and convenient tools to assess their patients’ stress levels, both behavioral and physiological. For this review we analyzed 128 articles in order to summarize methods of stress assessment in different clinical and experimental environments, as well as methods to alleviate stress. We have also identified the most common forms of stress-related behavior in various situations. Stress in dogs seems to be well studied, but we have not found any universal quantitative and qualitative indicators of stress, nor clear reference intervals even for such a basic stress hormone as cortisol, nor standard generally accepted protocols for the prevention, control and correction of stress in pets. That means an individual approach is necessary for each case. Analysis of the animal's behavior during a veterinary appointment together with collecting a detailed patient history and correct selection and appropriate combination of different physiological stress markers is the most reliable way to interpret psychological state of the dog and make a more accurate diagnosis.
... This conclusion was not only based on a critique of study design and reporting of the analysis of the included studies (e.g., measuring a large number of variables without correcting for type 1 error), but also because for Feliway spray, the manufacturer stated that strong-smelling disinfectants, bleach, biological washing powder, detergents or deodorisers-products that are commonly used in a veterinary setting-can interfere with the product's functioning (reviewed in [105]). Moreover, several recent controlled studies could not confirm calming effects of Adaptil ® on dogs in other contexts including separation from the owner and shelter housing [149][150][151]. According to a systematic review, the effectiveness of pheromones in dogs and cats on fear behaviour could not be demonstrated in the majority of studies due to a lack of adherence to scientific quality criteria [152]. ...
A high proportion of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, which in some cases may escalate into aggression. Here, we discuss factors that contribute to negative emotions in a veteri-nary setting and how these can be addressed. We briefly summarise the available evidence for the interventions discussed. The set-up of the waiting area (e.g., spatial dividers; elevated places for cat carriers), tailoring the examination and the treatment to the individual, considerate handling (minimal restraint when possible, avoiding leaning over or cornering animals) and offering high-value food or toys throughout the visit can promote security and, ideally, positive associa-tions. Desensitisation and counterconditioning are highly recommended, both to prevent and ad-dress existing negative emotions. Short-term pain from injections can be minimised by using tactile and cognitive distractions and topical analgesics, which are also indicated for painful procedures such as ear cleanings. Recommendations for handling fearful animals to minimise aggressive re-sponses are discussed. However, anxiolytics or sedation should be used whenever there is a risk of traumatising an animal or for safety reasons. Stress-reducing measures can decrease fear and stress in patients and consequently their owners, thus strengthening the relationship with the cli-ents as well as increasing the professional satisfaction of veterinary staff.
... This conclusion was not only based on a critique of study design and reporting of the analysis of the included studies (e.g., measuring a large number of variables without correcting for type 1 error), but also because for Feliway spray, the manufacturer stated that strong-smelling disinfectants, bleach, biological washing powder, detergents or deodorisers-products that are commonly used in a veterinary setting-can interfere with the product's functioning (reviewed in [105]). Moreover, several recent controlled studies could not confirm calming effects of Adaptil ® on dogs in other contexts including separation from the owner and shelter housing [149][150][151]. According to a systematic review, the effectiveness of pheromones in dogs and cats on fear behaviour could not be demonstrated in the majority of studies due to a lack of adherence to scientific quality criteria [152]. ...
A high proportion of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, which in some cases may escalate into aggression. Here, we discuss factors that contribute to negative emotions in a veterinary setting and how these can be addressed. The set-up of the waiting area (e.g. spatial dividers; elevated places for cat carriers), tailoring the examination and the treatment to the individual, considerate handling (minimal restraint when possible, avoiding leaning over or cornering animals) and offering high-value food or toys throughout the visit can promote security and, ideally, positive associations. Desensitisation and counterconditioning are highly recommended both to prevent and address existing negative emotions. Some negative experiences such as short-term pain from injections can be minimised by using tactile and cognitive distractions. Preemptive analgesia is recommended for known painful procedures. Recommendations for handling fearful animals to minimise aggressive responses are discussed. However, anxiolytics or sedation should be used whenever there is a risk of traumatising an animal or for safety reasons. Stress-reducing measures can decrease stress and fear in patients and consequently their owners – thus strengthening the relationship with the clients as well as increasing the professional satisfaction of veterinary staff.
... However, no such obvious effectiveness of DAP has been shown in studying the effects of pheromones on barking intensity or frequency, and stress-related behaviors in the shelter (Hermiston et al., 2018). When conducting laboratory experiments during separation from owner, the effect of DAP on the behavior, heart rate, eye or ear temperature of dogs was also not shown (Taylor et al., 2020). Another study showed that the use of DAP can reduce separation-induced anxiety, anxiety and fear in inpatient patients and, possibly, facilitate recovery in hospitalized dogs (Kim et al., 2010). ...
Pheromones are chemicals released outside the body by organisms to transmit information between individuals of the same species, thereby regulating behavior and physiology. Many biological and psychological studies have shown that human sweat does indeed contain chemical information related to gender, sex, emotion, etc., but there is no convincing answer to its chemical components. We conducted a GC-MS analysis of the chemical composition of adult and child sweat of Han Chinese, and found that the main components were squalene and fatty acids, and there were sex differences in adults, but not in children. Based on our long-term research on the coding rules of pheromones in a variety of animals, especially rodents, as well as men having more sweat glands and sebaceous glands, we speculate that squalene and many common fatty acids are likely to encode olfactory information such as sex and emotion in one component or a mix of components or in a dose-dependent manner. We also discussed that the main olfactory system and olfactory learning in social interactions should play an important role in human pheromone perception.
In this chapter, we describe psychiatric disorders related to a dysregulation of the attachment axis. We distinguish various autonomy-related disorders: autonomy disorder due to lack of detachment, autonomy disorder due to rupture of attachment, and secondary autonomy disorder. Finally, we describe a dysfunctional attachment syndrome, which encompasses disorders in which attachment either does not occur or is of poor quality. For each disorder, we provide detailed information on clinical picture, diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, and follow-up, and clinical cases are included to enhance the text.
This chapter includes treatments that do not require a prescription and are most often sold over the counter. Pheromone-based treatments such as dog-appeasing pheromone, nutraceuticals such as α-casozepine, α-lactalbumin, l-tryptophan, and various dietary supplements will be discussed.
Phytotherapy, aromatherapy, Bach flowers, and homeopathy are also discussed in this chapter. Finally, a summary table with the level of scientific evidence for each over-the-counter treatment closes this section and will allow the practitioner to better orient his therapeutic choices.
The close bond that can exist between humans and their dogs is an important aspect of the evolutionary, economic, and social connections between the two species. There is a need for a better understanding of the place of the dog within the human–dog bond and on ways the human–dog bond affects dog welfare. We conducted a scoping review to investigate to what extent and in what ways dog welfare is addressed in the research literature on the human–dog bond. We identified 706 publications on the human–dog bond from across the globe that were published from 2012 to 2023. We found that 246 of these 706 publications had a focus on dog welfare. Our review showed that the interplay of characteristics and backgrounds of owners/handlers and their dogs was linked to dog welfare in multiple, both positive and negative, ways. Our review is limited by the fact that most of the research that we reviewed involved pet dogs and in majority came from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic (WEIRD) societies. There is a need for a better understanding of how the human–dog bond affects the welfare of working, assistance, and service dogs.
