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Risk Factors for (Violent) Radicalization in Juveniles: A Multilevel Meta-Analysis
Abstract
Juveniles who become radicalized pose a great threat for society. Although research on radicalization is accumulating, a quantitative review of risk factors for youth radicalization is lacking. Therefore, a series of meta-analyses were conducted on k = 30 studies (247 effect sizes) to examine risk factors for radicalization in youth, yielding significant effects for 15 out of 17 risk domains, ranging in magnitude from r = .080 to r = .482. Medium positive effects were found for activism, perceived in-group superiority and perceived distance to other people, while small effects were found for gender, personality, delinquency and aggression, lower educational level, negative peers, in-group identification, perceived discrimination, perceived group threat, perceived procedural injustice, perceived illegitimacy of authorities, and other, whereas the effect for poverty was very small. Moderator analyses showed that the risks of negative parenting and societal disconnection were smaller for right-wing radicalization than for religious or unspecified radicalization. The risks of personality and perceived group threat were greater for willingness to carry out extremist acts and extremist behavior than for attitude towards radicalization. Further, when the percentage of ethnic minorities in the sample increased, the risks of personality, negative parenting, and societal disconnection for radicalization were larger.
... The search for identity, recognition, and belonging, combined with a tendency for provocation may make youth vulnerable to radical ideologies and violence (Schröder et al., 2022). Previous studies have identified important risk and protective factors for violent radicalization (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Lösel et al., 2018). Most earlier work has used a variable-centered approach, focusing on the relations between variables, rather than a person-centered approach, which has the advantage of being able to identify specific subgroups of youth based on individual variation on a set of variables (Bámaca-Colbert & Gayles, 2010;Howard & Hoffman, 2018). ...
... It can be viewed as a global public health issue, resulting from the presence and interaction of risk factors at different levels (Miconi et al., 2021). Recently, several meta-analyses and reviews have identified which risk factors in particular are important for violent radicalization (e.g., Emmelkamp et al., 2020). In this study, we will investigate to what extent these key risk factors are associated with youth's profiles of positive attitudes toward far-right violent radicalization. ...
... Perceived group threat has been found to be an important risk factor for violent radical attitudes in youth (Emmelkamp et al., 2020) and adults (Campelo et al., 2018;Wolfowicz et al., 2021). The threat does not have to be real: Recent adaptations of the integrated threat theory explain that both actual and perceived threats can contribute to negative out-group behavior (Pauwels & Heylen, 2020). ...
Objective: Far-right violent radicalization has been on the rise in Europe, with youth being more at risk. Previous research on the topic has mostly been variable-centered and conducted in adults. To better tailor prevention efforts based on the needs of different subgroups of youth, a person-centered study was conducted to explore the presence of far-right violent radicalization profiles in a sample of Dutch youth (N = 1,167, age range: 15–26 years old). Person-centered analyses can capture diversity in youth’s far-right violent radicalization tendencies. Method: Data collection took place online and in educational settings. To detect possible profiles, latent profiles analyses were conducted based on participants’ far-right nativistic and violent radical attitudes. Associations between profile membership, demographic variables, and radicalization risk factors (i.e., perceived injustice, governmental illegitimacy, aggression, lack of intergroup contact, perceived group threat, superiority) were tested. Results: The four detected profiles were named as follows: Far-right violent radical (n = 75), violent experimenter (n = 287), low-violence (n = 386), and no-violence (n = 419). An association with profile membership was found for certain background characteristics (e.g., younger age, being male) and all risk factors. Conclusions: For prevention purposes, it is important to understand risk factors associated with far-right violent radical attitude profiles. Current findings demonstrate the importance of considering youth’s behavioral problems and their societal experiences in terms of injustice, governmental illegitimacy, and feelings of superiority.
... According to Emmelkamp et. al., (2020), earlier studies viewed radicalization as a mental illness, with psychologists striving to create a psychological profile of the archetypal terrorist. However, this assumption was challenged after decades of research found that most extremists or terrorists are not mentally ill and may not actually be that different from the general pop ...
... studies viewed radicalization as a mental illness, with psychologists striving to create a psychological profile of the archetypal terrorist. However, this assumption was challenged after decades of research found that most extremists or terrorists are not mentally ill and may not actually be that different from the general population (Angus, 2016;Emmelkamp et. al., 2020). Furthermore, the failure of traditional responses such as military intervention, policing, and intelligence to counter terrorism compelled scholars and practitioners to focus their efforts on risk assessment by targeting the factors that lead individuals toward the path of radicalization (Wolfowicz et. al., 2020b). It may seem problema ...
... t. al, 2016) The role of integration is also debatable in radicalization research; some scholars believe its role is overstated, yet the analysis found that for radical attitudes, effect sizes for integration-related factors, such as in-group superiority, in-group connectedness, and factors had highly similar ties had relatively large effect sizes (Emmelkamp et. al, 2020;. A study conducted on the process of radicalization amongst Dutch Muslim youth echoes this finding; the authors found that these individuals adhered to a radical belief system, in which the perceived superiority of Muslim (group superiority) and perceived distance to others (in-group connectedness) were key tenets. Again, these Dutch Mu ...
Radical Islamic terrorism, undoubtedly, continues to pose a significant threat to global security and stability. Empirical research on 'Islamic terrorism' has grown exponentially since 9/11, with most studies focusing on the characteristics and motivations of Islamic terrorists. Recently, however, terrorism research has expanded its scope to include radicalization as an important factor in understanding the motivations, attitudes, and behaviours of terrorists. In 2020, a systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted on the risk and protective factors identified three different outcomes of radicalization, which were radical attitudes, radical intentions, and radical behaviours. Despite the identification of these risk and protective factors, little progress has been made in examining whether these factors do, in fact, explain the actions of terrorists. This dissertation aims to address this gap in our knowledge. Recommendations to design more effective counter-terrorism policies will be discussed.
... In recent years, several literature reviews on political violence outcomes or radicalization processes have been published with (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Jahnke et al., 2022;Wolfowicz et al., 2020;Zych & Nasaescu, 2022) and without meta-analyses (e.g., Hassan et al., 2018;Lösel et al., 2018;Vergani et al., 2018). These papers summarize studies on factors that are associated with (risk factors) or protect against (protective factors) such outcomes. ...
... These papers summarize studies on factors that are associated with (risk factors) or protect against (protective factors) such outcomes. Personal and individual risk factors included male sex and (in the case of Islamist violence) migration, personality traits like thrill seeking (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Wolfowicz et al., 2020), experiences of discrimination, relative and symbolic deprivation (Jahnke et al., 2022), a criminal past, and overall negative life experiences (Vergani et al., 2018;Wolfowicz et al., 2020). While prior research on factors associated with political violence outcomes is mostly focused on the individual level (Desmarais et al., 2017), Zych and Nasaescu (2022) found evidence for political violence outcomes being a "family issue," with the highest effect sizes for parental ethnic socialization, extremist family members, and family conflicts. ...
... While these previous reviews detected some potential risk and protective factors, the evidence base for people's social environment was not always consistent. For instance, there was no significant effect for negative parenting in one systematic review (Emmelkamp et al., 2020), while another finds a protective effect for parental involvement (Wolfowicz et al., 2020), and a third reports a protective effect for family commitment and parental control, but no effect for familial violence (Zych & Nasaescu, 2022). All previous meta-analyses faced the challenge of having a restricted evidence base. ...
Young people are particularly likely to engage in political violence, hold positive attitudes towards political violence, and show willingness to engage in political violence. The social environment in which young people are immersed is characterized by factors increasing and protecting against the risk of such outcomes. The present meta-analysis systematically summarizes the body of studies on the link between political violence outcomes and risk and protective variables in the following domains: a) parents and family (familial support, familial conflict, parental control, importance of family, parental violence), b) radical networks and peers (having friends with racist or violent attitudes, membership in political groups that oppose mainstream politics, general membership in a peer group), c) school (school attachment, school achievement), and d) socioeconomic status. A total of 288 effect sizes from 44 reference samples met the selection criteria. Findings were combined using two- and three-level meta-analytic models. Average effect sizes ranged between very small to small (|r| = .03 to |r| = .26), with the largest effect sizes detected for membership in a political group that opposes mainstream politics and having friends with racist or violent attitudes. The results are constrained by the low number of eligible samples and the significant level of heterogeneity for many of the meta-analyses.
... Within the context of the War on Terror, research on radicalisation initially focused on the personal and individual processes that would lead someone to terrorism (Moreras 2018), based on the individual's rationality or irrationality (Victoroff 2005;Dalgaard-Nielsen 2010). From a reductionist approach, initial efforts explored the personal profile and life trajectory of terrorists, trying to identify traits that differentiated them from the rest of the population (Emmelkamp et al. 2020). The possible pathologies and mental problems associated with radicalisation were also explored, as it was understood that it could be caused by a psychological disorder or possible mental imbalances (Moreras 2018: 59). ...
... They have also been widely criticised for their stigmatising effect, reinforcing the association between radicalisation, Islam, and terrorism (Veldhuis and Staun 2009;Dawson 2017;Beelmann 2020). All those controversial aspects have had an important impact on the way in which a particular perception of radicalisation and prevention has spread (Emmelkamp et al. 2020). It is therefore essential to be cautious in the design of studies and research to avoid unintended effects. ...
... The study of these factors has allowed us to know empirically that different traumatic experiences, problems of socialisation, discrimination, and problems of social capital can have a decisive influence (Naterstad 2020). There are some factors like the (real or perceived) distance or separation from other people, negative peer influence, discrimination, injustice, perceived illegitimacy of authorities, gender, or poverty that may be part of a process that is reinforced by identification with and perceived superiority of an extremist group (Emmelkamp et al. 2020). Also, unemployment and the pressures of masculinity and manhood make this process more likely (Wolfowicz et al. 2021a). ...
... The following search terms were used: Cannabis OR marijuana OR substance* OR drug* AND Youth OR adolescen* OR teen* AND Sibling* OR brother* OR sister*. We screened the metaanalysis of Verweij and colleagues (Emmelkamp, Asscher, Wissink, & Stams, 2020;Verweij et al., 2010) as well as the literature list of each selected article for potentially relevant studies. The authors were also contacted for unpublished articles or whenever studies had missing data that were needed for our hypotheses. ...
... The coding and descriptive analyses were conducted in IBM SPSS, and the main analyses were conducted in the Metafor package of R (Assink & Wibbelink, 2016;Viechtbauer, 2010). Continuous variables were centered around their mean and categorical variables were recoded into dummy variables (Assink & Wibbelink, 2016;Emmelkamp et al., 2020). Each study reported different outcome measures, such as means and odds ratios. ...
... In order to be able to compare studies, we converted all outcome measures into a Pearson's correlation coefficient (cf. Emmelkamp et al., 2020) using the effect size calculator by Wilson (2001). Due to non-normality, the correlations were converted into a Fisher's z for the analysis (van den Noortgate, L opez-L opez, Mar ın-Mart ınez, & S anchez-Meca, 2013). ...
Background
Parents' and peers' cannabis use are well‐documented predictors of youth cannabis use, however, relatively little is known about the influence of siblings' cannabis use. Hence, this meta‐analysis investigated the association between sibling‐youth cannabis use (disorder) and explored moderation by sibling type (monozygotic‐ vs. dizygotic‐ vs. non‐twins), age, age spacing, birth order, gender, and gender constellations (same‐ vs. mix‐ gender pairs). When comparison data of parents' and peers' cannabis use (disorder) were also available in the included studies, separate meta‐analyses on associations between parent‐youth and peer‐youth cannabis use (disorder) were additionally conducted.
Methods
Studies were selected if they included 11‐ to 24‐year‐old participants, and investigated associations between cannabis use (disorder) among those youth and their siblings. These studies were retrieved via a search in seven databases (e.g., PsychINFO). A multi‐level meta‐analysis using a random effects model was performed on the studies, and heterogeneity analyses and moderator analyses were also conducted. PRISMA guidelines were followed.
Results
We retrieved 20 studies (most of which originated from Western cultures) with 127 effect sizes for the main sibling‐youth meta‐analysis and found a large overall effect‐size (r = .423), implying that youth had higher cannabis use rates when their sibling used cannabis, and this association was stronger for monozygotic twins and for same‐gender sibling pairs. Finally, a medium effect size existed for the associations between parent‐youth cannabis use (r = .300) and a large effect size for peer‐youth cannabis use (r = .451).
Conclusions
Youth are more likely to use cannabis when their siblings use cannabis. This sibling‐youth cannabis use association existed for all sibling constellations, was larger than the association between parent‐youth cannabis use, and was similar in magnitude compared to the association between peer‐youth cannabis use—suggesting both genetic and environmental influences (e.g., social‐learning) between siblings. Hence, it is important not to neglect sibling influences when treating youth cannabis use (disorder).
... Although risks associated with group processes may vary depending on the type of group and specific group dynamics, preliminary evidence suggests that social identity processes in terms of group affiliations and interactions can play a central role in the early process leading to positive attitudes toward violence (Milla et al., 2022;Smith et al., 2020). Metaanalyses indicate a positive association between both higher ingroup identification and perceived group threat and support for VR (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Wolfowicz et al., 2020). In the present study, we focused on two aspects of one's collective self-esteem: (a) public collective self-esteem, which reflects how others evaluate one's group; and (b) importance to identity, concerning how important one's group identity is for one's self-concept (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992). ...
