Content uploaded by John Klaasen
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by John Klaasen on Sep 05, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
120 (120–133)
www.missionalia.journals.ac.za | http://dx.doi.org/
Missionalia 48-1 Klaasen
www.missionalia.journals.ac.za | https://doi.org10.7832/48-1-363
Diakonia and Diaconal Church
John S Klaasen1
Abstract
What are the authentic features of a diaconal ecclesia in contexts of crises, such as
the coronavirus pandemic? In the South African context, the response of the church
has been both positive and negative. During this period of the coronavirus outbreak,
the church has been visible and pastoral in Holy Week, and especially during Easter.
After Holy Easter, the visibility of the church gave way to non-governmental organisa-
tions, social responsibility organisations, government social development agencies,
and other government departments. These institutions and organisations emerged
as active, practical, and concrete sources of hope because they provided the im-
mediate and tangible needs of the people, including food, shelter, medical care, and
psychological support. This research investigates the gap in the church as liturgical
movement and service oriented. This elicits the question, what is the church in times
of crisis? On the assumption that the church is diaconal, what kind of diaconal
ecclesia is suited for times of crisis, like the coronavirus pandemic in South Africa?
To understand the main arguments and perspectives of the two modes of church,
service and liturgy, the author will review literature with a specific focus on the ecu-
menical church. In addition, a conceptual analysis of the main terminologies and its
effects on the development of notions of church will also be conducted. The modes
of church will be interpreted through the lens of catholicity to formulate a diaconal
ecclesia with distinctive features for times of crisis such as the current pandemic.
Key words: diakonia, diaconal church, coronavirus, liturgy, service, catholicity,
wholemaking, ecclesia
1. Introduction
What are the authentic features of a diaconal ecclesia in contexts of crisis? The cur-
rent coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has wreaked havoc across the globe caus-
ing immense suffering and upheaval in almost every nation of the world. The crisis
is unprecedented in terms of its suddenness, virulence, infectiousness, and global
reach – the effects of which will be with creation for generations to come. Meylahn
suggests that COVID-19 is merely a resurgence of a crisis that has been present in
other forms. He contends that this crisis has been there since the financial crisis
(2018). According to Varoufakis (2020), “The crisis has probably always been
1 Prof. John S Klaasen is an Associate Professor and the Head of the Department of Religion and Theo-
logy at the University of the Western Cape (UWC). He is also visiting professor at VID Specialized Uni-
versity, Norway. He can be contacted at jsklaasen@uwc.ac.za.
Diakonia and Diaconal Church 121
there, as it is the crisis of the symbolic (real) to which the symbolic and the imagi-
nation continually respond by seeking effective defences. The symbolic is always in
crisis; it perpetually needs to re-create itself as a defence against the believed real
of the symbolic” (2020:1).
In South Africa, the government has been swift in its response. The World Health
Organisation (WHO) has singled out the South African government on more than
one occasion for its comprehensive and drastic response to the pandemic. The
South African president has been praised for his decisive leadership and far-reach-
ing action to slow down the spread of the virus. This sentiment is expressed in theo-
logical documents such as that of the World Council of Churches (WCC). The WCC
confirms that, “The role of the local congregation in diaconal work is to speak in
situations of crisis for the needs of the whole community and not on specific inter-
ests. Local congregations have a certain power and can give safety and raise issues.
Governments and local authorities recognise churches and specialised ministries
as important forces and part of civil society” (2014:160).
During this period of the coronavirus outbreak, the church has been clearly
visible and pastoral in Holy Week, and especially during Easter. The amount of
Christian worship services on the state-owned television channels has been unprec-
edented in the democratic era. The relationship between church and state, sym-
bolically depicted during Easter when the state president actively participated in a
worship service with the Archbishop of the Anglican Church in southern Africa, was
a sign of the high regard that the state has for the church. The church provided new
and contextual liturgical resources. Meylahn (2020:1) asserts that, “The church’s
response, specifically taking various social media into consideration, could be in-
terpreted as a typically state church response: do as the government says but add a
little mercy and charity, and that would be your Christian responsibility.” During a
crisis, it is worthwhile to be aware of the different models of church–state relation-
ship. The doctrine of the “Two Kingdoms” or the “Two Governments” (Lutheran),
the Natural Law model (Roman Catholic), and the Political model (Protestant),
influence the involvement of Christians in societal issues and concerns (Dietrich,
2014:42).