Canine patients commonly express fear-related behaviour while in practice. Prior research predominately focuses on the efficacy of interventions, such as dog appeasing pheromone, often without consideration for surroundings. This study aimed to identify and evaluate the influence environmental factors in the waiting room may have on the expression of fear-related behaviours in canine patients visiting a veterinary practice. Convenience sampling was used to test a canine sample population of 54 dogs (aged 1–10 years old) across 5 different practices. Patient behaviour was observed pre- and post-consultation during the period of time patients were in the waiting room. Analysis of these data demonstrated a significant reduction in fear during the post-consultation phase (Z=-3.821, P<0.001). Environmental aspects of each practice were scored and analysed against behavioural data, demonstrating weak negative correlation (rs=-0.27, P=0.050) between environmental scores and pre-consultation behaviour scores. A weak positive correlation (rs=0.28, P=0.035) between slippery flooring and increased fear was also found. Negative aspects of the environment such as flooring, noise and footfall should be considered and manipulated where possible to promote positive patient experiences. Further research should use a stratified sampling method to ensure variance between patients and practice designs. This research has provided proof of concept for this methodology and field of enquiry, providing scope for further research of this kind on a larger sample population of practices and patients.
Smell is a well-developed and predominant sense in dogs and so it is unsurprising that olfaction is tightly linked to dog welfare. The extent to which a dog can use their olfactory abilities and the types of odours they smell, have been shown to affect their behaviour, memory, and wellbeing, and similarly an animal’s state of health and welfare impacts upon its olfactory ability. There are several natural scents whose effects upon dogs have been well studied. Lavender has been shown to induce calm and resting behaviour, whilst there is some evidence that peppermint, rosemary, and laurel may lead to increased activity in kennelled dogs. Several olfactory-administered products have sought to mimic these natural calming effects and have been marketed to mitigate fear and anxiety in dogs. Pet Remedy a Valerian-based product and synthetic Dog Appeasing Pheromone (DAP) are relatively well tested. Whilst some studies present promising findings of their potential benefits, particularly of DAP in puppies, the body of research remains unconvincing regarding the efficacy of both products especially for adult dogs. With the increasing array of scent-based tasks that dogs are trained to perform, the way they are reared, housed, trained, and cared for all have the capacity to affect their welfare. There is evidence of the value of a range of aspects of housing and husbandry that can improve welfare. Research on the interface between olfaction and welfare although growing, remains in its infancy, which we see as evidence of sensory biases in human approaches to dog behaviour and welfare.
Dogs and cats are popular companion animals that live together with humans. This special issue provides topics about the scents and olfaction of dogs and cats from the viewpoint of ethology. The first half introduces the significance of odors of feces, urine, and body, which is easily perceived as unpleasant odors, and how to deal with them. The second half mainly introduces the olfactory ability, the application of “Nosework” to animal welfare, and the effects of the owner’s body odor on the attachment behavior, in dogs and cats.
This interpretive review includes discussion of the available scientific literature with interpretations by the authors. The broad field of semiochemicals can be confusing to scientists and consumers. This review attempts to summarize the known scientific studies for pig and dog semiochemicals while at the same time attempting to refine our use of terminology. The specific objectives of this interpretive review are to summarize and interpret much of the key scientific literature (but not the lay literature) on semiochemicals in pigs and dogs to include (1) definitions of semiochemicals and related molecules including pheromones, (2) to briefly summarize olfactory organs, and (3) and to examine the scientific literature for semiochemical mechanisms and applications in dogs and pigs (two domesticated species with known olfactory acuity). Dogs and pigs have olfactory features that are similar in that they both lack certain olfactory organs (Grueneberg ganglion and Septal Organ) and they have a small vomeronasal organ (VNO) without some major receptors that are found in other species. The primary olfactory organs for both pigs and dogs are the main olfactory epithelium and perhaps the trigeminal nerve. Several examples of pheromones activating the brain via the MOE or Trigeminal nerve rather than the VNO challenge the concept that the VNO is the site of pheromone sensing. We believe it is not appropriate to label something a pheromone when evidence is not available to show that it is a pheromone. We offer definitions for the terms semiochemicals, pheromones, interomones and others and then determine if the evidence is sufficient to call certain semiochemicals a pheromone. Here we review mixed, largely negative, scientific reports of the efficacy of some products labeled as “pheromones” that are more appropriately called semiochemicals. Interomones can have a more powerful effect on dog behavior and physiology than semiochemicals marketed as pheromones. Because marketing of semiochemicals is far ahead of the science, bringing some logic and uniformity to the field will benefit animals and hopefully cause less consumer confusion. Semiochemicals have the potential to offer powerful solutions to behavioral problems using more naturally occurring molecules.
Facility design and animal care practices impact the quality of life of sheltered dogs, and there is a growing body of data and anecdotal information showing that appropriate housing and husbandry can mitigate the negative impact of many detrimental features commonly attributed to shelters. Using the facility and caring for animals in a way that balances behavioral, medical, and operational considerations while ensuring opportunities for assessment, enrichment, training, and rehabilitation is essential to operating a humane animal shelter. A well‐designed and maintained physical facility can facilitate the development and delivery of an efficient and effective behavioral program in a shelter, with the quality of housing substantially impacting animal health and well‐being.
Separation-related behaviour problems are common in domestic dogs. Vocalization is one of the most common symptoms in dogs, and neighbors often complain about dog barking and howling. We investigated the effect of digital application Digital Dogsitter® on the dogs’ vocalization (barking, howling, whining) when left alone. Digital Dogsitter® is an application, used via laptop or pc, and it activates as a reaction to the dog’s vocalization and then plays a short owner-recorded feedback. Altogether 40 participants who had a laptop/pc at home and a dog that suffered from separation related symptoms, specifically vocalization, completed the study. Dogs’ vocalization (when alone at home) was recorded before and after using Digital Dogsitter® for two weeks, in order to investigate whether Digital Dogsitter® reduces dog’s vocalization. The amount of total dog vocalization noise (in milliseconds) was significantly reduced (P < 0.001, N = 40) after using Digital Dogsitter® for two weeks. The reduction in the dogs’ vocalization after Digital Dogsitter® was 95.7%, which is very large compared to earlier studies. Owners’ opinions were also asked, and only 9.4% of the owners felt that no improvement was seen. Finally, we wanted to know, whether the effect of Digital Dogsitter® was long lasting, and sent a questionnaire to participants an average of eight months after the first study. Out of 35 participants that responded, 68.7% felt that Digital Dogsitter® did reduce the vocalization either rather well / extremely well, and only 14.3% felt, that no long-lasting effect was noticed. In addition, after eight months the owners also reported significantly less dogs’ destructive behavior compared to the starting situation. Digital Dogsitter® clearly reduces dogs’ vocalization, possibly also alleviating the separation-related stress.