... These findings can be interpreted within the context of social identity theory (Hogg, 2012(Hogg, , 2014Tajfel & Turner, 2004), in that a strong investment on group identity is associated with higher perceived superiority for one's group and could become a source of conflict and polarization, legitimizing violence toward dehumanized others (Bibeau, 2015). In contrast, a more positive vision of one's group in society may reduce the perceived threat and injustice associated with group belonging, thus contributing to a reduction of support for VR (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Wolfowicz et al., 2020). Ozer et al. (2020) found that one's collective identity moderated the effect of contextual variables on support for VR, hypothesizing that group membership could in part explain why some individuals but not others become radicalized under similar circumstances (Kruglanski & Fishman, 2009;Sageman, 2004). ...
... As expected, identifying with a group that can count on a positive reputation in society was protective and buffered the positive association between preference for online social interactions and support for VR. A more positive vision of one's group in society is likely to reduce the perceived threat and injustice associated with group belonging, which are sentiments that were found to significantly contribute to VR processes (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Wolfowicz et al., 2020). Similarly, people who belong to groups which are not stigmatized or ostracized in society have better experiences online and offline; this would reduce the actual risks of injustice and discrimination experienced offline and could discourage the affiliation with polarizing online environments. ...
Young people are at increased risk of supporting violent radicalization (VR), and VR processes are increasingly happening online. Despite the important role that online socialization plays in the lives of digital natives as well as in VR processes, empirical research aimed to investigate the association between online socialization and support for VR among young people is scant. This article examines the association between preference for online social interactions and support for VR among students and investigates whether this association is moderated by social support and collective self-esteem and mediated by depressive symptoms. A total of 5,598 Canadian college and university students (Mage = 22.75, SDage = 7.45) responded to an online survey. We implemented multivariable mixed-effects regression models, stratified and mediation analyses. Greater preference for online social interactions was associated with stronger support for VR. Preference for online social interactions was a risk factor for VR, particularly at low levels of public self-esteem and social support as well as at high levels of importance attributed to one's group identity. Depressive symptoms partially mediated this association. Programs aimed to foster and value multiple identities and increase social support in educational settings are urgently needed to address the possible negative consequences of the online space on young people's mental health and support for violence. Prevention programs should address the provision of psychosocial support to students reporting depressive symptoms and help them build and maintain a supportive social network, as well as enhance inclusion at the societal level and across educational institutions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
... Some sociodemographic factors appear to be associated with violent extremism but concern only one factor complicating generalizability (Wolfowicz et al., 2019). Gender and educational level have shown only weak effects with radicalization (Emmelkamp et al., 2020). In contrast, "activism" and "perceived in-group superiority" in radicalized juveniles were strongly associated with radicalization, demonstrating the presence of other risk factors (Emmelkamp et al., 2020). ...
... Gender and educational level have shown only weak effects with radicalization (Emmelkamp et al., 2020). In contrast, "activism" and "perceived in-group superiority" in radicalized juveniles were strongly associated with radicalization, demonstrating the presence of other risk factors (Emmelkamp et al., 2020). Furthermore, religious factors, a lack of integration in society, identity problems, belongingness, meaning making and group processes seem to be related to violent extremism (McGilloway et al., 2015;Nickolson et al., 2021;Wolfowicz et al., 2019). ...
... In summary, violent extremists constitute a heterogeneous group (e.g., Bakker, 2006;Horgan, 2014;Sageman, 2008) with several specific risk factors that mark this group, pertaining to activism, perceived in-group superiority, belongingness, grievances, need for sensation, and meaning making (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Nickolson et al., 2021). In addition, compared to the general population it appears that violent extremists are not more likely to experience stressors, but that they have fewer protective factors against criminal involvement (Clemmow et al., 2020). ...
In recent years, the number of detainees confined for terrorism-related offenses has increased worldwide and across Europe. To understand the factors related to terrorism and its underlying motives, this study provides insights into violent extremism by assessing risk- and protective factors based on the Violent Extremism Risk Assessment-2R (VERA-2R) in 121 male jihadist residents in Dutch terrorism wings. Retrospective analyses of primary source data showed that one-third of the target group is strongly connected to ideologies justifying violence. The social context of the study sample was also related to violent extremism, whereas support from family members emerged as the most often observed protective factor. The current findings suggest that including meaningful risk and protective factors of detained male jihadists may benefit risk management strategies in prevention, intervention, and policy practices related to violent extremism.
... These studies focused mainly on adults, but they hardly explore radicalized adolescents (Campelo et al. 2018). It has also been seen that finding radicalization risks is considerably uncomplicated, according to results from various review studies (Campelo et al. 2018;Emmelkamp et al. 2020). However, to find violent radicalization precedents (extremism or terrorism, among others) in adolescents, the largest group of radicalized individuals is still notably convoluted. ...
... Perceived discrimination has a negative effect on the person who perceives it, and it leads, on some occasions, to carry out violent acts, with adolescents having a higher tendency toward embracing radical points of view (Heelsum and Vermeulen 2017). Radicalization is an issue of growing concern in the fields of public health and criminology (Blum et al. 2000;McLaughlin et al. 2000), because radicalized adolescents are at a higher risk of taking maladaptive development paths and can pose a great threat to society when violent actions are committed (Emmelkamp et al. 2020). However, perceived discrimination has a different effect on females. ...
... Regarding gender, some studies have found little effects between gender and perceived discrimination, with activism, superiority perceived within a group and the distance perceived from other individuals being the risk factors that have the greatest impact on discrimination (Emmelkamp et al. 2020). Conversely, other studies show that risk behaviors among adolescents have different patterns based on gender (Cho, Hallfors, and Iritani 2007;Moss, Chen, and Yi 2014;Swahn et al. 2011). ...
The present study analyzes the effect of perceived discrimination on satisfaction with life and radicalization in adolescents. We hypothesize that perceived discrimination relates positively to the radicalization of adolescents, while satisfaction with life plays a mediating role in the negative effects of discrimination. We also suggest that gender has a modulating effect, since there are vast differences in the effects of perceived discrimination in girls and boys. Eighty-seven girls and 126 boys from a Spanish secondary school participated in the study, aged 15 to 25. Results show that perceived discrimination relates positively to radicalization in boys but not in girls. Conversely, discrimination relates negatively with satisfaction with life in girls, but not in boys. The mediating effect of this variable barely relates to radicalization in either gender; however, gender does show a modulating effect, which can be seen in the differences found between boys and girls: perceived discrimination relates positively with radicalization in boys but not in girls; conversely, it relates negatively with satisfaction with life in the case of girls but not in boys. These findings highlight the importance of achieving an appropriate integration of adolescents in society.
... Si bien la radicalización no incluye necesariamente un componente religioso, y es posible identificar grupos radicales de extrema derecha, extrema izquierda, nacionalistas/separatistas, o centrados en temas específicos (Doosje et al., 2016), la amenaza de violencia vinculada a la religión ha captado en buena medida el interés académico y de organizaciones responsables de la seguridad ciudadana. Como destacan Emmelkamp et al. (2020) ha aumentado el número de estudios centrados en radicalización L Macias religiosa, y específicamente islámica, y en menor medida los trabajos que analizan otras formas de radicalización (de extrema derecha, por ejemplo). Sin embargo, y a pesar de la percepción social que centra el foco en la violencia vinculada a la radicalización religiosa, desde el 11 de septiembre de 2001 en Estados Unidos las acciones vinculadas al extremismo de derechas han producido un mayor número de víctimas que aquellas desarrolladas desde el extremismo islámico (Institute for Economics & Peace, 2019). ...
... Estudios más recientes en España (Reinares & García, 2016) muestran la evolución de los perfiles sociológicos de las personas detenidas por acciones terroristas. Otra aportación a destacar es la revisión de Emmelkamp et al. (2020), quienes obtuvieron efectos significativos moderados para factores de riesgo de radicalización juvenil como activismo, superioridad endogrupal percibida y distancia de otras personas, mientras la identificación endogrupal o la percepción de discriminación e injusticia alcanzaron un efecto relativamente menor. De especial interés es el hecho de que el efecto de la pobreza como factor de riesgo fuese aún inferior a los anteriores factores. ...
... Por otra parte, los resultados de recientes trabajos (Emmelkamp et al., 2020) ponen el foco de atención sobre el activismo debido a su relación con la radicalización (quienes están radicalizados con frecuencia tienen una historia de activismo). El seguimiento de este fenómeno permitiría trabajar con muestras más amplias (Bjørgo & Gjelsvik, 2017), examinar las condiciones en las que desemboca en extremismo, y plantear intervenciones dirigidas a fomentar un activismo saludable y fructífero, disminuyendo el riesgo de estigmatización. ...
The radicalisation of young immigrants in Europe is a phenomenon of scientific and political relevance. The study aimed to analyse the degree of consensus on the differential influence on the radicalisation process of various factors (attitudinal, contextual, historical and protective), primarily included in the VERA-2, related to multiple socio-demographic categories and the processes of radicalisation in opinion and action. Applying a Delphi analysis methodology, the results point to the difficulty of reaching a consensus on the differential influence of the factors that affect the radicalisation of young migrants according to the categories examined. This consensus is appropriate concerning the distinction between radicalisation in action and radicalisation in opinion, showing the multiplicity of influential factors, especially in the case of radicalisation in opinion. The importance of protective, contextual, and attitudinal factors is evident for this type of radicalisation, while for radicalisation in action, a high consensus is reached on historical and contextual factors. Interventions aimed at the attitudinal sphere, rejection and prevention of violence, active policies of social inclusion, and spaces for intercultural dialogue and community participation are proposed as lines of work to prevent the radicalisation of young immigrants.
... A systematic review and meta-analysis on risk factors for violent radicalization in juveniles was recently published by Emmelkamp et al. (2020). Based on 6 studies and 12 effect sizes, they found that the relation between negative parenting and radicalization was not statistically significant. ...
... The second objective was to analyze the impact of radicalization on families and the third objective was to discover if family-based interventions were effective against radicalization. Although there are some previous systematic reviews focused on risk or protective factors for radicalization in general (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Lösel et al., 2018;Wolfowicz et al., 2021) none of them focused specifically on families and radicalization. Thus, this is the first comprehensive systematic review conducted to describe the scientific field of quantitative research on families and radicalization. ...
... Thus, it was necessary to classify these variables into meaningful categories. This was carefully done to only include studies focused on highly similar constructs in each category, and this is a common practice in the field (see, e.g., Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Wolfowicz et al., 2021). Nevertheless, some categories still included outcomes that were not identical (e.g., parental violence, violence between parents and perpetration of domestic abuse in adulthood all classified as family violence). ...
Background
Family‐related risk and protective factors are crucial for different antisocial behaviors, but their role in radicalization requires synthesis. Radicalization is likely to have a negative impact on families, and well‐designed and implemented family‐focused intervention programs have the potential to decrease radicalization.
Objectives
Research questions were: (1) What are the family‐related risk and protective factors for radicalization? (2) What is the impact of radicalization on families? (3) Are family‐based interventions against radicalization effective?
Search Methods
Searches included 25 databases and hand searches of gray literature from April to July 2021. Leading researchers in the field were asked to provide published and unpublished studies on the topic. Reference lists of the included studies and previously published systematic reviews on risk and protective factors for radicalization were scanned.
Selection Criteria
Published and unpublished quantitative studies on family‐related risk and protective factors for radicalization, the impact of radicalization on families, and family‐focused interventions were eligible with no restrictions regarding the study year, location, or any demographic characteristic. Studies were included if they measured the relation between a family‐related factor and radicalization or if they included a family‐focused intervention against radicalization. For family‐related risk and protective factors, radicalized individuals needed to be compared to general population. Studies were included if they defined radicalization as support or commission of violence to defend a cause, including support for radical groups.
Data Collection and Analysis
The systematic search identified 86,591 studies. After screening, 33 studies focused on family‐related risk and protective factors were included, with 89 primary effect sizes and 48 variables grouped in 14 factors. For the factors that included two or more studies, meta‐analyses with random effects were conducted. When possible, moderator analyses were performed together with sensitivity and publication bias analyses. No studies on the impact of radicalization on families or family‐focused interventions were included.
Results
The current systematic review based on studies with 148,081 adults and adolescents from diverse geographic locations showed that parental ethnic socialization (z = 0.27), having extremist family members (z = 0.26), and family conflict (z = 0.11) were related to more radicalization, whereas high family socioeconomic status (z = −0.03), bigger family size (z = −0.05), and high family commitment (z = −0.06) were related to less radicalization. Separate analyses described family‐factors for behavioral versus cognitive radicalization, and different radical ideologies including Islamist, right‐wing and left‐wing. It was not possible to distinguish risk and protective factors from correlates and the level of overall bias was mostly high. No results regarding the impact of radicalization on families or family‐focused interventions were included.