The visibility of the church soon disappeared after Holy Easter. Non-governmen-
tal organisations, social responsibility organisations, government social develop-
ment agencies, and other government departments emerged as active, practical,
and concrete sources of hope because they provided the immediate and tangible
needs of the people, including food, shelter, medical care, and psychological sup-
port.
There has been a gap in the church as liturgical movement and service oriented.
One can also say that faith and work is separated at a time of crisis. This elicits the
122 John S Klaasen
Missionalia 48-1 Klaasen
question, what is the church in times of crisis? On the assumption that the church is
diaconal, what kind of diaconal ecclesia is suited for times of crisis, like the coro-
navirus pandemic in South Africa? There are predominantly two modes of diaconal
church – the church as liturgy and the church. To understand the main arguments
and perspectives of the two modes of church, the author reviews literature with a
specific focus on the ecumenical church. In addition, a conceptual analysis of the
main terminologies and its effects on the development of notions of church will
also be conducted. The modes of church will be interpreted through the lens of
catholicity to formulate a diaconal ecclesia with distinctive features for times of
crisis such as the current pandemic.
2. Diaconia
Christensen provides a succinct account of the use of diaconal ecclesiology, pref-
aced by a warning that, “From a church historian’s point of view the semantics of
diakonia are not clear, nor is the concept of ‘diaconal ecclesiology’” (2019:41).
The Lutheran World Federation (LWF) also shares the view that diakonia can be
understood from different and varied perspectives and the term is not static in both
its meaning and semantics. Diakonia is defined in ‘Diakonia in context: Trans-
formation, reconciliation, empowerment’ as “a theological concept that points
to the very identity and mission of the church. Another definition is its practical
implication in the sense that diakonia is a call to action, as a response to chal-
lenges of human suffering, injustice and care for creation” (LWF, 2009:8). The WCC
concurs with Christensen’s and the LWF’s views that concepts such as diakonia have
diverse meanings. “… It was emphasised that the religious identity has changed in
many places and there is an increased awareness of the mission of the churches
in development and diakonia. However, a common understanding of the concepts
should be encouraged and the role of WCC, the ACT [Action by Churches Together]
Alliance, specialised ministries and the churches in general should be clearer and
better documented” (WCC, 2014:157). In 2017 when the concept diakonia was
widely discussed, it was mainly conceptualised as both who the church community
is and what the members do. In other words, being and doing goes hand in hand
as a continuum and not as binary opposites. Being and doing is also referred to as
persons created in the image of God and their calling is to bring the whole of crea-
tion in communion with God. Another perspective of diakonia was the promotion
and organisation of practical action for the alleviation of both systemic and per-
sonal injustices. This is the concrete and practical activity of churches to confront
the suffering and poverty of the marginalised. This is also referred to as faith-based
diakonia and rights-based diakonia (WCC, 2017:9).
Diakonia and Diaconal Church 123
Within the Bible and early Christian communities, diakonia was mainly social
ministries that were associated with service, ministry, and any kind of calling exer-
cised by a specialised ministerial function as designated to deacons and deacon-
esses. Within the Acts of the Apostles, the root of these words – service, ministry, or
deacon/ness – is reserved for particular office bearers or functions. The election
of the Seven in Acts 6 is a clear indication of the specialisation of the functions of
diakonia, but also a distinction from the ministry of the Word, which the apostles
were called to do. Christensen propounds that according to Thomas O’Meara, a
designation such as deacon was not necessarily a sacred office but merely a func-
tion that is expressed through language. The church designed a language that could
reveal its form of life (2019:43).
During the Protestant Reformation, there was a resurgence of the deacon and
the service ministry of caring for the sick, visiting the widows and widowers, provi-
sion for the hungry, and looking after the poor. In Western Europe, diakonia was
equal to caritative work by both male and female. During this period, diaconal
work also took on a formal ministry as social workers and nurses. The issue was
raised about the incorporation of this professional vocation into the ecclesia. The
difficulty of incorporating professional service with the ecclesia is partly because
the reformers aligned diakonia with mission either deliberately or incidentally
(Christensen, 2019:49-50).