An online questionnaire survey investigated (1) management and (2) treatment methods for firework fears in dogs employed by dog owners and their (perceived) effectiveness. A PCA on data from 1,225 respondents revealed four management strategies (i.e., interventions during firework exposure): the principal components “Environmental modification” (e.g. providing a hiding place, keeping windows and blinds closed, and playing music), “Feed/Play” (providing the dog with chews, play and food during fireworks in general, as well as contingent on loud bangs), “Alternative” (use of calming nutraceuticals, pheromones, herbal products, homeopathic products, Bach flowers, and essential oils) and “Interaction” (allowing body contact, petting and talking to the dog when loud bangs occurred). To explore possible effects of these management methods on fear development, the components were correlated with a score for fear progression. Of the four components, only “Feed/Play” was statistically associated with an improvement in fear responses to fireworks. To evaluate the effectiveness of various treatment strategies, owners were asked to select from a range of options which interventions they had used and whether they considered them as effective. With prescription medication (N=202), improvements were noted by 69% of owners, with high success rates reported for the most frequently prescribed drugs, alprazolam (91%) and Sileo® (74%). While individual products were not evaluated, the reported success rates for the categories “pheromones” (N=316), “herbal products” (N=282), “nutraceuticals” (N=211), “essential oils” (N=183), “homeopathic remedies” (N=250) and “Bach flowers” (N=281) were all in the range of 27-35%, which is not higher than would be expected based on a placebo effect. Pressure vests were deemed as effective by 44% of respondents (N=300). Counterconditioning (providing desirable stimuli after the occurrence of noises) was the most successful training technique according to the owners (N=694), with a reported effectiveness of over 70%. Relaxation training (N=433) was reported to be almost as successful at 69%, while noise CDs (N=377) were effective in 55% of cases. Thus, counterconditioning, relaxation training and anxiolytic medication appear to be the most effective strategies in the treatment of firework fears in dogs. On this basis it is recommended that ad-hoc counterconditioning and relaxation training should complement the standard behavioral technique of desensitization/ counterconditioning with noise recordings.
Shelter environments are stressful for dogs, as they must cope with many stimuli over which they have little control. This can lead to behavioural changes, negatively affect their welfare and downgrade the human‐animal bond, affecting re-homing success. Arousal is evident in their behaviour, particularly increased activity and frequent vocalisation. Environmental enrichment plays an important role in reducing arousal behaviour, either through direct physiological effects or by masking stressful stimuli. The present study focused on sensory environmental enrichment, using olfactory and auditory stimuli under shelter conditions. Sixty dogs were allocated to one of four treatments: three types of enrichment, Lavender, Dog appeasing pheromone (DAP) and Music, and a Control group. Stimuli were applied for 3 h/d on five consecutive days. Dogs exposed to DAP lay down more, and those exposed to Music lay down more with their head down, compared to the Control. Those in the Control stood more on their hind legs with their front legs on the exit door, compared to those exposed to Music and DAP, particularly if they had only been in the shelter for a short time. They also panted and vocalised much more than dogs in the three enrichment treatments, which tended to persist during the 4 h period post treatment, and in the case of vocalisation into the subsequent night. The study suggests that all three enrichments had some positive benefits for dogs in shelters, as well as being non-invasive and easy to apply in the shelter environment.
Correct assessment of stress in horses is important for both horse welfare and handler safety during necessary aversive procedures. Handlers depend on behaviour when judging how well an individual is tolerating stressful procedures such as loading or veterinary intervention. However, evidence suggests that behaviour may not accurately reflect affective states in horses. This may be explained by individual differences in coping styles, which have tentatively been identified in horses. The current study assessed whether behaviour during two novel handling procedures was associated with physiological indicators of stress. Core temperature, discrepancy in eye temperature and heart rate variability (HRV) were compared with compliance and proactivity shown by horses during two novel handling tests (n = 46). Test A required subjects to cross a large blue tarpaulin on the ground. Test B required subjects to walk through plastic streamers suspended overhead. Physiological indicators of stress did not correlate with time taken to complete the handling tests. This indicates some subjects crossed an object they found aversive. Crossing time may be influenced more by stimulus-control than the level of aversion experienced. The level of proactivity shown was not associated with HRV, HR, core temperature or the discrepancy in temperature between eyes. This suggests that proactive horses, which appear more stressed, show similar stress responses to more reactive individuals. These findings support previous research indicating that behaviour commonly used within the equestrian industry may not provide reliable indicators of a horse's ability to tolerate a stressful procedure. The influence of training and the extent to which a horse is under stimulus-control may overshadow inherent emotional responses, with implications for handler safety and horse welfare.
Introduction Kennel facilities are commonly acknowledged as a stressful environment for many domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). One therapeutic measure used to reduce anxiety in dogs is dog appeasing pheromone (DAP), which has been found effective in reducing stress-related behaviours in a number of contexts.
Aims and Objectives A pilot study was conducted to assess whether DAP would reduce frequency of stress-related behaviours in a group of eight dogs housed for teaching purposes in a long-term kennelling facility.
Materials and Methods Using video analysis, proportion of time spent in stress-related behaviours for six dogs fitted with DAP collars, versus two control dogs (without collars), was compared for the time before and during DAP exposure.
Results No significant differences were found either in the proportion of time spent in stress-related behaviours in the baseline versus treatment periods or between the collared and control dogs in the change in proportion of time they spent in any of the focal behaviours in the baseline versus treatment periods.
Conclusions Possible reasons for these findings include an actual lack of effect of DAP on dogs housed in this long-term kennelling facility, an apparent lack of effect due to small sample size in this pilot study and high behavioural variation among individual dogs. Despite lack of a demonstrated effect of the DAP collars on these dogs, attention brought by this study to the behavioural issues seen in some of the dogs did have a positive impact, as it contributed to the development of an active, coordinated behavioural wellness and enrichment programme for the colony.
Infrared thermography (IRT) represents a non-invasive method to investigate stress responses in animals. Despite the large existing literature about stress responses in dogs, the potential use of IRT in assessing dogs' stress reactions has not been investigated so far. This study evaluates the usefulness of IRT to assess dogs' emotional responses to an unpleasant and stressful event. After a preliminary test, aimed to evaluate the correlation between eye temperature and rectal temperature in dogs in a stressful situation, a sample of 14 adult healthy dogs was observed during a standardized veterinary examination, carried out by an unfamiliar veterinarian in the presence of their owners. Dogs' behaviors and eye temperatures were recorded before the start of the veterinary visit, during, and after the clinical examination. Dogs' levels of activity and stress-related behaviors varied across the different phases of the visit. Interestingly, the dogs showed an increase in eye temperature during the examination phase compared with both pre-examination and post-examination phases, despite a concomitant significant decrease in their level of activity. However, it also emerged that the thermographic camera, although remote and non-invasive, was disturbing for the dogs, to some extent, as they showed avoidance behaviors, including averting their gaze and/or turning their head, exclusively when the thermographic camera was oriented to them. Overall results suggest that IRT may represent a useful tool to investigate emotional psychogenic stress in dogs. Nevertheless, further research is needed to establish the specificity and sensitivity of IRT in this context and to assess how different dogs' characteristics, breed, previous experience, and the nature and severity of the stressor could influence the magnitude and type of the stress response.
Growing public concern regarding animal welfare and consumer demand for humanely produced products have placed pressure on the meat, wool and dairy industries to improve and confirm the welfare status of their animals. This has increased the need for reliable methods of assessing animal welfare during commercial farm practices. The measurement of the stress caused by commercial farm practices is a major component of animal welfare assessment. However, a major issue for animal welfare science is that many of the techniques used to measure stress involve invasive procedures, such as blood sampling, which may themselves cause a stress response and therefore affect the measurement of interest. To reduce this problem, a number of non-invasive or minimally invasive methods and devices have been developed to measure stress. These include the measurement of cortisol concentrations in saliva and faeces, and remote devices for recording body temperature, heart rate and the collection of blood samples. This review describes the benefits and limitations of some of these methods for measuring stress. In particular, the review focuses on recent advances and current research in the use of infrared thermography (IRT) for measuring stress. Specific applications for IRT in the dairy and beef industries are also described including an automated, non-invasive system for early diagnosis of infection in cattle. It is essential that non-invasive measures of acute and chronic stress are developed for reliable assessment of animal welfare during standard farm management practices and IRT may be a useful tool for this purpose. IRT may offer advantages over many other non-invasive systems as it appears to be capable of measuring different components of the stress axis, including acute sympathetic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical responses.