Authors' Conclusions
Although causal relations between family‐related risk and protective factors could not be established, it is reasonable to suggest that policies and practice should aim at decreasing family‐related risks and increasing protective factors for radicalization. Tailored interventions including these factors should be urgently designed, implemented and evaluated. Studies focused on the impact of radicalization on families and family‐focused interventions are urgently needed together with longitudinal studies on family‐related risk and protective factors.
... This conclusion implies that there is a great need for researchers, research funding bodies, and political actors to reflect upon what type of knowledge is needed to assist future work within the field of preventing and countering violent extremism.' Pistone et al. (2019: 23) growing body of resources available to support those seeking to evaluate P/CVE initiatives, such as the RAND Violent Extremism Evaluation Measurement Framework (VEEM) (Baruch et al. 2018).Today, radicalisation is widely understood to be a process (Abbas 2021;Ali et al., 2017; Borum 2011;Emmelkamp et al. 2020; Lindekilde 2012;Young et al., 2015).While several different models have been proposed over the years (Borum 2011; Silber and Bhatt 2007; Young et al. 2015), many of these frameworks were neither grounded in theory nor derived from systematic research (Borum 2011). As such, these models offer a simplified description of the radicalisation process, but tell us little about what drives someone to actually engage in violence (Abbas 2021). ...
... Activism and perceived in-group superiority were the two strongest risk factors associated with radicalisation in Emmelkamp and colleagues' (2020) meta-analysis. An accumulationof risk factors appears to be most indicative of risk, however, most only had medium to small effect sizes, making them unsuitable for use as predictive tools(Emmelkamp et al. 2020;Lösel et al. 2018).Moreover, the evidence base relating to individuallevel interventions remains weak, in part due to the difficulties defining meaningful and consistent outcome measures(Romaniuk 2015).The flipside to risk factors is the identification of protective factors against radicalisation. These include non-violent peers, bonding to school and attachment to society. ...
... Radicalization, hence, targets members of out-groups in order to accomplish the political objectives that motivate their ideologies (Doosje et al., 2016;Emmelkamp et al., 2020). Radicalization lends itself to adopting close minded and self-serving perspectives characteristic of extremism (Schmid, 2013: Van den Bos, 2018. ...
... Radicalization, in these cases, presents already vulnerable youth with a sense of identity in a manner that is selfaffirming and not necessarily derived from their immediate communities and surroundings (see, also, Bizina & Gray, 2014). The literature suggests that radicalized youth are at greater risk of exhibiting atypical behaviour (Emmelkamp et al., 2020). ...
According to a House of Commons Report (2022) on public safety, hate motivated ideologies are spreading consistently across Canada. Moreover, the Report cites youth among those particularly vulnerable to right-wing ideologies thereby complementing the literature that suggests that youth and radical right-wing ideologies are positioned at a precarious intersection. Particularly notable and worth distinguishing are youth cultural right-wing extremist groups whose ambition is not completely independent from right-wing extremists. Youth cultural right-wing extremist groups especially rely on the internet and social media as a means of recruiting members to the organization and to spread widely their radical ideologies. It is not enough, though, to make overly simplistic claims that youth, such as the youth cultural right-wing extremists, have a periphery existence in cyber spaces and a generalized association to more sophisticated right-wing extremist groups. Youth cultural right-wing extremist groups are characteristic of cultures that consist of a hateful discourse that celebrates ethnonationalist values, beliefs, and traditions. Research points to the fact that the dialogue, often antagonistic, appeals to youth that are attracted by these radical views. Education systems have been identified as sites where radical and extremist tendencies and ideologies can be directly addressed by educators, given the substantial amount of time that youth spend in schools. The paper discusses both the interventions and implications related to addressing extremist ideologies in educational contexts.
... The first is an individual's life situation, such as poverty or sense of discrimination. Here, the connections to radicalization phenomena appear to be relatively moderate (Emmelkamp et al. 2020). The postulated relationship is conceptualized on the basis of the assumptions of the theory of relative deprivation (Stouffer 1949) or anomie (Opp 2020). ...
... Accordingly, deviant network contacts and group dynamics exert influence (Emmelkamp et al. 2020), which is particularly true in advanced radicalization processes. Ideology is thought to be mediated by peers. ...
This study examines whether the neighborhood effect on vulnerability to radicalization can be mitigated by the density and diversity of social service organizations. In this study, vulnerability to radicalization is composed of perceived discrimination, distrust of democracy, and authoritarianism. To this end, data from surveys conducted in the three German cities of Dortmund ( n = 1,900), Bonn ( n = 1,986), and Berlin ( n = 2,060) is combined with data on social structure and the size, density, and heterogeneity of local social service organizations at the neighborhood level in hierarchical models. Although the findings show no clear preventive effects of organizational ecology on vulnerability to radicalization, they suggest that local social service organizations are more likely to be effective depending on the extent of local challenges.
... In this vein, authors like Costa (2008) have stressed that mobilizations like the environmental movement are experiencing a new vein of radicalization in their struggle. This seems to corroborate the fact that group identification is one of the main predictive variables of collective action, both normative and non-normative, and with it radicalism (Adam-Troian et al., 2021;Emmelkamp et al., 2020). This study has several strengths, as well as potential limitations. ...
... En esta línea, autores/as como Costa (2008) han destacado que movilizaciones como las ecologistas están viviendo un nuevo impulso de radicalización en su lucha. De esta forma parece corroborarse que la identificación grupal se configura como una de las principales variables predictoras de la acción colectiva, tanto normativa como no normativa y, con ello, del radicalismo (Adam-Troian et al., 2021;Emmelkamp et al., 2020). ...
Group identification has been proven to be one of the best predictors of social protest, as it seems to influence the relationship between mobilization and radicalism, an issue that has scarcely been researched to date. The purpose of this study, within the framework of the new dynamics of proactive mobilization, is to analyse the mediating role of group identification in the intention of radicalism, comparing social movements with a power orientation (political) and with a cultural orientation (ecofeminisms). Causal models were used to evaluate the mediating role of group identification in the relationship between social participation and radicalism in 920 participants from the general population. We found the existence of two action models in the relationship between participation and radicalism. In the case of political participation, the direct effects between the two variables are higher. However, in the case of ecofeminisms, the indirect effects are higher via self-categorization with the group. Group identification appears as a mediating variable in radicalization processes, especially in movements with a cultural orientation.
... Despite being the age group at the highest risk of supporting violent radicalization, research targeting adolescents from a primary prevention perspective is still very limited in the field (Jahnke et al., 2023). Several meta-analyses on violent radicalization processes have been published in recent years to document risk and protective factors (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Jahnke et al., 2022;Jahnke et al., 2023;Wolfowicz et al., 2020;Zych & Nasaescu, 2022). However, such studies relied on a limited evidence base and led sometimes to inconsistent findings (Jahnke et al., 2023). ...
... According to the General Strain theory (Agnew, 1992), experiences of discrimination and victimization in society are grievances associated with higher support for violent radicalization, contributing to one's feeling of injustice and deprivation (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Jahnke et al., 2022). Such adverse experiences and feelings of injustice could in turn lead in some cases to the justification and legitimization of the use of violence (Nivette et al., 2017) and discourage non-violent forms of activism (Becker, 2021). ...
Although support for violent and non-violent radicalization can co-occur, only a few adolescents who support non-violent radicalization also support or engage in violent acts. Yet, little is known about what factors are associated with adolescents’ paths towards or away from violent and/or non-violent radicalization. Within a socio-ecological and positive youth development framework, this study investigates profiles of support for violent and non-violent radicalization among adolescents attending high schools in Quebec (Canada) and whether such profiles are differently associated with experiences of social adversity, school-, family- and peer-related factors and psychological distress. Adolescents (N = 1911; Mage = 15.7; SDage = 0.98; 48.7% girls) completed an online survey during school hours. A Latent Profile Analysis on scores of support for violent and non-violent radicalization was conducted. A multinomial logistic regression was used to explore the associations between profiles and variables of interest. We identified six profiles of adolescents. The heterogeneity of profiles suggested multiple and complex combinations of support for violent and non-violent radicalization as well as their co-existence in some but not all profiles. Adolescents who reported less discrimination, more positive school experiences and more family support were less likely to belong to profiles that supported violence. Primary prevention efforts in the field of support for violent radicalization must adopt a socio-ecological and social justice approach and consider the diversity of adolescents’ profiles, attitudes and experiences.
... Therefore, any approach to the reality of radicalization in young immigrants must be based on a processual and multidimensional approach open to the many factors that influence its development (Emmelkamp, et al., 2020;Moyano, 2019;Wolfowicz, et al., 2019). According to Páimes, et al. (2021) there is no single causal root that allows us to explain the process of violent radicalization in a reductionist way. ...
... Although there is no single definition, radicalization refers to a process of changes developed at the individual, group or mass level (McCauley & Moskalenko, 2008) that direct people towards support and sacrifice for a certain cause. This process is influenced by various contributing factors (Emmelkamp, et al., 2020) such as unmet needs, perceived conflict, perceived injustice or sensation seeking, especially among younger people. There are also other factors that could act as protectors against the potential recruitment of such young people, among which numerous studies highlight social inclusion policies, social support, development opportunities, critical thinking, cultural intelligence and a moral education anchored in values of coexistence, tolerance and respect (e.g. ...
El fenómeno de radicalización extremista constituye una realidad en continuo cambio y preocupación entre nuestras sociedades, alertando numerosos estudios sobre la situación de colectivos de menores pertenecientes a entornos vulnerables, como los jóvenes inmigrantes, que se encuentran expuestos a su captación y reclutamiento. Se realiza el presente trabajo a través de un estudio Delphi con la finalidad de ofrecer una mayor comprensión del proceso de radicalización en estos jóvenes. En el estudio participan trece panelistas, seleccionados de manera discrecional entre personas profesionales expertas en intervención social con jóvenes inmigrantes y académicas e investigadoras de reconocida relevancia en procesos de radicalización. Tomando como referencia la herramienta VERA-2, los expertos muestran su grado de acuerdo respecto a la relevancia y presencia de los factores asociados al proceso de radicalización en jóvenes inmigrantes tanto de opinión como de acción. En general, los resultados alcanzan mayores niveles de acuerdo respecto a la presencia de factores actitudinales tales como el odio, frustración, rechazo hacia la sociedad y sus valores, problemas de identidad colectiva y percepción de injusticia. Se identifica que dichos factores aparecen con mayor fuerza en los momentos iniciales en los que los jóvenes comienzan a relacionarse con el mundo extremista, tanto en la radicalización de la opinión como de la acción, pudiéndose establecer a partir de ellos indicadores para la detección de posibles procesos de captación. Con los resultados obtenidos se espera sumar nuevas orientaciones en las prácticas y políticas que favorezcan la prevención del extremismo violento entre los jóvenes inmigrantes.
... For example, Schuurman (2020) found that the use of primary data has risen considerably during this period, and there has also been a significant rise in the range of data-collection strategies and techniques used by the scholarly community. Recent meta-analyses and systematic reviews of the discipline have also revealed the current knowledge in this scholarly field and provided a good account of the knowledge applied to the risk factors and protection of radicalization (Campelo et al., 2018;Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Lösel et al., 2018;Trujillo & Moyano, 2019;Wolfowicz et al., 2020). ...
... A modo de ejemplo, Schuurman (2020) encontró que el uso de datos primarios ha aumentado durante este período de forma considerable, y también se ha producido un incremento considerable en lo referido a la diversidad de estrategias y técnicas de recogida de datos utilizadas por la comunidad científica. Recientes meta-análisis y revisiones sistemáticas sobre la disciplina también han puesto de manifiesto el conocimiento actual en este campo científico, ofreciendo buena cuenta del conocimiento aplicado sobre los factores de riesgo y protección de la radicalización (Campelo et al., 2018;Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Lösel et al., 2018;Trujillo & Moyano, 2019;Wolfowicz et al., 2020). ...
One of the major challenges facing humanity is understanding the psychosocial mechanisms that underlie radicalization in order to effectively deal with its shift towards violent extremism and terrorism. From a scientific standpoint, there have been major theoretical-conceptual and technical-methodological advances which have led to the development of a significant corpus of evidence-based knowledge on these topics. Nowadays, the challenge posed by coping with radicalization into violent extremism is shifting the priority to preventive approaches geared at improving professional practice and proactive decision-making. This monograph takes stock of the current state of the issue and contains four empirical studies grounded in social psychology in an effort to shed light on some current lines of research and their potential applications in the field of security
(Uno de los grandes retos para la Humanidad es afrontar la radicali-zación que lleva al extremismo violento y el terrorismo. Desde un punto de vista científico, en las dos últimas décadas se han desarrollado importantes avances teórico-conceptuales, se han construido instrumentos de evaluación del riesgo y se ha aportado un corpus de evidencia científica apreciable. A día de hoy, los retos sociales emergentes y la importancia de priorizar enfoques preventivos exigen que este ámbito de estudio continúe informando la práctica profesional y la toma de decisiones. El presente monográfico realiza un balance del estado actual de la cuestión y ofrece ejemplos de investigaciones empíricas desde la Psicología Social, tratando de visibilizar algunas líneas de investigación y sus potenciales aplicaciones en el campo de la seguridad).