During the twentieth century, diakonia and diaconal ecclesiology has taken
many diverse meanings and was used differently by different denominations. Within
the Anglican Church, diakonia is part of the priestly orders and falls within the
threefold orders of bishop, priest, and deacon. This order has recently been re-
inforced with the re-emergence of the permanent order of the diaconate. Within
the Roman Catholic Church, caritas is associated with diakonia. Diakonia has also
taken on meanings from words such as Ubuntu, empowerment, and care (Dietrich,
2019:13-27).
Crises such as the Industrial Revolution and the two world wars resulted in
introspection by church members during the former century. The Life and Work
movement that was carried forward from the Universal Conference of Life and Work
that was held in Stockholm in 1925 resulted in the equation of “service in the world
with being Church” (Christensen, 2019:50). This shift towards service as diaconal
ecclesiology was evident in the change of the name of this movement to the ‘Univer-
sal Council for Life and Work’ with council pointing towards a prominent role for
the church. The council was to become the WCC and the first general secretary, Wil-
lem Visser’t Hooft, propagated for diakonia ecclesiology (Christensen, 2019:50).
An important factor that arose during the twentieth century was the role of the
laity within ecclesiology. By the mid-twentieth century, the church was equated with
124 John S Klaasen
Missionalia 48-1 Klaasen
diaconia as ministry. Hendrik Kraemer laid the foundation for this shift and in 1963
at the Fourth World Conference on Faith and Order in Montreal, it was accepted
that “ministry is the responsibility of the whole body and not only of those who were
ordained. The recovery is one of the most important facts of recent church history”2
(Christensen, 2019:51).
This notion of diakonia finds theological roots in the Trinitarian theology and
Christian theological anthropology. The 2013 Faith and Order text declares “the
notion that the communion of baptised is a reflection of Trinitarian communion
and exists for the sake of communion with all humans and the whole of creation”
(Christensen, 2019:51).
Diakonia has also been closely described in relation with the Trinity. Knoetze
correlates Balswick and Balswick’s four sequential stages of diakonia – covenant,
grace, empowering, and intimacy – with the missio Dei as “the Father sending the
Son, the Father and the Son sending Spirit and the Father, Son and Spirit sending the
church” (2019:7). With regard to diakonia from a Trinitarian perspective, Knoetze
asserts that the Father created and loves humanity unconditionally and this act is
embedded in the covenant relation that humanity enjoys with the Father. With re-
gard to Christ, Knoetze claims that the Son as deacon brings the sacrifice for salva-
tion. The practical ministry of Jesus, which He performs in relation with the Father,
is embedded in the healings, reconciliation, feeding, and other acts of inclusion
into the community and in fellowship with God. The Holy empowers the powerless.
“Empowerment as a theological concept refers to the biblical understanding that
all people are created in God’s image with abilities and gifts, independent from the
deceptive social situation” (Knoetze, 2019:158-159).
Diaconal ecclesiology is more functional than substantive. Although Knoetze tries
to keep the agency of the church and the being of the church together, he obviously
gives a greater value to diakonia as a function of the church. Church is understood
in terms of anthropology. In this regard, Knoetze contends that, “Church is under-
stood in its broadest form in the sense that church exists in different configurations
as and how its members are involved, such as congregations, non-governmental
organisations, families, schools, and businesses. Where the church’s members are,
there the church is” (2019:160).
Despite the ambiguity of the concepts ‘diakonia’ and ‘diaconal ecclesiology,’
service, liturgy, and deacon remain three of the most used references for diakonia
and the church. The functions of the early church have been liturgical and at times
caritative. The liturgical function has been associated with deacons assisting the
2 This quote cited by Christensen is taken from P.C. Rodger and L. Vischer (eds.), The Fourth World
Conference on Faith and Order, Faith and Order Paper No. 42 London: SCM, 1964, 62.
Diakonia and Diaconal Church 125
bishop at the Eucharist with intercessions at the altar and the dismissal. This part of
the diakonia has a long history of institution. Deacons have been part of the three-
fold ordained ministry of the church. Caritative functions have included both care
for the marginalised and pastoral care for the needy. This function of the church
is less institutional because it has a long history of both laity and ordained sharing
equally in the vocation to care for the marginalised and needy.