Dogs’ dysfunctional attachment relationships with their owners are assumed to be the underlying cause of separation anxiety. Thirty-two dogs with and 43 dogs without owner-reported separation anxiety (SA) participated in a formal attachment test (AT). After the AT, the dogs were videotaped for 30 minutes while alone at home. Dogs left free in the house were scored on how long they were in proximity to the owners’ exit doors. Dogs who were crated or closely confined were scored on several anxiety-related behaviors, which were then compared to those dogs’ behaviors during the attachment test. Dogs with SA spent no more time in contact with or proximity to their owners during the attachment test than dogs without SA (P>0.05). Instead, they tended to jump up on the door after the strangers left the room and remain stationary when alone with their owners (P0.05) between SA and non-SA dogs in the amount of time spent in proximity to the owners’ exit doors when left alone at home. Dogs crated at home showed no relationship between the amount of anxiety-related behaviors during the AT or at home (P>0.05). There was no significant difference in the type of proximity-seeking behaviors exhibited by dogs with and without SA in the home (P>0.02). These finding suggest that separation anxiety is not based on “hyperattachment” of the dog to the owner, but that a different attachment style may be present between dogs with and without SA.
The secure base and safe haven effects of the attachment figure are central features of the human attachment theory. Recently, conclusive evidence for human analogue attachment behaviours in dogs has been provided, however, the owner's security-providing role in danger has not been directly supported. We investigated the relationship between the behavioural and cardiac response in dogs (N = 30) while being approached by a threatening stranger in separation vs. in the presence of the owner, presented in a balanced order. Non-invasive telemetric measures of heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) data during the threatening approaches was compared to periods before and after the encounters. Dogs that showed distress vocalisation during separation (N = 18) and that growled or barked at the stranger during the threatening approach (N = 17) were defined as behaviourally reactive in the given situation. While characteristic stress vocalisations were emitted during separations, the absence of the owner did not have an effect on dogs' mean HR, but significantly increased the HRV. The threatening approach increased dogs' mean HR, with a parallel decrease in the HRV, particularly in dogs that were behaviourally reactive to the encounter. Importantly, the HR increase was significantly less pronounced when dogs faced the stranger in the presence of the owner. Moreover, the test order, whether the dog encountered the stranger first with or without its owner, also proved important: HR increase associated with the encounter in separation seemed to be attenuated in dogs that faced the stranger first in the presence of their owner. We provided evidence for human analogue safe haven effect of the owner in a potentially dangerous situation. Similarly to parents of infants, owners can provide a buffer against stress in dogs, which can even reduce the effect of a subsequent encounter with the same threatening stimuli later when the owner is not present.
To systematically review the scientific literature to identify, assess the quality of, and determine outcomes of studies conducted to evaluate the use of pheromones for treatment of undesirable behavior in cats and dogs.
Systematic review.
Reports of prospective studies published from January 1998 through December 2008.
The MEDLINE and CAB Abstracts databases were searched with the following key terms: dog OR dogs OR canine OR cat OR cats OR feline AND pheromone OR synthetic pheromone OR facial pheromone OR appeasing pheromone. A date limit was set from 1998 through 2008. Identified reports for dogs (n = 7) and cats (7) were systematically reviewed.
Studies provided insufficient evidence of the effectiveness of feline facial pheromone for management of idiopathic cystitis or calming cats during catheterization and lack of support for reducing stress in hospitalized cats. Only 1 study yielded sufficient evidence that dog-appeasing pheromone reduces fear or anxiety in dogs during training. Six studies yielded insufficient evidence of the effectiveness of dog-appeasing pheromone for treatment of noise phobia (2 reports), travel-related problems, fear or anxiety in the veterinary clinic, and stress- and fear-related behavior in shelter dogs as well as vocalizing and house soiling in recently adopted puppies.
11 of the 14 reports reviewed provided insufficient evidence and 1 provided lack of support for effectiveness of pheromones for the treatment of undesirable behavior in cats and dogs.
This study was designed to determine the potential value of dog-appeasing pheromone (DAP) in reducing behaviours associated with fear of unfamiliar people and new surroundings in puppies newly adopted from a pet shop. The study was triple-blinded, randomised and placebo-controlled. It used 66 puppies (32 fitted with a DAP collar and 34 control) and the adoptive owners were contacted by phone three days and 15 days after they had adopted the puppy to question them about its reactions to specific situations eliciting fear. Fifteen days after the treatments significantly fewer of the puppies with the DAP collars showed signs of fear when facing unfamiliar people at home and/or during outings. This difference was irrespective of breed size.
Fifty-one owner-dog pairs were observed in a modified version of M. D. S. Ainsworth's (1969) Strange Situation Test. The results demonstrate that adult dogs (Canis familiaris) show patterns of attachment behavior toward the owner. Although there was considerable variability in dogs' attachment behavior to humans, the authors did not find any effect of gender, age, living conditions, or breed on most of the behavioral variables. The human-dog relationship was described by means of a factor analysis in a 3-dimensional factor space: Anxiety, Acceptance, and Attachment. A cluster analysis revealed 5 substantially different classes of dogs, and dogs could be categorized along the secure-insecure attached dimensions of Ainsworth's original test. A dog's relationship to humans is analogous to child-parent and chimpanzee-human attachment behavior because the observed behavioral phenomena and the classification are similar to those described in mother-infant interactions.
Sixteen domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) were tested in a familiar context in a series of 1-min trials on how well they obeyed after being told by their owner to lie down. Food was used in 1/3 of all trials, and during the trial the owner engaged in 1 of 5 activities. The dogs behaved differently depending on the owner's attention to them. When being watched by the owner, the dogs stayed lying down most often and/or for the longest time compared with when the owner read a book, watched TV, turned his or her back on them, or left the room. These results indicate that the dogs sensed the attentional state of their owners by judging observable behavioral cues such as eye contact and eye, head, and body orientation.
The aim of this study was to analyze the behavioral and physiological reactions of guide dogs in a distressing situation which promotes attachment behaviors towards their blind owners, and to compare such reactions with those of untrained or trainee dogs. The subjects were 57 adult Labrador and Golden retriever dogs (14 males, 43 females) belonging to four different groups: 19 Custody dogs, 13 Apprentice dogs, 10 Guide dogs and 15 Pet dogs. Dogs were tested using the Strange Situation Test, consisting in seven 3-minute episodes in which the dogs were placed in an unfamiliar environment, introduced to an unfamiliar woman and subjected to separation from their human companion. Tests were video-recorded and behaviors were scored using a 5-second point sampling method. Polar Vantage telemetric system was used to record cardiac activity. ANOVAs for repeated measures with groups and breeds as independent variables, showed a more anxious reaction in pet dogs, which revealed a high degree of proximity seeking behavior. Cardiac activity increased during episodes characterized by the exclusive presence of the stranger, but this increase was more conspicuous in guide dogs than in custody and apprentice dogs. Golden retrievers showed more behaviors suggesting distress compared to Labrador retrievers. This study showed that guide dogs, when separated from their blind owner, reveal a controlled behavioral reaction that is however accompanied by a stronger cardiac activation.