... violent extremism). Moreover, Emmelkamp et al.'s meta-analysis 30 was not considered, because it focuses on radicalisation among juveniles. ...
This integrative review aims to inform research, policy and practice at the tertiary level of prevention targeting radicalised individuals, whether they have acted on their radicalisation or not. It stresses the need to respond to the terrorist threat with a multilevel and interdisciplinary evidence-based approach in order to account for the complexity of the issue. To do so, drawing from the socio-ecological model of violence, we categorise across four levels of analysis (i.e. individual, relationship, community, and societal) the risk and protective factors associated with violent extremism and reported in the existent systematic reviews and meta-analyses on this issue. As a result, we observe an overemphasis on the study of individual factors, with a few relationship factors, and no community or societal factors reported. To address this limitation, we emphasise the need for future studies to focus on risk and protective factors across the four levels of analysis. We also suggest future systematic reviews and meta-analyses to focus on qualitative data. Finally, based on the individual and relationship factors identified in the examined systematic reviews and meta-analyses, but also on the community and societal factors identified in narrative reviews, we propose a socio-ecological model of violent extremism. Keywords: Preventing violent extremism, behavioural radicalisation, risk and protective factors, socio-ecological model of violence, evidence-based practice.
... While this indicator is not inherently indicative of radicalism or extremism, it is included here as a potential facilitator. Existing research suggests that perceived in-group injustice and discrimination have an effect on radicalization, or at least are more prevalent among those with radical ideologies (Emmelkamp et al. 2020). However, it is important to note that discussions of victimhood are also a part of regular public discourse and political debate, particularly for marginalized groups. ...
This study explores the representation of radical and anti-radical ideologies among German Islamic TikTok creators, analyzing 2983 videos from 43 accounts through qualitative content analysis. The results reveal two main content clusters: religious practice involving social/lifestyle issues and political activism around Muslim grievances. Victimization, found in 150 videos, was the most common indicator associated with radicalization and emerged as a source of political activism and subversive discourse. Overall, indicators of radicalism were scarce, suggesting that visible mainstream Islamic creators do not exhibit high levels of radical ideology. However, this also reflects a selection bias in the design of this study, which systematically overlooks fringe actors. In addition, religious advocacy was the most common topic (1144 videos), serving as a source of guidance and motivation, but was occasionally linked to sectarianism and rigid religious interpretations. Male creators posted more religious/theological videos; female creators posted more lifestyle videos. However, gender distinctions are limited due to the low representation of female creators (6). Some topics, such as the hijab, served as an intersection between religious practice and politicized narratives. This study highlights TikTok’s role in promoting diverse ideological views and shaping community engagement, knowledge sharing, and political mobilization within Germany’s Muslim digital landscape.
... Throughout the literature, innumerable studies have been conducted to understand the risk factors causing juvenile delinquency from theoretical and statistical perspectives, but very few have utilized more comprehensive and recent methods such as structural equation models (van Dijk et al., 2020), panel data analysis (Dutta et al., 2020), meta-analysis (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Geerlings et al., 2020), and machine learning methods (Pelham et al., 2020;Ucuz et al., 2020). No study, however, can be identified that utilizes multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) methods. ...
Juvenile delinquency is the consequence of complex and comprehensive interactions with multiple risk factors. The experimental research highlighted that the public authorities have conducted tremendous efforts to determine juveniles at risk of delinquency and the factors related to delinquency, as well. Nevertheless , the basic research gap is to investigate which risk factor is more significant than others for allocating the limited resources and efforts. To close this gap, in this study, the Full Consistency Method (FUCOM) was utilized to determine the significance degrees of factors that cause juvenile delinquency. The findings indicate that the most significant risk factors causing juvenile delinquency are out and away "Family" and "Economic and Social Factors Relevant factors are of vital importance in determining both the social aspects and broader perspective on juvenile delinquency. In the planning phase of strategies to be developed for the prevention of juvenile delinquency, it is defined, which risk factor may be focused on to what extent, and which risk factor should be allocated more resources and effort to prevent juvenile delinquency more effectively. Besides, it has been concluded that the FUCOM method can be utilized effectively for juvenile delinquency decision-making analysis.
... Jugendliche gelten als besonders gefährdete Gruppe für Radikalisierungsprozesse, da sie nach Zugehörigkeit, Anerkennung und Identität streben (Greve 2007). Einige Risikofaktoren für Radikalisierung -wie Identitätsprobleme und andere psychosoziale Aspekte -spielen in der Adoleszenz eine besonders wichtige Rolle (Emmelkamp et al. 2020). Sie können durch die biologische und psychologische Entwicklung von Heranwachsenden verursacht werden und sind daher in dieser Altersgruppe häufig anzutreffen. ...
Die Nutzung des Internets durchzieht den Alltag Jugendlicher. Diese technologische Entwicklung geht mit einer Vielzahl an positiven neuen Möglichkeiten einher. Allerdings können insbesondere soziale Medien für Jugendliche ein Risiko darstellen, in Radikalisierungsprozesse hineinzugeraten. In der Forschung wurde bislang kaum betrachtet, welche spezifischen Online-Aktivitäten zu einer Radikalisierung führen bzw. mit ihr einhergehen. Der Zusammenhang zwischen rechtsextremen Einstellungen und verschiedenen Online-Aktivitäten wie Konsum von Internetseiten, Vernetzung und Posting rechter Inhalte wird in diesem Beitrag geschlechtsspezifisch untersucht, da sowohl das Online-Verhalten als auch das Ausmass extremistischer Einstellungen bei Jungen und Mädchen unterschiedlich ausgeprägt ist und somit angenommen werden kann, dass auch der Zusammenhang geschlechtsspezifischer Betrachtung bedarf. Es werden Daten einer Schüler:innenbefragung (N = 6.715) herangezogen, die vom Kriminologischen Forschungsinstitut Niedersachsen durchgeführt und vom Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung gefördert wurde. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass rechtsextreme Einstellungen mit dem Konsum politischer Websites in Verbindung stehen (insbesondere bei Jungen). Vernetzung und Posting-Verhalten weisen (unabhängig vom Geschlecht) nur geringe Zusammenhänge mit rechtsextremen Einstellungen auf.
... Often, this is because the far right is ideologically congruent, but consists of a variety of groups with different foci. Other factors that have been identified frequently are a sense of belonging or community (Miller-Idriss, 2009;Miller-Idriss, 2018), the need to be near violence (Tanner and Campana, 2014), a sense of antielitism or the need to challenge the legitimacy of the established order (Schultze et al., 2022), a quest for significance (Kruglanski et al., 2014) or a real or perceived status threat: their perceived relative superiority to others (Emmelkamp et al. 2020). Here, it is important to note that this status threat is frequently related to immigration, the number of immigrants in the region or country, and the perceived decline of White people in a country or region. ...
Radicalization of women within far-right extremist networks is a timely issue. Evidence suggests women’s participation in terrorist activity is likely to grow in the next few years, as extremists continue to find new ways to recruit women. Women’s involvement in far-right extremist networks is greater than frequently thought, yet the underlying radicalization pathways are often understudied. At times, radicalization pathways of women are stereotyped; or women are dismissed due to the perceived complexity of understanding their support for extreme misogynistic networks. Exploring these radicalization pathways is important in understanding deradicalization and preventing and countering violent extremism (P/CVE) practices. Existing research often regards radicalized women as anomalies, deviating from traditional gender norms, meaning policy considerations relating to deradicalization are still based on outdated stereotypes. Far-right extremism is one of the most significant domestic threats currently facing the United States. Leveraging the extant literature on gender and radicalization, this paper provides an overview of women’s presence and radicalization pathways within the contemporary American far right. I present case studies of two women, who have participated in contemporary American far-right extremist networks, providing an in-depth content analysis of their personal social media accounts and secondary sources. I find that these women are motivated by, and radicalized through, perceived threats to their status. Such threats need not be real and can be derived from real political and cultural events, or conspiracy theories. I conclude by arguing that this evidence provides avenues for our understanding of deradicalization pathways.
... Some philosophers attribute juvenile delinquency to family issues, emphasizing parental attitudes, socialization, and family size and structure (Wu, 2023). Socioeconomic circumstances are seen by many scholars as the primary contributors to juvenile criminality (Emmelkamp et al., 2020), while others dispute claims that peer groups and criminal affiliations drive deviant behavior (Wojciechowski, 2019). ...
The current examination focuses on discovering the interplay between spatial variations in adolescent delinquent behavior and neighborhood characteristics in Punjab, Pakistan, across multiple cities. In literature, neighborhood divided into two section, neighborhood structure and neighborhood process. So in this research, researchers measured neighborhood process through the role of family characteristics, peer group influence, and role of mass media while neighborhood structure through spatial variation. Data collected from the juvenile housed in Bahawalpur's Borstal Institution and Juvenile jail through an interview schedule. To find out the relationship between neighborhood characteristics and juvenile delinquency, regression analysis was employed. According to the regression analysis, researcher found that neighborhood have no direct effect on delinquent behavior but through the spatial variation, as a mediating variable, the result of between neighborhood process and delinquent behavior. To encourage open communication, the research recommends that families and guardians stay informed about engaging in activities for children, dedicate meaningful time together, and nurture a close bond.
... In the present study, we focused on two aspects of one's group identities: (a) perceived public collective selfesteem, which reflects the perceived societal value attributed to one's group; and (b) in-group identification, concerning how important one's group identity is for one's self-concept (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992). Meta-analyses and systematic reviews indicate that both higher in-group identification and lower perceived public collective self-esteem are associated with more support for violent radicalization (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Wolfowicz et al., 2020). Higher in-group identification implies that the individual "overidentifies" with a group, cause, or ideology, sometimes at the expense of other groups (Doosje et al., 2016;Hogg et al., 2013). ...
Objective: Group processes and identities play a crucial role in the development of positive attitudes toward violent radicalization (VR). However, we do not know much about the impact of specific group identities on support for violent radicalization and the mechanisms that can explain how such associations unfold. This study investigates the independent and cumulative associations between multiple group identities and support for violent radicalization among Canadian college and university students and the potential moderating role of in-group identification and perceived public collective self-esteem in these associations. Method: Students (N = 5,598; Mage = 22.8; SDage = 7.5; 68.0% women) completed an online survey. Mixed-effects linear regression models and interaction analyses were implemented. Results: Identities related to political, gender, and sexual orientation groups were independently and cumulatively associated with higher support for violent radicalization (polarizing), whereas identities related to religion, profession, ethnicity, age, or leisure activities were cumulatively associated with lower support for violent radicalization (nonpolarizing). Identities related to religion and profession were independently associated with lower support for violent radicalization. The magnitude of associations between cumulative polarizing identities and support for violent radicalization was larger at low levels of perceived public collective self-esteem and high levels of in-group identification. Conclusions: Prevention efforts need to situate students’ identity development within the broader societal context, in a socioecological perspective. Supporting students’ multiple identities is a promising strategy to prevent violent radicalization, if we simultaneously work on local dynamics in order to enhance inclusion in schools and societies.
... Risikofaktoren für Radikalisierung zu betrachten. Dazu wurden in den letzten Jahren zahlreiche Studien und Metaanalysen vorgelegt (Emmelkamp et al. 2020, McGilloway et al. 2015, Wolfowicz et al. 2020, die die verschiedenen Einflussfaktoren auf die Wahrscheinlichkeit bzw. Anfälligkeit für Radikalisierung ermitteln. ...
... Die Auswahl der Items und Skalen zur Messung der proximalen Radikalisierungsfaktoren und die Konstruktion des CTC:RP-Moduls basierten einerseits auf einer intensiven Literaturrecherche zu bestätigten Risiko-und Schutzfaktoren für Radikalisierungsprozesse und extremistische Einstellungen/Orientierungen mit besonderem Fokus auf Jugendliche und junge Menschen (z.B. Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Jahnke, Abad Borger & Beelmann, 2022;Lösel, 2021;Wolfowicz et al., 2020). Zum anderen wurden international anerkannte diagnostische Verfahren und Risiko-Assessment-Instrumente wie zum Beispiel das IVPG (Identifying Vulnerable People Guidance, Egan et al., 2016), der MDFI (Multi-Dimensional Fundamentalism Inventory, Liht et al., 2011), das MEMS (Militant Extremist Mind-Set, Stankov, Saucier & Knezevic, 2010, das EMI-20 (Extremism Monitoring Instrument, Schmid, 2014) und das VERA-2R (Violent Extremism Risk Assessment Version 2 Revised, Sadowski et al., 2017), gesichtet und bei der Konstruktion und Auswertung berücksichtigt. ...
Der vorliegende Bericht beschreibt Ergebnisse des Projekts Communities-That-Care: Radikalisierungsprozesse (CTC:RP), das im Rahmen des Wissenschafts-Praxis-Transfers zwischen dem Landespräventionsrat (LPR) Niedersachsen (Projekte: Demokratie und Menschenrechte sowie Communities That Care), der Universität Hildesheim und der Friedrich-Schiller-Universität (FSU) Jena durchgeführt wurde. Das Projekt hatte das Ziel, zentrale Radikalisierungsrisiken als Ergänzung zu den CTC-Routineuntersuchungen des LPR Niedersachsen zu erfassen. Zudem sollte mithilfe der Erhebungen das im Rahmen der Kooperation zwischen dem LPR Nieder-sachsen und der FSU Jena konzipierte entwicklungsorientierte Radikalisierungsmodell geprüft werden (vgl. Beelmann et al., 2021). Das Modell nimmt als zentrale Radikalisierungsfaktoren folgende Problembereiche an: Dissozialität, Vorurteile/Intoleranz, Identitätsprobleme und extremistische Narrative/Ideologien.