The WCC, the LWF, and the Second Vatican Council’s contribution to the resur-
gence of diakonia in the twentieth century has positioned diakonia as indispensable
for ecclesiology. Despite these efforts, the churches have found it difficult to be
diaconal ecclesia during times of crisis, such as the current coronavirus pandemic.
The role of the ordained ministry and the centrality of sacramental ministry has
thwarted the effectiveness of the church in times of crisis. To add to the effective
role of the church during times of crisis, the author will interpret the diaconal ec-
clesia through the lens of catholicity.
3. Catholicity and Diakonia Ecclesia
The diaconal church has a rich history in Christian theology. Diaconal church is
both about authentic worship of God revealed in Father, Son, and Holy Spirit by
worshippers and of the scattering of the faithful for service in the world. The gather-
ing of worshippers is an act of presenting the self before God and acknowledging
God as Saviour. It is also an act of empowering or agency through the power of the
Holy Spirit in the world.
Catholicity is a concept that is common to most churches. The term has, how-
ever, been under scrutiny according to Horan. “In recent years the notion catho-
licity has received renewed attention. Traditionally, the term has been associated
in colloquial English with concepts such as ‘universality’ or ‘all-encompassing’ …
the correspondence and universal does not quite work when one examines the
etymological roots of the word, especially within a theological context” (2019:4-5).
The word ‘universal’ is laconically explained by Ong as using a compass to make
a circle. The visible circle demarcates what is inside from what is outside. That
which is inside is common around a central point. All those who are inside the cir-
cle are connected, united, and included. However, there are also those who are out-
side the circle. Universal, then, has a negativity and exclusivity. On the other hand,
catholicity means ‘through-the-whole’ or ‘throughout-the-whole.’ The combination
of kata/kath, meaning ‘through or throughout’, and holos, meaning ‘whole,’ is
more positive and inclusive. Ong rightly motivates his assertion by questioning why
the Latin Church did not use the word universalis, which is part of their vernacular
but borrowed the word catholic from the Greek term katholikos (Horan, 2019:4).
126 John S Klaasen
Missionalia 48-1 Klaasen
Describing Dulles’ view of the difference between universality and catholicity,
Horan asserts that universality is abstract and universal, while catholicity is a con-
crete term that is embedded in qualitative faith. Catholicity is particular, actual,
embedded in lived experiences (Horan, 2019:5). This is a significant difference
that relates to Christian theological anthropology, the theological traditions of what
it means to be human, how humans relate to the rest of creation, and what diakonia
entails.
Catholicity as hermeneutic is towards wholemaking. It looks beyond the self-
evident assumptions of separateness, binaries, domination, exclusivity, and margin-
alisation because every being is connected in a process of wholemaking in God’s
creation. “A hermeneutic of catholicity takes as its starting point the presupposition
of an evolutionary cosmos, which, originating from the one God who is Creator,
seeks an ever-greater unity in its journey through salvation history back to the very
same God … Wholemaking is inherent to the creation because, although it may not
always be visible to us from a quotidian perspective, God’s intention remains the
salvation of all creation-human and nonhuman alike” (Horan, 2019:6).
Catholicity viewed as wholemaking challenges the understanding of ourselves
and the world supported by the doctrine of imago Dei, the Cappadocians, and
the Hellenistic philosophical traditions that espoused essentialists and binary use
of human nature. It also challenges the complementarity of Augustine, which was
further developed by Thomas Aquinas. These doctrines contributed to domination
of humans over the earth, domination of women by men, and the absolute unique-
ness of human beings. It also challenges diakonia practices such as stewardship
and charity. Wholemaking challenges diaconal ecclesiologies because the church is
made up of humans and it is instituted by God for missio Dei.
4. Diaconal Ecclesiology as/and Service
The church has a long history of service in the world. The forms of service are
manifold and include charitable work, pastoral work, relief, and institutional and
systemic involvement. From the early church, issues of poverty, marginalisation,
exclusion, domination, and oppression featured prominently in the mission of the
church. The early church was generally concerned with the healing of the sick, care
for the widows, and providing of the poor.