“Pheromonal therapy” has been promoted as a promising alternative therapy to improve the human-animal relationship and to reduce behavioral reactions to stressful stimuli. This placebo-controlled double blind study evaluated the use of a synthetic equine maternal pheromone (EMP) in animals undergoing hoof trimming for effects on behaviors and autonomous nervous system responses. Twenty foals (14 females and 6 males) with an average age of 24 months were divided into two experimental groups (A and B); one group receiving treatment with EMP and the other receiving placebo (excipient without the active ingredient). The parameters analyzed were heart rate (HR), respiratory rate, blood sugar levels, heart rate variability and behavioral reactions. There were no statistically significant differences in the HR, respiratory rate, and blood sugar levels when comparing the EMP and placebo groups. The heart rate variability indexes (minimum HR, average HR, maximum HR, NN, SDNN, RMSSD, and PNN50) also were not statistically significantly different when comparing the groups before, during, and after trimming. We also found no behavioral changes during the procedure of hoof trimming associated with the use of synthetic pheromonal analogues. This study provided no evidence for the effectiveness of synthetic pheromonal analogues to aid in the process of hoof trimming.
Human physical contact is known to be effective in decreasing dogs’ level of stress, assessed through endocrine, physiological, and behavioral parameters. Gentle touching has been found to be beneficial for dogs while experiencing or after having experienced a stressful event. The aim of the present study was to assess if dog behavior and physiology during a brief separation from the owner were modified by being petted before owner's departure. Ten dogs, not affected by separation-related problems, were tested twice while separated for 3 minutes from the owner: before separation, dogs once were petted for 1 minute and once were not petted. During each test, dog behavior was measured by continuous sampling and saliva collected 15 minutes after separation for cortisol determination. Findings show that, during both procedures, dogs spent a long time looking for the owner (median 84.5 and 87.5 seconds, respectively) and did not seem highly stressed by separation (low salivary cortisol levels and relatively low intensity and frequency of stress signals). When dogs were petted before separation, they displayed behaviors indicative of calmness for a longer period while waiting for the owner's return (Z = −1.955; P = 0.049), and their heart rate showed a marked decrease after the test (Z = −1.682; P = 0.073). This pilot study suggests that petting a dog before a brief separation from the owner may have a positive effect, making the dog calmer during the separation itself. Further studies are needed to analyze more in depth its effectiveness, especially in dogs affected by separation anxiety.
Exposure to dog appeasing pheromones (DAP) has been suggested to reduce stress related behaviors in dogs; however, the effects of DAP administered using a portable, rapid use spray has not received as much attention as the plug-in format. The aim of the present study was to determine whether DAP spray reduced stress related behaviors in rescue shelter dogs (Canis familiaris). Barking intensity, frequency of barking and stress related behaviors in the presence of a stressor were recorded using a repeated measures design with and without the use of spray pheromones. The mean barking intensity was reduced in dogs exposed to DAP spray although no significant difference in the frequency of barking or occurrence of stress related behaviors was found. This change in barking behavior is difficult to interpret as being beneficial to dog welfare, due to the lack of support from a reduction in the other stress indicators. Further research is needed which utilizes both a longer time period of DAP exposure and behavioral observation to understand any effects of DAP on dogs’ behavior. A larger sample size, alongside use of different stressors and physiological stress indicators, should also be considered.
We present here the first evidence of correlation between canine anxiety-related behavioural problems and heart rate variability (HRV). HRV is known to be related to a range of mental disorders in humans; however this has not been explored in dogs. Behavioural problems in dogs can result in suffering, property destruction and human injury. Dog behaviour problems were assessed by owner questionnaire and the extreme high and low scoring dogs were recruited into either affected (n = 10) or unaffected (n = 20) groups. HRV was assessed in dogs at their homes, while being held in lateral recumbency for 5 min using manual restraint. Salivary cortisol samples were taken before and after HRV testing. Dogs were assessed as either being reactive to the procedure (barking, growling, struggling or shaking) or unreactive. There was no effect of reactivity or behaviour problems on salivary cortisol levels at baseline or in response to the treatment. There was a significant effect of reactivity on HR (F1,26 = 5.54; P = 0.026), and no effect of behaviour problems (F1,26 = 1.07; P = 0.311). There was no effect of reactivity on any of the HRV measures. The presence of behaviour problems had a significant effect on a range of measures of HRV, with unaffected dogs having higher standard deviation of RR intervals (F1,26 = 6.39; P = 0.018), higher high frequency spectrum (F1,26 = 5.23; P = 0.031) and higher low frequency spectrum (F1,26 = 9.25; P = 0.005) power. There was no effect of behaviour problems on very low frequency spectrum power (F1,26 = 1.40; P = 0.248). Together these results provide evidence for a fundamental physiological difference between dogs affected or unaffected with behaviour problems. This study provides evidence for further investigation into the role of HRV in the pathophysiology of canine anxiety-related behaviour problems.
Infrared thermography can visualize changes in body surface temperature that result from stress-induced physiological changes and alterations of blood flow patterns. Here we explored its use for remote stress monitoring (i.e. removing need for human presence) in a sample of six pet dogs. Dogs were tested in a brief separation test involving contact with their owner, a stranger, and social isolation for two one-minute-periods. Tests were filmed using a thermographic camera set up in a corner of the room, around 7m from where the subjects spent most of the time. Temperature was measured from selected regions of both ear pinnae simultaneously. Temperatures of both ear pinnae showed a pattern of decrease during separation and increase when a person (either the owner or a stranger) was present, with no lateralized temperature differences between the two ears. Long distance thermographic measurement is a promising technique for non-invasive remote stress assessment, although there are some limitations related to dogs' hair structure over the ears, making it unsuitable for some subjects.
The purpose of this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study was to determine if the use of a pheromone collar was beneficial in reducing the stress of young Military Working Dogs (MWDs) transitioning from foster care into the training kennel at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas. Although the MWD is bred and trained to be robust and resilient, stark changes in environment and lifestyle can be a shock and lead to deleterious physiological and psychological effects, especially in young developing dogs. To evaluate the potential efficacy and utility of a pheromone collar on the dogs’ behaviors during transition, each MWD that returned from foster between October 2014 and February 2015 was randomly assigned to either a placebo or treatment pheromone collar. Collars were worn for 4 weeks. Three behavioral assessments were performed prior to collar placement, then at weeks 3 and 5 of the study, as well as one performance evaluation at week 3. The data were analyzed to determine if use of the pheromone collar had any effect on stress-related behaviors or performance.
There is an increasing interest from dog handlers and veterinarians in an ability to continuously monitor dogs' vital signs (heart rate, heart rate variability, and respiratory rate) outside laboratory environments, with the aim of identifying physiological correlations to stress, distress, excitement, and other emotional states. We present a non-invasive wearable sensor system combining electrocardiogram (ECG), photoplethysmogram (PPG), and inertial measurement units (IMU) to remotely and continuously monitor the vital signs of dogs. To overcome the limitations imposed by the efficiently insulated skin and dense hair layers of dogs, we investigated the use of various styles of ECG electrodes and the enhancements of these by conductive polymer coatings. We also studied the incorporation of light guides and optical fibers for an efficient optical coupling of PPG sensors to the skin. Combined with our parallel efforts to use IMUs to identify dog behaviors, these physiological sensors will contribute to a canine-body area network to wirelessly and continuously collect data during canine activities with a long-term goal of effectively capturing and interpreting dogs' behavioral responses to environmental stimuli that may yield measurable benefits to handlers' interactions with their dogs.