Das CTC:RP-Erhebungsmodul als Teil der CTC-Jugendbefragung 2021/2022 basiert auf einer Sichtung der internationalen Forschungsliteratur zu anerkannten diagnostischen Verfah-ren zu Radikalisierungsprozessen und einer entsprechenden Pilotuntersuchung an niedersächsischen Jugendlichen und Heranwachsenden. Die genannten Radikalisierungsfaktoren so-wie extremistische Einstellungen wurden jeweils mithilfe mehrerer Fragen erhoben und zu Fragebereichen zusammengefasst. Alle Erhebungsbereiche sowie die dazugehörigen Items und Skalen sind mit ausführlichen Statistiken im Anhang des Berichts dokumentiert. An der CTC-Befragung 2021/2022 haben insgesamt 1.948 Schülerinnen und Schüler unterschiedlicher Schultypen teilgenommen. Für die CTC:RP-Erhebung wurden Schülerinnen und Schüler ab der achten Klasse befragt, was zu einer Teilstichprobe von 1.220 Teilnehmenden führte. Das Durchschnittsalter der Teilnehmenden lag bei 16.7 Jahren (SD = 1.5 Jahre). 45 Prozent der Befragungsteilnehmenden hatten ein männliches, 53 Prozent ein weibliches und 2 Prozent ein diverses Geschlecht. Die Stichprobe bestand größtenteils aus Schülerinnen und Schülern von Gymnasien, berufsbildenden Schulen und Oberschulen. 30 Prozent der Schülerinnen und Schüler gaben einen Migrationshintergrund an.
Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung zeigten, dass eine signifikante Vorhersage von Radikalisierungstendenzen bei Schülerinnen und Schülern in Anlehnung an das Entwicklungsmodell des Extremismus (Beelmann et al., 2021) möglich war. Die zentralen Befunde waren:
• Alle angenommenen Prozesse der Radikalisierung (Dissozialität, Vorurteile/Intoleranz, Identitätsprobleme und Narrative/Ideologien) waren signifikant mit extremistischen Einstellungen und Orientierungen verbunden.
• Dissozialitätsmaße wurden als besonders prädiktive Radikalisierungsfaktoren identifiziert. Ferner zeigten Vorurteile, diskriminierende Verhaltensweisen, Verschwörungsmentalitäten und Ausländerfeindlichkeit deutliche Zusammenhänge mit extremistischen Einstellungen.Die Ausprägungen bei den erhobenen Radikalisierungsfaktoren und den extremistischen Einstellungen waren insgesamt relativ niedrig, d.h. die Anzahl der Teilnehmen-den mit ausgeprägten Risikowerten war relativ gering. Wiesen jedoch die Befragten in allen Radikalisierungsfaktoren hohe Werte auf, war die Wahrscheinlichkeit für extremistische Einstellungen bis um das zehnfache erhöht.
• Statistisch konnten verschiedene Gruppen von Jugendlichen identifiziert werden. Die größte Gruppe (n = 447) war eine ungefährdete Gruppe mit den geringsten Werten in den vier Radikalisierungsfaktoren und den extremistischen Einstellungen/Orientierun-gen. Eine zweite Gruppe (n = 332) zeichnete sich durch eine überdurchschnittliche Aus-prägung auf dem Faktor Dissozialität und geringen Werten in den anderen Faktoren und den Extremismus-Werten aus (sozial deviante Gruppe). Bei der dritten Gruppe (n = 223) konnten die höchsten Werte bei Identitätsproblemen und marginal erhöhte Werte in extremistischen Narrativen/Ideologien festgestellt werden (identitätssuchende Gruppe). Schließlich zeigte eine vierte Gruppe (n = 135) erhöhte Werte auf allen Radikalisierungsfaktoren und weit überdurchschnittliche extremistischen Einstellungen/Orientierungen. Sie konnte als radikalisierungsgefährdete Gruppe eingestuft werden.
• Der Vergleich nach Geschlecht ergab für Jungen höhere Werte für Dissozialität, Vorurteile/Intoleranz und extremistische Einstellungen und Orientierungen. Zudem waren männliche Jugendliche häufiger innerhalb der radikalisierungsgefährdeten Gruppe vertreten, während sich ein höherer Anteil von Mädchen in der unauffälligen und der identitätssuchenden Gruppe zeigte.
Die Befunde der Untersuchung unterstreichen die Bedeutsamkeit einer entwicklungsori-entierten und evidenzbasierten Perspektive in der Extremismus- und Präventionsforschung. Es sollten gezielte Maßnahmen eingeleitet werden, die insbesondere an einflussreichen Radi-kalisierungsfaktoren ansetzen und besonders radikalisierungsgefährdete Gruppen adressieren. Um die kumulative Wirkung der vier Radikalisierungsfaktoren auf extremistische Einstel-lungen/Orientierungen zu verringern, kann es bereits ausreichend sein, an einem einzelnen Faktor präventiv anzusetzen. Entsprechend ergeben sich folgende übergeordnete Handlungs-empfehlungen für die Radikalisierungspraxis und politische Entscheidungsprozesse:
• Beim Thema Radikalisierung und Radikalisierungsprävention ist es wichtig, entwick-lungsorientiert zu denken. Radikalisierungsprozesse entstehen nicht über Nacht, son-dern haben eine Entwicklungsgeschichte, die es ermöglicht, relativ frühzeitig in der Bi-ographie problematische Entwicklungen zu entdecken und präventiv zu reagieren.
• Die Ergebnisse der Studie bestätigen, dass die angenommenen Radikalisierungsfakto-ren bedeutsam und maßgeblich an Radikalisierungsprozessen beteiligt sind. Zugleich bestätigte sich der Befund, dass Einzelfaktoren, so wichtig sie sein mögen, keine hin-reichende Erklärung für Radikalisierungsprozesse bieten. Vielmehr ist der aktuelle Be-lastungsgrad bedeutsam und Multikausalität anzunehmen, zudem existieren vermut-lich verschiedene Wege in die Radikalisierung, die auf einer je unterschiedlichen Kom-bination von Ursachenfaktoren beruhen.Angesichts dieser und anderer Befunde der Radikalisierungsforschung ist für die Prä-ventionsplanung ein differenziertes Vorgehen erforderlich, da nicht alle Kinder und Ju-gendlichen die gleichen Bedürfnisse aufweisen, wie sich auch die unterschiedlichen Anwendungskontexte erheblich unterscheiden können. Ein solches Vorgehen, das eine systematische Erfassung von Risikokonstellationen vor der Präventionsplanung impli-ziert, entspricht dem Vorgehen im Rahmen des CTC-Ansatzes.
• Es existieren bereits heute vielfältige Möglichkeiten, die beschriebenen Radikalisie-rungsprozesse präventiv zu adressieren (Beelmann, 2022a; Beelmann et al., 2021). Allerdings müssen vor der Anwendung neben einer differenziellen Planung einerseits entwicklungsbezogene Überlegungen angestellt werden, um Maßnahmen zu Ent-wicklungszeitpunkten einzusetzen, die sich als besonders günstig erwiesen haben. Andererseits sollten die Maßnahmen bereits ausreichend im Hinblick auf ihre Wirk-samkeit und Evidenz überprüft worden sein (vgl. Beelmann, 2022b).
Die empirische Extremismusforschung steht noch am Anfang und benötigt weitere Untersuchungen, insbesondere längsschnittliche Studien, um Radikalisierungsprozesse besser verste-hen zu können. Zudem müssen geeignete Präventionsmaßnahmen auf Basis dieser Erkennt-nisse weiterentwickelt und systematisch evaluiert werden.
... Following a scoping of the most recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses on risk and protective factors (Emmelkamp et al. 2020;Lösel et al. 2018;Wolfowicz et al. 2020), we synthesized the current state of evidence on what can be considered empirically validated risk and protective factors of VR (see Table 7.1). For meta-analyses, we only considered risk and protective factors with effect sizes of at least .10 ...
... 모든 분석 에서 .05보다 작은 p-값은 통계적으로 유의한 것으로 간주되 었다 (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Geerlings et al., 2020 (Howes et al., 1994;O'Neil & Parke, 2000), 부모와의 관계 (Kochanska, 1992;, Schneider et al., 2001), 부모의 양육방식 (Rohner et al., 2005;Shulman et al., 1994;Smith & Moore, 2012), 부모 간의 갈등 (Eisenberg et al., 1998;Gottman & Katz, 1989 ...
This study examined four ecological systems, namely individual, family, school, and media environments. A series of moderator analyses were conducted to examine variations in effect size estimates across the study characteristics. The current study estimated that the effect size results were gleaned from 360 primary studies, including 90 journal articles and 270 thesis/dissertations, published between 2011 and 2022. The current meta-analysis results supported the ecological framework. That is, the impact of each ecological system on the development of positive and negative peer relationships varies depending on age groups and protective-risk factors. Specifically, for positive peer relationships, the largest effect size of the protective factor was found at the individual level for young and school- aged children, but at the school level for adolescents. Regarding the risk factors for positive peer relationships, the media was the ecological system with the strongest effect size for both young children and adolescents, while the individual-level demonstrating the strongest effect for school-aged children. Results from this meta-analysis allow us to identify some vital intervention areas in terms of healthy peer-relationship development, which should be of considerable interest to the educators and policymakers who are responsible for assessing and intervening with at-risk young children, school-aged children, and adolescents. From a practical standpoint, the current meta-analysis results are expected to contribute to developing effective prevention initiatives by targeting specific protective and risk factors for peer relationship development on the ecological system level.
... The culture of reading the Qur'an is effective in increasing students' ability and interest in reading the Qur'an (Mulhem et al., 2020). Besides that, it can also reduce the number of delinquent students and shape the character of students who are more Islamic and religious (Emmelkamp et al., 2020). ...
Fostering a culture of reading the Qur'an can be a supporting factor in achieving the vision and mission of the madrasah. The development of a culture of reading the Qur'an can also be an effort made by madrasas to help students who have not been able to read the Qur'an properly and correctly. The madrasah principal plays an important role in fostering a culture of reading the Qur'an in the madrasa. This study aims to determine the role of the madrasah principal in fostering a culture of reading the Qur'an at MAN 2 Bandar Lampung. data obtained through the process of interviews, observation, and documentation. Sources of research data were obtained from informants who were trusted and considered capable of answering the problems studied, namely the head of the madrasa, teachers, and students at MAN 2 Bandar Lampung, Indonesia. The research data were analyzed in several stages, namely data reduction, data presentation, data verification, and conclusion. The validity of the research data was tested by triangulating methods and triangulating sources. According to the study's findings, the madrasah program plays the role of the madrasah principal in fostering a culture of Qur'an reading at MAN 2 Bandar Lampung to achieve the madrasah's vision and mission. The leadership of the madrasah principal in fostering a culture of reading the Qur'an at MAN 2 Bandar Lampung can be seen in his role, which always directs the madrasah program to realize the vision and mission of the madrasah. The madrasah principal does several things to foster the reading of the Qur'an with the abilities he has, namely: The ability of the madrasah head in terms of personality is that, as a leader, he is responsible for all the authority in the madrasah.
... Furthermore, as discussed in a recent work by Emmelkamp et al. (2020), due to the specificities of this life period (e.g., change, maturation, development), radicalized youth are at a higher risk for maladaptive life paths that can lead to threats to both themselves and the society. ...
The SPEY project combines sports practice and transversal skills with the aim of reducing the risk factors that can contribute to the process of youth radicalization. In addition, it seeks to improve the channels of integration of young people at risk of exclusion and maintains the gender perspective across the entire project. Taking a scientific and evidence-based perspective, the SPEY project has developed different tools to assess effectiveness.
This guide is the result of several months of work related to the design, implementation, and evaluation of the SPEY project.
... In youth radicalisation research, familial support has been identified as a key feature in determining an individual's resilience against radicalisation as well as integration potential upon release (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Zych & Nasaescu, 2021;Radicalisation Awareness Network;RAN, 2017). In the Singapore programme, young detainees not only receive weekly family visits to ensure they receive sufficient social support, but the rehabilitation stakeholders such as the psychologists and aftercare officers also work closely with their families to strengthen the family system in promoting positive rehabilitation outcomes for them (Koh, 2021b). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated people’s desire for more immersive ways to connect with others. With the creation of the metaverse, some companies (e.g. Google, Microsoft, Apple)have begun experimenting with immersive technologies such as Virtual Reality (VR) and Haptic(i.e. touch) technology where users can navigate metaverse platforms as personalised avatars. Immersive technologies that integrate the physical world with digital or simulated reality enable a user to naturally interact with the blended reality. Against this backdrop, this brief (i) highlights how sexual violence in the metaverse occurs, (ii) examines the psychological impacts of sexual violence in the metaverse, and (iii) discusses implications for sexuality education, and the shared responsibility of digital developers, policymakers, VR headset owners, and society.