“At the very heart of the New Testament notion of church … is the recognition of
the communion of all believers with God and the Lord Jesus Christ and with each
in the body of Christ … The horizontal aspect of this communion takes shape in
a unity marked by mutual care and solidarity ... The service for the sisters in the
church and for individuals and humankind at large, following the example of Jesus
Diakonia and Diaconal Church 127
… is frequently expressed by the noun … (diakonia) and its cognate verb …
(diakoneo)” (Adna, 2019:64).
Different words with diakonia roots are found in words such as service, ministry,
or with reference to specific ministries, such as deacon or deaconess, which were
used for the ministry of congregations. These words were used with reference to
ministries attributed to all believers, specialised ministries by particular persons as
well as to Christ (Christensen, 2019:42).
For Paul, diakonia is combined with koinonia – the new community of God (2
Corinthians 8:4). The communities of Corinth, Macedonia, Jerusalem, and others,
are all united by diakonia. They share in the continuous mission of Jesus Christ.
This mission is reflected in practical service of providing for the physical needs of
the new communities. In addition to financial assistance, these needs include the
provision of basic needs for the poor (the widows). The calling of the Seven in the
ecclesia of Jerusalem was a significant symbolic turn in the early church. It was not
a coincidence that the Seven were from a Greek background with Greek names.
They represented the culture and socio-economic and cultural identities of the wid-
ows, and challenged the degree of under inclusivity of the church. “The installation
of the seven, all of whom had Greek names and therefore probably represented the
widows’ cultural and social environment, was not merely a practical matter in order
to have things done. It was an act of securing the fundamental self-understanding
of the church, for the well-being of the whole fellowship and for public witness”
(LWF, 2009:28-29). Breed and Semenya illustrate the interconnectedness of dia-
konia with koinonia in 1 Peter 4:10. Peter addressed the congregation during a
time of suffering and alienation. Paul declares that every person is called to serve
the other. This address by Paul illustrates the gift of service that is exercised in the
context of “participating together” (2015:7). The church is in both being and doing
characterised by service.
A number of critical points arise from diaconal ecclesiology as service when I
apply a hermeneutic of catholicity. The ecclesia and mission are limited to a theo-
logical anthropology that is alienated and dominating. A diaconal ecclesiology of
service is about service for humans at all cost. This raises the question of ‘who
we are,’ which has come under renewed scrutiny from contemporary theological
notions of the overemphasis of the absolute uniqueness of humans as found in the
dominant theologies of creation and the image of God. In these notions, humans
are separated from the rest of creation by virtue of them alone having the image
of God and being holy. Catholicity is about the wholemaking of the whole cosmos
towards the one Creator. This implies that not only humans are created by God and
that not only humans are included in the salvation plan of God. While humans have
128 John S Klaasen
Missionalia 48-1 Klaasen
some uniqueness in relation to other living and non-livings beings, the rest of crea-
tion also has uniqueness that distinguishes it from others. However, the uniqueness
does not separate humans, other living or non-living beings from each other.
What this means for a diaconal ecclesiology is that service towards humans
alone neglects the care and service for the rest of creation. Such a diaconal ec-
clesiology can also lead to the domination of the environment by humans. “Both
Judeo-Christian tradition and the Greek-Roman tradition placed the human being
in a central place in the universe” (Parbiala & Simango, 2014:331). The notion of
the humans at the centre of the universe, which is held by both African, and Western
worldviews leaves the cosmos at the mercy of humans. This perception of diaconal
ecclesiology leads to a giver-receiver mode of diakonia that has come under serious
scrutiny from contemporary rights-based diakonia paradigms.
The twentieth century diaconal ecclesiology as service has emphasised unity. Ec-
umenical movements, such as the WCC and the LWF, have revived diaconal ecclesi-
ology for the unification of the church. Service has been the means of co-operation,
ministry, prophetic ministry, and social development. This kind of unity, despite the
successes, has been operating from the principle of ‘something negative.’ Those
who are part of the inside group are separated from the outsiders. On the other
hand, a hermeneutic of catholicity or wholemaking uses diversity as its principle for
healing and restoration. The diaconal ecclesiology as service presupposes ‘univer-
sal’ in abstract terms, but wholemaking is about ‘qualitatively-wholeness.’ Whole-
making is about concrete, particular realities, as they exist in the here and now.