A perception of safety is central to the well-being of all animals, and a lack of safety may make it impossible for an animal to fully engage with the social and physical environment around it. Although the over-riding aim of all owners of companion animals is likely to be the provision of a safe environment for their pet, the reality is that many animals fail to perceive their environment as safe. For such animals, this leads to a lack of capacity for relaxation, an inevitable experience of either frequent or constant stress and elevated arousal levels that initiate behaviours that owners find difficult to cope with; this can lead to problems in the human–animal bond. Pheromones provide animals with specific chemical clues and information regarding the world around them. Through the use of synthetic analogues of pheromones that would normally be associated with a concept of enhanced security, pheromonatherapy may be used to increase the companion animal's capacity to relax in its current location and to be more capable of willingly investigating the wider environment.
The effect of moderate to deep pressure on soft tissue has been studied in both humans and non-human animals with positive results shown in reducing anxiety and promoting relaxation. Canine anxiety disorders are often treated with medications and behavior modification programming. Pressure wraps are sometimes used to treat canine anxiety, but the effects of this investigation have not been rigorously investigated. The aims of this study were to investigate the use of a pressure wrap (ThunderShirt®) on heart rate and behavior in dogs diagnosed with anxiety disorder. Subjects were 90 dogs (39 males, 51 females) who were diagnosed with Separation Anxiety or Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Dogs were randomly assigned to one of three groups-Experimental Group 1(Dogs wore the ThunderShirt® per manufacturer’s recommendations); Experimental Group 2 (Dogs wore the ThunderShirt® loosely without pressure); Control Group (Dogs had no specific treatment). Average heart rate and maximum heart rate were measured at baseline and after 15 minutes alone in the kennel. Dogs were video-recorded and analysis completed for twelve behaviors: pacing, panting, yawning, tongue-flicking, drooling, elimination, barking, stress whining, howling, licking, door orientation, and calmness. Results: Dogs in Experimental Group 1 showed significantly less increase from baseline in average heart rate than the Control Group dogs (p <0.001) and dogs in Experimental Group 2 (p < 0.001). Dogs in Experimental Group 1did not differ significantly from Control Group dogs in maximum heart rate when all dogs were considered, but did differ significantly from the Control Group (p = 0.04) when only those dogs not currently on anxiety medication were considered. There were no statistically significant differences among groups on behavioral outcomes, except dogs in the Control Group were significantly more likely to orient toward the door than dogs in both Experimental Group 1 (OR = 7.46, p = 0.01) and Experimental Group 2 (OR = 4.42, p = 0.04). Dogs in Experimental Group 1 presented a trend of less tongue-flicking (p = 0.06) and yawning (p = 0.07) stress reduction behaviors when compared to the other two groups. More research should be conducted with the ThunderShirt® on behavioral outcomes. The ThunderShirt® can be used with behavior modification programming and medication, as an adjunct treatment option to assist dogs diagnosed with anxiety disorder to reduce heart rate.
:This article is the second of three that examine why hospitalisation is stressful, and why and how to reduce that stress. In it, I review the evidence for using synthetic pheromone preparations to relieve in-patient stress. I conclude that there is no robust, published evidence to support such use, and that environmental enrichment is a more logical approach.
Behavior problems are often given as a reason for pet relinquishment to shelters. When presented with any behavior problem, veterinarians should perform a thorough physical examination (including neurologic and orthopedic examination) and a minimum database, including a complete blood cell count, chemistry panel, and total T4 and free T4 by equilibrium dialysis if values are low to rule out any medical contributions. Veterinarians should be a source of information regarding management, safety, and basic behavior modification for common behavior problems. Additionally, various control devices offer pet owners the ability to better manage their pets in difficult situations.
Separation anxiety is one of the more prevalent and difficult to treat behavior problems in dogs. The associated behaviors can be undesirable to dog owners and damage the human animal bond, leading to relinquishment or return to an animal shelter. Due to the high prevalence of separation related problems in recently adopted shelter dogs, shelter staff hold a critical role in advising and educating owners on how to prevent separation anxiety post-adoption. The aim of this study was to propose a form of that preventive counseling as a means of preventing the development of separation anxiety in recently adopted shelter dogs. The efficacy of preadoption counseling in the education and prevention of separation anxiety problems was tested in a prospective, randomized, parallel-group study. Participants included 133 new owners of dogs 6 months of age and older. At the time of adoption, sixty-six of these owners were randomly selected to receive five minutes of counseling on the prevention of separation anxiety, while the remaining sixty-seven owners served as the controls. A follow-up survey regarding the signs associated with separation anxiety and other potentially related behaviors was conducted one month post adoption. Results showed that 19 owners reported their dogs as having separation anxiety. There was no significant effect of adoption counseling on the prevention of separation anxiety. Owners in both groups were equally as likely to perform most of the recommendations given during counseling. Dogs that were reported to have separation anxiety were significantly more likely than dogs without reported separation anxiety to show nervous or panicked behavior as the owner prepared to leave (p=0.0001) and were more likely to be reported as being “needy” (p=0.031). Having another dog in the home was not protective against the development of separation anxiety. Owners in the counseling group were more likely than those in the control group to put food inside a toy at the time of leaving the dog home alone (p=0.0001), suggesting the counseling recommendations were indeed followed by the owners. Owner compliance supports the idea that counseling is a useful tool for owners. Separation anxiety is a disorder whose course may be difficult to alter in recently adopted shelter dogs using only basic, interventional information. Brief counseling and a toy do not effectively prevent the occurrence of this complex behavioral condition. Further investigation should be done to find more specific, effective prevention tools for owners to use in the home to minimize the development of separation anxiety and shelter should be prepared to provide interventional resources to owners whose dogs develop separation anxiety despite these efforts.