... Es decir, el contexto en el que se ven inmersos los individuos puede facilitar los procesos de radicalización. En este sentido, encontramos que son muchos y muy distintos los factores personales y contextuales identificados como facilitadores de radicalización -las tensiones personales, ser víctima de abusos parentales, la ira y el odio, la búsqueda de significado, la fusión de la identidad, la discriminación percibida, los agravios políticos, las actitudes segregacionistas, la desconexión social, los amigos desviados, las actitudes antidemocráticas, la anomia, la delincuencia juvenil, la disposición al autosacrificio, la falta de integración, la carencia de legitimidad, el trastorno de estrés postraumático, contar con poco autocontrol, la exposición a medios de comunicación radicales, los antecedentes penales, la participación en actividades delictivas, el prejuicio y la discriminación por parte del grupo de pares, la polarización social, los barrios marginales, la falta de integración, la falta de oportunidades laborales, las amenazas percibidas, la alienación, la percepción de opresión, y un largo etc.-, que están presentes en el contexto de buena parte de los países europeos y que podrían servir para identificar los principales focos de radicalización en Europa, así como determinar las necesidades para que las intervenciones preventivas tengan un mayor efecto; teniendo en cuenta que la comprensión de estos factores va a ser determinante a la hora de elaborar políticas en materia de prevención (Campelo et al., 2018), (Emmelkamp et al., 2020), (Sikkens et al., 2018) y (Wolfowicz et al., 2021). Ahora bien, la identificación de un largo listado de factores que se repiten en las muestras de individuos que han sufrido un proceso de radicalización violenta no es suficiente para poder conocer cómo se inicia ese proceso y cómo se desarrolla. ...
Desde los atentados del 11 de septiembre de 2001, la prevención de la radicalización violenta se ha ido consolidando como parte de la estrategia de lucha contra el terrorismo. Cada vez son más los Estados de la sociedad internacional, incluidos los Estados miembros de la Unión Europea, los que consideran la radicalización violenta, especialmente de corte yihadista, un problema para su seguridad interna e internacional, prácticamente como la antesala del terrorismo, y diseñan medidas a nivel nacional y, también, en cooperación con otros Estados para hacerle frente. El objetivo de este trabajo consiste en examinar las características de la internacionalización de la prevención de la radicalización violenta de corte yihadista en el marco de la Unión Europea. Para ello, tras determinar el interés de los Estados miembros en cooperar en este ámbito, tradicionalmente de carácter nacional, se abordarán las cuestiones relativas a la indeterminación conceptual de la radicalización violenta. Posteriormente, se pretende identificar y caracterizar los mecanismos e instrumentos ideados para articular este nuevo espacio de cooperación y sus particularidades. Todo ello con el objetivo final de realizar una valoración de los retos que debe afrontar esta arquitectura de cooperación en la que los Estados miembros participan de manera cada vez más activa.
... In addition, the relationship between parents and children changes as adolescents. Some risk factors for radicalization, such as identity problems and other psycho-social aspects, play a particularly important role during adolescence (Benslama, 2017;Emmelkamp et al., 2020). They can be caused by the biological and psychological development of adolescents and are thus common in this age group. ...
Die Radikalisierungsforschung untersucht Faktoren und Bedingungen von Prozessen, die hin zu Extremismus führen können. Ein häufig genannter Faktor ist das Internet. Diese Arbeit untersucht den Zusammenhang zwischen verschiedenen passiven und aktiven Internetaktivitäten, wie das Konsumieren, Vernetzen und Posten mit extremistischen Einstellungen im Bereich Islamismus und Rechtsextremismus bei Jugendlichen. Daten einer Schüler*innenbefragung (N = 6,715) zeigen, dass rechtsextreme Einstellungen insbesondere bei Jungen mit dem Konsum politischer Websites einhergehen, während Posting nur geringe und das Netzwerken keine Zusammenhänge mit rechtsextremen Einstellungen zeigen. Bei islamistischen Einstellungen zeigen sich dagegen Zusammenhänge mit dem Konsum von islamistischen Gewaltvideos, dem Vernetzen mit anderen Muslim*innen und dem Posten islamischer Inhalte.
... Five systematic reviews (Desmarais et al., 2017;Gill et al., 2021;Lösel et al., 2018;Misiak et al., 2019;Vergani et al., 2020) and two meta-analyses (Emmelkamp et al., 2020;Wolfowicz et al., 2020) on risk and protective factors for violent radicalization were found. ...
This is the protocol for a Campbell systematic review. The main objective of this project is to gather, critically appraise, and synthesize evidence about the appropriateness and utility of tools used to assess the risk of violent radicalization.
... Entsprechend existiert eine Reihe von Arbeiten, auch aus dem RadigZ-Verbund, die die mittlerweile sehr umfangreiche wissenschaftliche Fachliteratur zum Themenfeld gesichtet und systematisch auf solche Faktorenkonstellationen radikalisierender Entwicklungen hin geprüft hat (vgl. Emmelkamp et al., 2020;McGilloway, Ghosh & Bhui, 2015;Meleagrou-Hitchens, Alexander & Kaderbhai, 2017;Odag, Leiser & Boehnke, 2019;Vergani et al., 2020;Wolfowicz et al., 2020). Diese Arbeiten konnten in der Zusammenschau wichtige Faktoren identifizieren, die Radikalisierungsprozesse verstärken, indem sie Personen durch eine Einengung der Perspektive oder der Handlungsoptionen für radikale Botschaften empfänglich machen (Push-Faktoren, z.B. ...
Many contemporary researchers agree that group relative deprivation is a driver of political actions against outgroups. However, both relative deprivation and political actions are complex phenomena, making it important to further study this relationship in the context of other relevant variables. One such variable could be the specific outgroup. The purpose of our study was to evaluate differences in the contribution of group relative deprivation to the prediction of activist and radicalised intentions against two outgroups – Muslims and senior citizens. The multi‐group structural equation modelling was applied separately on nationally representative samples of youth from Germany ( N = 1,056), Norway ( N = 376) and the United Kingdom (UK) ( N = 1053). Group relative deprivation exhibited a robust relationship with activist intentions after controlling for general aggression, social desirability bias, age and gender, except in the UK, where the relationship between activist intentions and relative deprivation was stronger with Muslims as the target outgroup. The relationship between relative deprivation and radicalised intentions depended on the target outgroup across countries – it was related to radicalised intentions only against Muslims. The meaning and implications of these results are briefly discussed.
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) significantly impact lifelong health and well-being. Despite extensive research, a comprehensive understanding of ACEs' multifaceted impacts continues to be challenging to achieve. This study synthesizes meta-analytic evidence to provide a comprehensive view of ACEs' effects, addressing various approaches to conceptualizing ACEs and their diverse outcomes. Employing an umbrella synthesis methodology, this review integrated findings from 99 meta-analyses involving 592 effect sizes. We examined ACEs through specificity, lumping, dimensional, and child maltreatment-centric approaches, assessing their impact across six domains: biological system dysregulation, neuropsychological impairments, physical health complications, mental health conditions, social and behavioral challenges, and criminal justice involvement. The findings reveal a small to moderate overall effect size of ACEs across outcome domains. Specific ACE approaches exhibited varying impact levels, with notable differences in effects on mental health, social/behavioral issues, and criminal justice involvement. When ACEs were aggregated without distinguishing between different types, but with consideration of their cumulative effects, adverse outcomes were significantly exacerbated. The child maltreatment-centric approach consistently demonstrated substantial effects across all evaluated domains. This review underscores the heterogeneity in ACEs' impacts, influenced by the type of ACE and specific outcomes considered. It highlights the necessity for comprehensive approaches to understanding, preventing, and mitigating the effects of ACEs. These insights are vital for developing targeted interventions and informing policy-making, emphasizing the complexity and varied nature of ACEs' influence on individual development and societal well-being.
p style="text-align: justify;"> Objective. Elaboration of a model to assess the risk of radicalisation in adolescence.
Background. The problem of radicalisation in adolescence is one of the most important problems in modern society, the search for mechanisms of radicalisation, as well as the development of preventive measures are in the focus of attention of researchers.
Methodology. In the logic of the social identity approach and based on the uncertainty-identity theory of M. Hogg, a model for assessing the risk of radicalisation in adolescence is formulated and outlined.
Conclusion s . The formulated model for assessing the risk of radicalisation in adolescence postulates: individuals with multiple social identities and individuals without multiple social identities differ in groups that attract them (groups that provide them with meaningful positive social identity): those without multiple social identities have a preference for a group that would give them an clear and certain prototype.</p
Resumo O artigo apresenta, com base na literatura especializada, alguns dos conceitos centrais para o debate sobre processos de radicalização política, oferecendo uma visão global a respeito das evidências encontradas em revisões sistemáticas sobre fatores de risco para o fenômeno. O objetivo do trabalho é o de sistematizar conhecimentos que devam ser considerados para o desenvolvimento de uma política pública de desradicadicalização. O tema apresenta especial relevância tendo em conta as ameaças à democracia em curso em vários países, incluindo o Brasil, notadamente pela ação de grupos de extrema direita. Selecionamos para exame as cinco revisões sistemáticas publicadas em inglês pela plataforma Google Scholar, nos últimos dez anos, melhor ranqueadas segundo os critérios bibliométricos do software Publish or Perish (PoP). Em que pese as diferenças metodológicas das revisões examinadas e a presença de fatores de risco já identificados pelos estudos criminológicos contemporâneos, os estudos também encontraram fatores de risco específicos aos processos de radicalização, como o sentimento de injustiça, que podem traduzir situações reais ou imaginárias, o ativismo, a percepção de superioridade do grupo e a distância percebida em relação a outras pessoas, o que atualiza a necessidade da construção de uma agenda de pesquisas latino-americanas sobre o tema.
The aim of the present literature review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the empirical literature on radicalisation leading to extremism. Two research questions are asked: (1) Under what conditions are individuals receptive to extremist groups and their ideology? (2) Under what conditions do individuals engage in extremist acts? A theoretical framework is used to structure the findings. A systematic literature search was conducted including peer-reviewed articles containing primary qualitative or quantitative data. A total of 707 empirical articles were included which used quantitative or qualitative research methods. The findings clearly indicate that no single factor in itself predicts receptiveness to extremist ideas and groups, or engagement in violent behaviour. Rather, factors at different levels of analysis (micro-, meso- and macro-level) interplay in the radicalisation process.
Purpose
The prevalence of cyberstalking, with its substantial harm to victims, highlights the importance of identifying the factors contributing to its occurrence. This study assesses, through an advanced three-level meta-analytic approach, the relative predictive validity of sociodemographic, background, risk, and protective domains of predictors associated with cyberstalking perpetration and victimization.
Methods
In each domain, multiple subdomains were measured for dozens of individual contributing factors. An extensive systematic search yielded 57 eligible studies, describing 54 independent samples between 2002 and 2022 with 515 effect sizes.
Results
Multilevel meta-analysis results revealed that the background domain had the largest composite effect sizes for both cyberstalking perpetration and victimization, followed by the risk domain, whereas sociodemographic and protective domains had no significant effect. According to the moderator analyses, the effect sizes of background and risk domains varied depending on the age of the sample and the country of the data, highlighting the need for future synthesis studies to identify the unique contributing factors to cyberstalking in adult samples from various countries.
Conclusions
Findings from this meta-analysis provide valuable evidence for the development of primary prevention and risk assessment-management, as well as cyberstalking security and guardianship.
Numerous studies have examined the correlates and predictors of campus carry among various campus communities. There were, however, too many risk factors included, raw effect sizes were too small, and the differences in effect sizes were negligible, making comparisons prohibitively difficult or even worthless. To address this issue, a multilevel meta-analysis was conducted to investigate thirteen domains of risk factors as potential predictors of four campus carry-related outcomes including attitudes, intentions, behaviors, and impacts. Thirty-seven studies were included, with 703 effect sizes in a unique population of 55,115 campus members. A series of three-level meta-analyses revealed that different risk domains contribute to different campus carry outcomes. Generally, social life- and campus life-related risk factors were strongly related to campus carry intentions and behaviors, while the political ideology domain influenced both attitudes and behaviors. Statistically significant effects were observed in multiple moderator analyses for the number of universities from which data were collected and sample affiliations, however, these effects were relatively small. An in-depth review of the literature, synthesis of empirical evidence, and discussion of implications provided a clear path for future research and policymaking.
Befördern räumliche Konstellationen Prozesse der Radikalisierung oder können sie ihnen gar entgegenwirken? Im Kontext des Phänomens religiös begründeter Radikalisierung nehmen sich die Beiträger*innen dieser Frage an. Ihre unterschiedlichen Perspektiven aus Wissenschaft und Präventionspraxis stellen das Potenzial resilienter städtischer Räume in den Mittelpunkt, anstatt jene vorrangig als risikobelastet zu beschreiben. Damit leisten sie einen Beitrag zur Zusammenführung der kritischen Stadt- und Radikalisierungsforschung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung genderorientierter, sozialpädagogischer, rassismuskritischer und intersektionaler Ansätze.