Weaning, particularly the widespread practice of abrupt separation of the mare and foal, has been shown to be a stressful event for horses. Physiological changes in foals measured after weaning include increased blood cortisol concentrations and a subsequent decrease in cell-mediated immune responses. In the randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial reported here, we assessed the effect of an equine appeasing pheromone (EAP; Modipher EQ, E.A.P. Mist [Pherosynthese s.n.c., Le Rieu Neuf, Saint-Saturnin-les-Apt, France]) as an aid for reducing the behavioral and physiological signs of stress during weaning. Fourteen quarter horse foals were separated from their dam (equid mother) between 105 and 146 days of age, in age-matched pairs, and placed in 3.66 × 3.66 m stalls (one treated and one control foal in each stall). Treated foals received the synthetic analogue of the EAP by intranasal wipe 30 minutes before separation and twice daily thereafter for 48 hours. Control foals received placebo by intranasal wipe on the same schedule. The foals were continuously videotaped for 48 hours postweaning to monitor behavioral responses. Blood samples were drawn 24 hours pretreatment and 24 and 48 hours postweaning for evaluation of physiological indicators of stress (serum cortisol) and cytokines as stress-related and immune-mediated response parameters. Interestingly, although behavioral and serum cortisol measures were similar between groups, treatment with EAP had a significant (P < 0.05) effect on interleukin 6 and transforming growth factor β, whereas monocyte opiate receptor 1 was significantly upregulated in both groups independent of treatment when compared with baseline values. Although the link between EAP treatment and activation of the measured cytokines remains unexplained, our findings suggest immune-related gene transcription focused on the acute causes of stress in a time frame shortly after weaning.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of time left alone on dog behaviour and cardiac activity. Twelve privately owned dogs, with no history of separation related behaviour problems, were video-recorded on three different occasions when left alone in their home environment. The treatments lasted for 0.5h (T0.5); 2h (T2) and 4h (T4). Video-recording started 10min before the owner left the house and continued until 10min after the owner returned, so that interactions between dog and owner as well as behaviour during separation could be studied. Data on heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) were collected within the same time period in each treatment. In addition to analysing behaviours separately, behaviours were also grouped together and defined as new variables; physically active, attentive behaviour, vocal, interaction initiated by owner and interaction initiated by dog. There were no differences in behaviour between treatments at equivalent time intervals until the owner returned, although a number of differences were observed at reunion with the owner. Dogs showed a higher frequency of physical activity (P
Separation-related behaviors are described as problematic behaviors that occur exclusively in the owner's absence or virtual absence. Diagnosis is generally based on indirect evidence such as elimination or destruction that occurs during owner absence. Questionnaire studies are based on owner perception and might therefore underestimate the actual proportion of dogs with separation problems. The aim of this study was to film dogs with separation-related problems when left home alone and compile objective information on behaviors exhibited. Twenty-three dogs, ranging in age from 5 months to 13 years (2.9±22.7 years), were filmed home alone for 20–60min (49.87±12.9min) after owner departure.Analysis of behaviors on tape showed that dogs spent most of their time vocalizing (22.95±12.3% of total observed time) and being oriented to the environment (21±20%). Dogs also exhibited panting (14±18%), were passive (12±27%) and were destroying (6±6%) during owner absence. Most dogs displayed signs within less than 10min after owner departure, such as vocalizing (mean latency 3.25min) and/or destroying (mean latency 7.13min). Barking and oriented to the environment tended to decrease (respectively p=0.08 and p=0.07) and conversely panting tended to increase over time (p=0.07).Diagnosis of separation-related problems is traditionally dependant on owner reports. Although owner observation may be informative, direct observation and standardized behavioral measurement of dogs with separation-related problems, before and after treatment, would be the best way to diagnose and to measure behavioral improvement.
It has been proposed that the dog–human relationship constitutes an infantile-like attachment. However, previous empirical support based on Ainsworth's Strange Situation test has proved inconclusive due to order effects inherent in the original procedure. In particular, these order effects compromise the ability to establish an essential facet of attachment: whether or not owners function as a secure base for their pet dogs. Order effects were counteracted in the present study by including a second condition in which the order of owner and stranger presence was counterbalanced. Hence, 38 adult dog-owner pairs were randomly placed in two conditions, both comprised of six 3-min episodes. In condition A, dogs entered an unfamiliar room with their owner; a stranger entered; the owner left the dog with the stranger; the dog was left alone in the room; the owner returned; and finally the dog was left with the stranger again. In condition B, the order in which owner and stranger were present was reversed. Secure-base effects were indicated in that the dogs explored, remained passive, played with the stranger and engaged in individual play more when in the presence of their owner than when left with the stranger or alone. Therefore, the dogs’ behaviour provides evidence consistent with the hypothesis that the dog–human bond constitutes an attachment. The possible role of attachment in canine separation anxiety is briefly discussed.
The behavioural effects of dog appeasing pheromone (DAP) continuously administered over a 7-day period, were evaluated in adult dogs housed in a public animal shelter. Barking amplitude (dB) and the frequency of discrete behavioural responses to two temperament tests associated with fear, separation and excitable behaviour (Arrowsmith, unpublished data) were recorded in 37 treatment and 17 control dogs. Mean barking amplitude (Leq) and barking frequency were significantly reduced in dogs subject to DAP exposure for 7 days (P
Because of very real practical constraints, conditions in animal shelters are often reminiscent of those in early primate deprivation studies. Dogs are frequently surrendered to shelters because of behavior problems, and aspects of the shelter environment may induce anomalous behavior, increasing the chances that adopted dogs will be returned to the shelters. Comparative psychologists, psychobiologists, and other behavioral scientists possess the knowledge and techniques to help shelters intervene in this cycle. Experience suggests human interaction and the application of basic conditioning procedures can reduce the impact of the shelter environment, and ease the transition into the adoptive home. A program developed to meet these goals is described. Shelters can provide opportunities both for the training of students in animal-related exercises and for limited applied research. Behavioral scientists stand in a unique position to help transform conditions in animal shelters to the benefit of all involved.
Communication is an essential component of the translation of learning theory into the practical control of the behaviour of dogs. A handler sends a signal (e.g. a command), to which their dog responds. This response is dependent on the dog's perception of the signal rather than the intention of the sender. Previous research has shown that a dog's response can be influenced by specific changes in the verbal and nonverbal qualities of signals (i.e. the commands) used, but there has been little scientific evaluation of what happens in practice. Therefore, in a first study, 56 dog handlers were videotaped giving their dogs a “sit” command and the significance of verbal and nonverbal factors on response was analyzed. Two factors were associated with a significant decrease in obedience: the dog's attention to its handler and the handler giving additional verbal information preceding the actual verbal command. Based on these results, a second more controlled study was run with 12 dogs that were trained to a new (“uff”, i.e. jumping onto a raised surface) and a known (“sit”, “down” or “paw”) command. Once trained to predefined criteria, dogs were tested for their responsiveness with each of three additional types of verbal information preceding the command: the dog's name, the dog's name followed by a pause of 2s and a “novel word”, i.e. a word with no established relationships in this context (“Banane”). The results suggest that the addition of the novel word significantly reduced response to both the known (p=0.014) and the new (p=0.014) commands. The name plus a pause preceding the command significantly reduced the response to the new command (p=0.043), but not the known one. The use of the name before the command without a pause had no significant effect on performance. The dogs’ ability to generalize learned commands from the training context to a new context was tested by going through the same procedure in an unfamiliar environment. There was a significant reduction in correct responses only to the new command independent of the preceding verbal information (name (p=0.028), name plus pause (p=0.022) and novel word (p=0.011)). This suggests that dogs may have more difficulties generalizing a less well-established command than an already known command.
Many dog owners are faced with the problem of what to do with their dog when they go to work. Different solutions to the problem may affect dogs, owners, and employers. In this study, 204 working, Swedish dog owners and 90 employers were interviewed by telephone regarding practical issues and attitudes, in order to identify problems and possible solutions. Results show that leaving the dog at home was the most common solution (73%), followed by bringing the dog to work (16%) and using some form of dog day care (11%). Although dogs were rarely left alone at home for longer than 6 hours, 53% of dog owners preferred or would prefer to bring the dog to work, if possible. However, 81% of all employers had never noticed such a demand. Written dog policies at the workplace were unusual (18%), and there seemed to be great uncertainty among dog owners about the current rules. Studies support the beneficial effects of dogs on many human health aspects, and a majority of dog owners (76%) felt they were healthier because of the dog. There was also a widespread view among employers (59%) that dogs contribute positively to a more social and pleasant workplace, but many argued that allergies (68%) and fear of dogs (66%) could be a problem. Leaving the dog at home will probably remain the practical solution for many dog owners, while bringing the dog to work could be the option with the greatest potential for expansion.