Befördern räumliche Konstellationen Prozesse der Radikalisierung oder können sie ihnen gar entgegenwirken? Im Kontext des Phänomens religiös begründeter Radikalisierung nehmen sich die Beiträger*innen dieser Frage an. Ihre unterschiedlichen Perspektiven aus Wissenschaft und Präventionspraxis stellen das Potenzial resilienter städtischer Räume in den Mittelpunkt, anstatt jene vorrangig als risikobelastet zu beschreiben. Damit leisten sie einen Beitrag zur Zusammenführung der kritischen Stadt- und Radikalisierungsforschung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung genderorientierter, sozialpädagogischer, rassismuskritischer und intersektionaler Ansätze.
Terror management theory (TMT) proposes that evoking death-related thoughts (mortality salience; MS) in individuals or groups can lead to stronger worldview defence and greater support for extremist violence. In three experiments, we tested whether an MS manipulation, and associated moderators, increased support for extremist violence. In Australian university students, Study 1 found no statistically significant main or moderated effects for MS on measures of extremist violence. However, participants exposed to the MS manipulation reported increases in conservative religiosity (belief in divine power). In Study 2, the MS manipulation had no significant effect on support for extremist violence for Australian university students primed with an antiviolent extremism norm. And in young Australian Jewish people (Study 3), the MS manipulation did not increase support for violence against migrants. However, there was an increase in support for policies that act to fight against violent extremism in Iraq and Syria in those exposed to the MS manipulation. Across three studies, we find little support for the hypothesis that MS results in increased support for violent extremism. Larger more methodological sound studies are needed to address inconsistencies in the evidence surrounding TMT and the MS hypothesis, at least in regards to violence and extremism.
Objectives
This study examines the influence of collective strain on support for violent extremism among an ethnically diverse sample of Swiss adolescents. This study explores two claims derived from general strain theory: (1) Exposure to collective strain is associated with higher support for violent extremism and (2) the effect of collective strain is conditional on perceptions of moral and legal constraints.
Methods
This study uses data from two waves of the Zurich Project on the Social Development of Children and Youth. We use ordinary least squares procedures to regress violent extremist attitudes at age 17 on strain, moral and legal constraints, and control variables measured at ages 15 to 17. Conditional effects were examined using an interaction term for collective strain and moral neutralization and legal cynicism, respectively.
Results
The results show that collective strain does not have a direct effect on violent extremist attitudes once other variables are controlled. However, the degree to which individuals neutralize moral and legal constraints amplifies the impact of collective strain on violent extremist attitudes.
Conclusions
This study shows that those who already espouse justifications for violence and rule breaking are more vulnerable to extremist violent pathways, particularly when exposed to collective social strife, conflict, and repression.
Background
Currently, terrorism and suicide bombing are global psychosocial processes that attracts a growing number of psychological and psychiatric contributions to enhance practical counter-terrorism measures. The present study is a systematic review that explores the methodological quality reporting and the psychometric soundness of the instruments developed to identify risk factors of terrorism, extremism, radicalisation, authoritarianism and fundamentalism.
Method
A systematic search strategy was established to identify instruments and studies developed to screen individuals at risk of committing extremist or terrorist offences using 20 different databases across the fields of law, medicine, psychology, sociology and politics. Information extracted was consolidated into two different tables and a 26-item checklist, reporting respectively background information, the psychometric properties of each tool, and the methodological quality markers of these tools. 37 articles met our criteria, which included a total of 4 instruments to be used operationally by professionals, 17 tools developed as research measures, and 9 inventories that have not been generated from a study.
Results
Just over half of the methodological quality markers required for a transparent methodological description of the instruments were reported. The amount of reported psychological properties was even fewer, with only a third of them available across the different studies. The category presenting the least satisfactory results was that containing the 4 instruments to be used operationally by professionals, which can be explained by the fact that half of them refrained from publishing the major part of their findings and relevant guidelines.
Conclusions
A great number of flaws have been identified through this systematic review. The authors encourage future researchers to be more thorough, comprehensive and transparent in their methodology. They also recommend the creation of a multi-disciplinary joint working group in order to best tackle this growing contemporary problem.
The aim of this research is to assess the intended level of religious
and political activism and radicalism in a sample of Muslim and Christian
youth living in a marginalised neighbourhood in a southern city in Spain.
Interrelations between activism and radicalism and other psychosocial factors
potentially contributing to religious and political mobilisation processes are
analysed, such as group identification, self-esteem, violent disinhibition,
religious extremism and perceived oppression. Important differences in religious
and national identification were found. Muslims scored higher in a
statistically significant way on various indicators of religious extremism.
Both perceived oppression and shared ideology inside the endogroup seem
to be contributing factors to having an intention of radicalism in the Muslim
group where social identity anchored in religion prevails. These results point
to the fact that there is a polarisation that can serve as the threshold of conflict
and radical mobilisation in the critical context analysed. The results are
discussed within the framework of previous research into psychology of
radicalisation and terrorism.
Keywords: activism; mobilisation; oppression; radicalism; religion; terrorism
Across 5 decades, hundreds of randomized trials have tested psychological therapies for youth internalizing (anxiety, depression) and externalizing (misconduct, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder) disorders and problems. Since the last broad-based youth meta-analysis in 1995, the number of trials has almost tripled and data-analytic methods have been refined. We applied these methods to the expanded study pool (447 studies; 30,431 youths), synthesizing 50 years of findings and identifying implications for research and practice. We assessed overall effect size (ES) and moderator effects using multilevel modeling to address ES dependency that is common, but typically not modeled, in meta-analyses. Mean posttreatment ES was 0.46; the probability that a youth in the treatment condition would fare better than a youth in the control condition was 63%. Effects varied according to multiple moderators, including the problem targeted in treatment: Mean ES at posttreatment was strongest for anxiety (0.61), weakest for depression (0.29), and nonsignificant for multiproblem treatment (0.15). ESs differed across control conditions, with “usual care” emerging as a potent comparison condition, and across informants, highlighting the need to obtain and integrate multiple perspectives on outcome. Effects of therapy type varied by informant; only youth-focused behavioral therapies (including cognitive-behavioral therapy) showed similar and robust effects across youth, parent, and teacher reports. Effects did not differ for Caucasian versus minority samples, but more diverse samples are needed. The findings underscore the benefits of psychological treatments as well as the need for improved therapies and more representative, informative, and rigorous intervention science.
Applying a multilevel approach to meta-analysis is a strong method for dealing with dependency of effect sizes. However, this method is relatively unknown among researchers and, to date, has not been widely used in meta-analytic research. Therefore, the purpose of this tutorial was to show how a three-level random effects model can be applied to meta-analytic models in R using the rma.mv function of the metafor package. This application is illustrated by taking the reader through a step-by-step guide to the multilevel analyses comprising the steps of (1) organizing a data file; (2) setting up the R environment; (3) calculating an overall effect; (4) examining heterogeneity of within-study variance and between-study variance; (5) performing categorical and continuous moderator analyses; and (6) examining a multiple moderator model. By example, the authors demonstrate how the multilevel approach can be applied to meta-analytically examining the association between mental health disorders of juveniles and juvenile offender recidivism. In our opinion, the rma.mv function of the metafor package provides an easy and flexible way of applying a multi-level structure to meta-analytic models in R. Further, the multilevel meta-analytic models can be easily extended so that the potential moderating influence of variables can be examined.
Using terror management theory, we examined whether mortality salience (MS; death-related cognitions) increased support for religious and political extremism and/or violent extremism in young Indonesian Muslims. Muslim and non-Muslim Indonesian students studying in Australia were randomized to an MS or control condition. Following completion of a distracter task, participants were asked to rate their agreement/disagreement with another Indonesian Muslim student’s (bogus) statements toward extremist views and violent extremist actions. After controlling for alienation, Muslim students in the MS condition reported significantly higher levels of support for extremist views than did non-Muslims. There was no significant effect of MS on violent extremist action in either Muslims or non-Muslims. The results suggest that reminders of death (MS) may lead young Muslims to be more supportive of politically and religiously extreme views, but not violent action. Our findings lend partial support to previous research in Iranian Muslim students; however, further research is needed to establish factors that can result in increased support for violent extremism.
This study examines a factor that has thus far received little attention in research on attitudes toward violent in-group defense, namely, the role of perceived parental ethnic socialization. We hypothesized that perceived parental ethnic socialization (i.e., cultural socialization, egalitarianism, bias/mistrust) affects attitudes toward violence in defense of the in-group by others as well as willingness to use such violence oneself via its influence on collective identity factors (in-group connectedness, collective deprivation, religious superiority, connectedness with mainstream society). We analyzed a sample of children of Turkish Muslim migrants in the Netherlands. The data came from a survey conducted among pupils at 7 secondary schools (age 14-18, N = 133). Results show that perceived parental ethnic socialization has an indirect effect on attitudes toward and willingness to use a violent in-group defense that runs via the collective identity factors. Perceived parental socialization that emphasizes equality is related to less willingness to use violent in-group defense. Perceived parental messages of mistrust of the other and preparation for bias were associated with a more positive attitude toward violent in-group defense by others and toward willingness to use such violence. Perceived cultural socialization correlates positively with attitude toward violent in-group defense by others and willingness to use violent in-group defense. The total size of the indirect effects of perceived parental ethnic socialization was modest. We did not find a direct effect of perceived parental socialization. (PsycINFO Database Record
Checklist-based screening instruments have a role in the assessment of mentally disordered and criminal offenders, but their value for screening for vulnerability to violent extremism remains moot. This study examined the effectiveness of using the Identifying Vulnerable People (IVP) guidance to identify serious violence in persons convicted or killed in the process of committing a violent-extremist offense using open-source intelligence (i.e., publicly available archival material). Of 182 specific participants identified, specific offense data was available for 157 individuals. Blind kappas for individual items of the 16-item IVP guidance ranged from 0.67 to 1.00. IVP guidance was more reliable when applied to conventional terrorist groups, but missing information significantly reduced reliability. Weighting items thought more central to violent extremism (death rhetoric, extremist group membership, contact with recruiters, advanced paramilitary training, overseas combat) did not improve reliability or prediction. Although the total unweighted IVP score predicted some acts of violence, test effectiveness statistics suggested IVP guidance was most effective as a negative predictor of grave outcomes, and best applicable to conventional ideological violent extremists who came to this position through typical “terrorist” trajectories. Results suggest the IVP guidance has potential value as an initial screening tool, but must be applied appropriately to persons of interest, is strongly dependent on the integrity and completeness of information, and does not supercede human-led risk assessment of the case and acute risk states.
This paper describes a methodology developed by the National Offender Management Service (NOMS) to assess risk and needs in convicted extremist offenders in England and Wales, and for the assessment of those offenders for whom there are credible concerns about their potential to commit such offences. A methodology was needed to provide an empirically-based systematic and transparent approach to the assessment of risk to inform proportionate risk management; increase understanding and confidence amongst front-line staff and decision-makers, and facilitate effective and targeted intervention. It outlines how the methodology was developed, the nature of the assessment, its theoretical underpinnings, the challenges faced and how these have been addressed. Learning from casework with offenders, from government commissioned research and the wider literature is presented in the form of 22 general factors (with an opportunity to capture additional idiosyncratic factors, i.e., 22+) that contribute to an individual formulation of risk and needs that bears on three dimensions of engagement, intent and capability. The relationship of this methodology, the Extremism Risk Guidelines (ERG 22+) with comparable guidelines, the Violent Extremism Risk Assessment 2 (VERA version 2) and the Multi-Level Guidelines (MLG), is also discussed. This paper also considers the ERG’s utility, validity and limitations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved)
Based on an in-depth literature review, Research Fellow Dr. Alex P. Schmid explores the terms “radicalisation”, “de-radicalisation” and “counter-radicalisation” and the discourses surrounding them. Much of the literature on radicalisation focuses on Islamist extremism and jihadist terrorism. This is also reflected in this Research Paper which explores the relationship between radicalisation, extremism and terrorism. Historically, “radicalism” – contrary to “extremism” – does not necessarily have negative connotations, nor is it a synonym for terrorism. Schmid argues that both extremism and radicalism can only be properly assessed in relation to what is mainstream political thought in a given period. The paper further explores what we know well and what we know less well about radicalisation. It proposes to explore radicalisation not only on the micro-level of “vulnerable individuals” but also on the meso-level of the “radical milieu” and the macro-level of “radicalising public opinion and political parties”. The author reconceptualises radicalisation as a process that can occur on both sides of conflict dyads and challenges several widespread assumptions. The final section examines various counter-radicalisation and deradicalisation programmes. It concludes with a series of policy recommendations.
The present study aims to understand when and how acts of terrorism are supported and denounced by Islamic fundamentalists in Indonesia. We predicted that the belief in establishing Islam peacefully and rationalization of violent action would moderate the Islamic fundamentalism–support for acts of terrorism relationship. The result of the research of 309 Muslim participants shows that the relationship between Islamic fundamentalism and support for terrorism acts was positively significant for Muslims holding low belief in establishing Islam peacefully and high rationalization of violent attack. However, the relationship was negatively significant at high level of belief in establishing Islam peacefully and rationalization of violent attack. The findings indicate that Islamic fundamentalism may potentially support violent as well as nonviolent acts under some certain conditions.