Ainsworth's 'strange situation' procedure was used to investigate the dog (Canis familiaris) – human relationship. 38 adult dog-owner pairs were observed in an unfamiliar room, intro-duced to a human stranger and subjected to four short episodes of separation. The procedure and behavioural analyses were as similar as possible to those used in studying human infants, except for the inclusion of an extra separation period in which the dogs were left alone in the room with articles of clothing belonging to the owner and stranger. A secure base effect was suggested by the fact that the dogs accepted to play with the stranger more in the pres-ence of their owner than during his or her absence. They also explored more in the presence of their owner, but this appeared to be due to diminishing curiosity over time rather than a secure base effect. The dogs also exhibited a range of attachment behaviours, i.e. search and proximity seeking behaviours when separated from their owner, including following, scratch-ing and jumping up on the door, remaining oriented to the door or the owner's empty chair and vocalising. They also greeted their owner more enthusiastically and for longer durations compared to the stranger. Finally, they contacted the owner's clothing more often and for 3) Corresponding authors address: Prof. 4) This research was supported by funds from Università di Milano to Emanuela Prato-Previde. We are grateful to Marcello Cesa-Bianchi and Marco Poli for allowing us to carry out the work in the Psychology Institute of Università di Milano. We thank Barbara Rotta for her invaluable help in data collection and scoring, Clara Palestrini for helping in running the experiment, Marco Colombetti for reading and commenting on the preliminary draft of the paper. Finally, a special thank to Tipota, a female mongrel, for being our rst pilot subject and to all the owners and dogs that participated as volunteers.
Fourteen dogs (7 males and 7 females) were tested for their heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) responses in different activities and environmental challenges while their movement was controlled. First, we wanted to compare the dogs' cardiac responses in different body positions (lying, sitting and standing) and during slow walking to reveal their possible influence on HR and HRV. Second, we tested the HR response during an attentive state when the dog was gazing at its favourite toy while remaining in a steady body position. Finally we investigated the heart activity during separation from the owner. We also analysed the individual differences and the influence of gender on the heart responses. We found that the HR increased during periods of increased activity (walking) and was lowest during lying, while it did not differ between sitting and standing. At the same time no changes in HRV were found in the case of different body positions and walking. In contrast, HRV significantly increased when dogs oriented towards their favourite toy, and we found a distinct individual characteristic HR change in this situation compared to the similar body position without the toy being shown. Interestingly during separation from the owner the HR did not increase, but when a strange person was petting the dog, a significant increasing effect was seen in the HR. However the HRV increased only when the petting was discontinued. In general, large individual variation was found with regard to the HR and HRV, while gender did not influence the cardiac activity of the dogs. These results show that body position affected HR significantly in dogs. Further it seems that HRV could be a good indicator of the dog's attentive state. Thus in future studies both the physical and cognitive factors should be given more attention when HR or HRV is investigated as a dependent variable. # 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Dogs hospitalized in veterinary clinics are likely to show signs of separation-induced anxiety from hospitalization. The study assessed the effect of dog-appeasing pheromone (DAP) on 10 typical separation-related behavioral signs in hospitalized dogs. A DAP treated group (n = 24) was compared with a placebo control group (n = 19). There was overall amelioration of the signs without 'vigilance' and 'anorexia' in the DAP-treated dogs; marked decreases were noted in elimination (P = 0.038), excessive licking (P = 0.005), and pacing (P = 0.017). The results suggest that the use of DAP could decrease separation-induced anxiety, distress, and fear in inpatients, and possibly facilitate recovery in hospitalized dogs.
Companion dogs commonly experience states of anxiety, fears, and phobias. Separation anxiety and noise aversions, as discussed in this article, are especially prevalent. Veterinarians are encouraged to recognize and treat such conditions on first presentation to address welfare issues and optimize successful management. New data suggest new treatment modalities, including behavioral management, pharmacotherapy, and species-specific pheromone use. Failure to treat can result in disruption of the human-animal bond and subsequent abandonment, relinquishment, or even euthanasia of the affected dog.
This paper presents a general statistical methodology for the analysis of multivariate categorical data arising from observer reliability studies. The procedure essentially involves the construction of functions of the observed proportions which are directed at the extent to which the observers agree among themselves and the construction of test statistics for hypotheses involving these functions. Tests for interobserver bias are presented in terms of first-order marginal homogeneity and measures of interobserver agreement are developed as generalized kappa-type statistics. These procedures are illustrated with a clinical diagnosis example from the epidemiological literature.
Two groups of beagles, accustomed to spacious group housing, were subjected to social and spatial restriction and studied for manifestations of chronic stress with a time interval of 7 weeks between the groups. The change from outside group housing (the control period) to individual housing in small indoor kennels resulted in sustained decreases in urinary adrenaline/creatinine and noradrenaline/creatinine ratios for the total group. Urinary dopamine/creatinine and noradrenaline/adrenaline ratios were statistically unaffected. Socially and spatially restricted dogs that had experienced pleasant weather during the control period showed (a) increased salivary and urinary cortisol concentrations, (b) a diminished responsiveness of the pituitary-adrenal axis to a sudden sound blast or exogenous CRH, (c) intact plasma ACTH and cortisol suppressions after dexamethasone administration, and (d) increased concanavalin A induced lymphocyte proliferations. When social and spatial restriction was preceded by a control period during which the weather was bad, these physiological responses were either augmented (lymphocyte proliferation), or offset (salivary and urinary cortisol), or directed oppositely (CRH-induced ACTH and cortisol responses). Together with the previously presented behavioral observations, these data suggest that bad weather conditions during spacious outdoor group housing induced early stress that attenuated the negative appraisal of the subsequent period of social and spatial restriction. In comparison to male dogs, bitches showed increased HPA responses to a sound blast or exogenous CRH. Their increased attenuations of the ACTH and cortisol responses to CRH after 5 weeks of restricted housing indicates that bitches are not only more susceptible to acute stress, but also to chronic housing stress. It is concluded that the quality of circumstances preceding a period of affected well-being determines the magnitude and even the direction of the behavioral and physiological stress responses. Basal salivary and urinary cortisol measurements are useful for the assessment of chronic stress, and of poor welfare in dogs. The use of urinary catecholamine, peripheral leucocyte, and lymphocyte proliferation measures requires further investigation.
- Adaptil
Adaptil, 2020. Adaptil. Available at. http://www.adaptil.com/uk. Accessed March 12,
2020.
US Pet Ownership Statistics
AVMA, 2019. US Pet Ownership Statistics. Available at. https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/reports-statistics/us-pet-ownership-statistics. Accessed May 8,
2020.
Behavior Problems of the Dog and Cat-E-Book
- G Landsberg
- W Hunthausen
- L Ackerman
Landsberg, G., Hunthausen, W., Ackerman, L., 2013. Behavior Problems of the Dog
and Cat-E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences, London. Available at: https://
www.vlebooks.com/Vleweb/Product/Index/173154?page=0. Accessed February
12, 2019.
One fifth of dog owners believe it's okay to leave pets alone for more than 24 hours
RSPCA, 2019. One fifth of dog owners believe it's okay to leave pets alone for more
than 24 hours. Available at. https://www.rspca.org.uk/whatwedo/latest/news/
details/-/articleName/fifth-of-dog-owners-believe-it-s-okay-to-leave-pets-alonefor-more-than-24-hours. Accessed May 8, 2020.
Behavioural correlation of heart rate changes in family dogs
- Maros