Quantitative results are reported of a longitudinal evaluation of a resilience training as a possible method to prevent violent radicalization (Diamant; SIPI, 2010). A total of 46 male and female Muslim adolescents and young adults with a migrant background participated. Results show that the training significantly increased participants' reports of agency and a marginal increase was found in reported self-esteem, empathy and perspective taking but also narcissism. Attitudes toward ideology-based violence and own violent intentions were significantly lower after the training than before. Higher reports of empathy were related to less positive attitudes toward ideology-based violence. These results suggest that an intervention aimed at empowering individuals in combination with strengthening empathy is successful in countering violent radicalization.
In this short essay, we introduce readers to a special issue of Terrorism and Political Violence on criminological approaches to the study of terrorism. In addition to summarizing the eight articles in the issue, we outline some general points about the relationship between criminological thinking and our understanding of terrorism. Our goal is to place the special issue's contributions in context and highlight under-explored issues that future research could address.
The purpose of this systematic review is to examine the scholarly literature on
the process(es) of radicalisation, particularly among young people, and the
availability of interventions to prevent extremism
Gender differences are found in most studies on right-wing extremism, but explanations for this phenomenon are not clear. A number of authors take gender-specific differences in the expression of right-wing extremism as grounds for arguing that such orientations are not measured adequately among women. The result is a major problem in the interpretation of intergroup differences: Are such differences real, or are they caused by other influences or biases? From a methodological viewpoint, one could argue that this is a problem of equivalence of meaning. Our data are taken from a study of youths conducted in West Germany in 1991. Integrating considerations of cross-cultural research, we show that gender differences in right-wing extremism are found even after controlling for the influence of different modes of expression (in statistical terms) of nonequivalent measurement instruments.
In meta-analysis, dependent effect sizes are very common. An example is where in one or more studies the effect of an intervention is evaluated on multiple outcome variables for the same sample of participants. In this paper, we evaluate a three-level meta-analytic model to account for this kind of dependence, extending the simulation results of Van den Noortgate, López-López, Marín-Martínez, and Sánchez-Meca Behavior Research Methods, 45, 576-594 (2013) by allowing for a variation in the number of effect sizes per study, in the between-study variance, in the correlations between pairs of outcomes, and in the sample size of the studies. At the same time, we explore the performance of the approach if the outcomes used in a study can be regarded as a random sample from a population of outcomes. We conclude that although this approach is relatively simple and does not require prior estimates of the sampling covariances between effect sizes, it gives appropriate mean effect size estimates, standard error estimates, and confidence interval coverage proportions in a variety of realistic situations.
This article examines key setting events and personal factors that are associated with support for either non-violent activism or violent activism among Somali refugee young adults in the United States. Specifically, this article examines the associations of trauma, stress, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), posttraumatic growth (PTG), strength of social bonds, and attitudes towards legal and non-violent vs. illegal and violent activism. Structured interviews were conducted with a sample of Somali refugee males ages 18–25 living in the northeastern United States (N = 79). Data were analyzed using multiple linear regressions and path analysis. Greater exposure to personal trauma was associated with greater openness to illegal and violent activism. PTSD symptoms mediated this association. Strong social bonds to both community and society moderated this association, with trauma being more strongly associated with openness to illegal and violent activism among those who reported weaker social bonds. Greater exposure to trauma, PTG, and stronger social bonds were all associated with greater openness to legal non-violent activism.
This study uses a representative population (N=3331) of East German mainstream adolescents to examine how the competing worldviews of environmentalism and right-wing extremism differently structure social justice beliefs. Integrating three theoretical considerations (object of worry, scope of justice, and underlying values) it suggests that these two worldviews have implicit assumptions that associate them in subtler ways with some specific conceptions of justice. The environmentalist worldview was found to be associated with egalitarianism, which may be explained by environmentalism's concern with societal and global problems, its broad inclusionary scope of justice, and the self-transcendent values it advocates. In contrast, right-wing extremism was found to be associated with anti-egalitarianism, which can be attributed to its concern with the welfare of the in-group, its relative narrow exclusionary scope of justice, and its self-interest values of competition and individualism. After controlling for the possible effects of gender and socioeconomic status, these claims were mostly supported by hierarchical regression empirical analyses. Moreover, findings showed that endorsement of the environmentalist stance is more common than endorsement of the right-wing extremist stance. Finally, females tend to endorse the environmentalist stance and prefer egalitarianism, while males tend to endorse the right-wing extremist stance and prefer the equity principle. Further internal and external validation of the constructs by means of the examination of their nomological network is recommended. Moreover, results of this study are discussed in light of globalization processes and recent developments regarding a "third position," according to which pro-environmental and right-wing extremist views are intermingled, i.e., right-wing extremist groups can advocate a pro-environmental view just as pro-environmental groups can adopt a right-wing extremist position.
Publication bias is a serious problem in meta-analysis. Various methods have been developed to detect the presence of publication bias in meta-analysis. These methods have been assessed and compared in many dichotomous studes utilizing the log-odds ratio as the measure of effect. This study evaluates and compares the performance of three popular methods, namely the Egger's linear regression method, the Begg and Mazumdar's rank correlation method and the Duval and Tweede's trim and fill method on meta-analysis of continuous data. The data comprised simulated meta-analyses with different levels of primary studies in the absence and presence of induced publication bias. The performances of these methods were measured through the power and type 1 error rate for the tests. The results suggest the trim and fill method to be superior in terms of its ability to detect publication bias when it exists, even in presence of only 5% unpublished studes. However, this method is not recommended for large meta-analysis as it produces high rate of false-positive results. Both linear regression and rank correlation method performed relatively well in moderate bias but should be avoided in small meta-analysis as their power is vely low in this data.
In discourse about countering terrorism, the term "radicalization" is widely used, but remains poorly defined. To focus narrowly on ideological radicalization risks implying that radical beliefs are a proxy—or at least a necessary precursor—for terrorism, though we know this not to be true.Different pathways and mechanisms of terrorism involvement operate in different ways for different people at different points in time and perhaps in different contexts. This article explores the problems in defining radicalization and radicalism, and suggests that radicalization—and more specifically, involvement in terrorism—might best be viewed as a set of diverse processes. It goes on to review several potentially promising theories that might support further study of those processes, including social movement theory, social psychology, and conversion theory. Finally, it describes some possible frameworks for understanding how the processes might facilitate terrorism-related behavior.
This article conceptualizes political radicalization as a dimension of increasing extremity of beliefs, feelings, and behaviors in support of intergroup conflict and violence. Across individuals, groups, and mass publics, twelve mechanisms of radicalization are distinguished. For ten of these mechanisms, radicalization occurs in a context of group identification and reaction to perceived threat to the ingroup. The variety and strength of reactive mechanisms point to the need to understand radicalization—including the extremes of terrorism—as emerging more from the dynamics of intergroup conflict than from the vicissitudes of individual psychology.
Meta-analysis is an indispensable tool used to synthesize research findings in the social, educational, medical, management, and behavioral sciences. Most meta-analytic models assume independence among effect sizes. However, effect sizes can be dependent for various reasons. For example, studies might report multiple effect sizes on the same construct, and effect sizes reported by participants from the same cultural group are likely to be more similar than those reported by other cultural groups. This article reviews the problems and common methods to handle dependent effect sizes. The objective of this article is to demonstrate how 3-level meta-analyses can be used to model dependent effect sizes. The advantages of the structural equation modeling approach over the multilevel approach with regard to conducting a 3-level meta-analysis are discussed. This article also seeks to extend the key concepts of Q statistics, I2, and R2 from 2-level meta-analyses to 3-level meta-analyses. The proposed procedures are implemented using the open source metaSEM package for the R statistical environment. Two real data sets are used to illustrate these procedures. New research directions related to 3-level meta-analyses are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
We examined various group identifications among Lebanese Muslims and Christians after the events of September 11 2001 and how these identifications related to social dominance orientation (SDO) and support for violence against the West. We expected stronger identification with less powerful groups to be associated with lower SDO (i.e. greater desires for group equality), and stronger support for terrorist organizations and violent acts against powerful nations. Consistent with these expectations, we found that SDO related negatively to identification with Arabs, and this group identification related positively to support for terrorist organizations and feelings that the September 11 attack was justified. Furthermore, we found that the direct negative effect of SDO on support for terrorism was mediated by Arab identification. Efforts to reduce conflict are discussed in terms of recognizing the anti-dominance elements of Arab identification in Lebanon, and the powerful implications that this subordinate group identification has for continued support of terrorist organizations and violence against the West.
This report consists of a literature review and analysis of the existing research concerning countering violent extremism. This multifaceted report demonstrates the complexity of understanding Violent Extremism and best strategies to Countering Violent Extremism. This has been undertaken with the broader analysis of radicalisation and social cohesion theories, models and government policies and how they may impact on or contribute to best practice and policy in countering violent extremism.
In this paper we review and extend measures of political mobilization: the increasing extremity of beliefs, feelings, and behaviors in support of inter-group conflict. Building on previous research, we introduce the Activism and Radicalism Intention Scales (ARIS). The Activism Intention Scale assesses readiness to participate in legal and non-violent political action, whereas the Radicalism Intention Scale assesses readiness to participate in illegal or violent political action. In ad-hoc samples of U.S. and Ukrainian undergraduates, and in an Internet panel survey representative of the U.S. population, Activism and Radicalism intentions formed two correlated but distinguishable dimensions. The popular “conveyor belt” metaphor of radicalization (implying that activism leads easily to radicalism and that most radicals emerge from activism) found only mixed support in our results. Discussion suggests the potential usefulness of the ARIS for learning about how individuals move from political attitudes and beliefs to political action, including political violence and terrorism.
Examines research on the relation between attitude and behavior in light of the correspondence between attitudinal and behavioral entities. Such entities are defined by their target, action, context, and time elements. A review of available empirical research supports the contention that strong attitude–behavior relations are obtained only under high correspondence between at least the target and action elements of the attitudinal and behavioral entities. This conclusion is compared with the rather pessimistic assessment of the utility of the attitude concept found in much contemporary social psychological literature. (4½ p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
For any given research area, one cannot tell how many studies have been conducted but never reported. The extreme view of the "file drawer problem" is that journals are filled with the 5% of the studies that show Type I errors, while the file drawers are filled with the 95% of the studies that show nonsignificant results. Quantitative procedures for computing the tolerance for filed and future null results are reported and illustrated, and the implications are discussed. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article describes what should typically be included in the introduction, method, results, and discussion sections of a meta-analytic review. Method sections include information on literature searches, criteria for inclusion of studies, and a listing of the characteristics recorded for each study. Results sections include information describing the distribution of obtained effect sizes, central tendencies, variability, tests of significance, confidence intervals, tests for heterogeneity, and contrasts (univariate or multivariate). The interpretation of meta-analytic results is often facilitated by the inclusion of the binomial effect size display procedure, the coefficient of robustness, file drawer analysis, and, where overall results are not significant, the counternull value of the obtained effect size and power analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Extremism and radicalization towards violence are urgent topics in many countries. Numerous research projects are carried out, of which many focus on risk factors only. In contrast, this article contains a systematic review of the rare international research on protective factors. After screening more than 2,000 documents, we found 17 reports containing 21 analyses that specifically addressed potential protective effects and provided quantitative data. Most studies addressed religious/ethnic extremism; far-right, far-left, and mixed forms were less frequent. Thirty different protective factors showed significant effects. Many were found in single analyses, but there were various replicated factors such as self-control, adherence to law, acceptance of police legitimacy, illness, positive parenting behavior, non-violent significant others, good school achievement, non-violent peers, contact to foreigners, and a basic attachment to society. Most findings are similar to what we know from more general research on youth violence, but there are also some protective factors that seem to be more specific, particularly with regard to religious/ethnic extremism. In conclusion, it is suggested to relate the topic of extremism and violent radicalization more strongly with other fields of developmental and life course criminology. For further progress on this path, more research on protective factors and integrated theoretical concepts are needed. This will also contribute to effective prevention.
This study aimed to further the understanding of the processes involved in activism, as a form of collective action, based on differences in the quality of moral judgment and political ideology. It began with the assumption that differences in the quality of moral judgment can lead individuals to engage in different forms of collective action: activism or radicalism. Therefore, the associations among the variables political ideology, social identity, perception of social justice, activist identity and commitment, personal political salience, perception of efficacy and life purpose were analyzed. Path modelling was used to construct two models of political action: one based on conventional moral judgment and conservative political ideology, and the other based on post‐conventional moral judgment and egalitarian political ideology. These two models were tested on samples of Brazilian and Spanish youths. The results confirmed the validity of using developmental social psychology to understand activism as a form of political action. The results confirmed the central hypothesis that differences in the quality of moral judgment and in political ideology are related to willingness to engage in qualitatively different types of actions: young people with conventional moral judgment and conservative political ideology declared their intention to engage in activism, while young people with post‐conventional moral judgment egalitarian political ideology reported the intention to engage in both activist and radical actions.