Nordstokke, a renowned professor in Diaconal Studies, asserts that, “Catho-
lic clearly correlates with unity, but with the intention of providing space for the
wholeness of creation and human reality, acknowledging the gifts of diversity and
particularities” (2019:36). Diaconal ecclesiology is more than service towards hu-
mans by humans. Humans are part of creation and not apart from the order that
God created. Diaconal ecclesiology should share in the missio Dei of God in the
wholemaking of all creation towards God who created the whole of creation. In the
next section, the author discusses the church and liturgy.
5. Diaconal Ecclesiology and Liturgy
The tension whether diakonia is service or liturgical has resulted in a number of
divergences within the church. For example, should the diaconal ecclesiology be
for deacons and deaconesses, is it a function or substance of the church, and is it
doctrinal or ecumenical?
Liturgy has been synonymous with diakonia and diaconal ecclesiology. The office
of a deacon epitomises diakonia in the New Testament. Christensen demonstrates
how the Apostolic Fathers describe the deacons as primarily liturgical ministers
Diakonia and Diaconal Church 129
during gatherings of the ecclesia. The deacons described in the Didache indicate
that the appointment of deacons is coupled with the Eucharist. Here is a clear
indication that the deacon assisted the bishop at the celebration of the Eucharist.
Christensen (2019:44) concludes that, “We can thus detect a strong link between
the Eucharist as the focal point of congregational life and the essential work of the
appointed ministers. Serving the congregation as a deacon is in this case primar-
ily a matter of liturgy.” Like the Didache, Clement also places the liturgical role of
deacons and bishops as essential for ecclesiology. Around the same time of the
Didache and Clement (the year 100), Bishop Ignatius viewed the bishop, presbyter,
and deacon as essential for the church. Christensen (2019:44-45) quotes a famous
theological assumption of Bishop Ignatius to emphasise the diaconal ecclesiology
as liturgy, “Without these the name of ‘Church’ is not given.”3 “Bishop Ignatius
refers to deacons as his ‘fellow servants,’4 meaning that he and they are all working
out God’s will in the church. Ignatius represents an ecclesiology that is defined by
the clergy as liturgical agents that secure unity.”
The revival of the deacon and deaconess in the Protestant Reformation was a
retreat to the caritive nature of diakonia. Luther and Calvin acknowledged the role
of deacons. The latter, in particular, paid attention to the incorporation of women
in ministry through the ‘widow’ concept of the New Testament. The Mennonites
were probably the most successful to incorporate women in ministry through dia-
konia. The revival of diakonia was particularly successful in Germany during the
nineteenth century. Evidence of the revival in Germany can be found in Friedrich
Klönne’s article, On the Revival of Deaconesses of the Old Church in the Female
Associations and Florence Nightingale’s text, ‘The Institution of Kaiserswerth on
the Rhine, for the Practical Training of Deaconesses’ (Christensen, 2019:48-49).
These revivals did very little about the liturgical function of the diaconal ecclesiol-
ogy. The diaconal ecclesiology as liturgy was replaced by the love for neighbour.
This trend about diakonia as service continued in the twentieth century. Ser-
vice was embedded in political and social phenomena. These shifts in diakonia
are evident in documents such as ‘Life and Work’ and the ‘Inter-church Aid and
Service to Refugees at Les Rasses.’ These documents raised a number of issues that
first surfaced during the New Testament diaconal church as liturgy (Christensen,
2019:50-51). The issues included the role of laity, the role of women, and the
inclusivity of diakonia.
Despite the neglect of the diaconal ecclesiology and liturgy, liturgies such as
the Orthodox liturgy demonstrate the centrality of liturgy for our understanding
3 Ignatius, 1912, ‘Letter to the Trallians 3,’ in The Apostolic Fathers, I, Loeb Classical Library, London:
Heineman.
4 E.g. Ignatius, Letter to the Philadelphians 4.
130 John S Klaasen
Missionalia 48-1 Klaasen
of diakonia and diaconal ecclesiology. There are forty days between the feasts of
the Transfiguration and Holy Cross, which is symbolic of the themes of the exodus
and the appearance of our Lord on Mount Sinai. The forty days to Mount Sinai are
the steps from the exodus towards the Cross. “Through this, the church is invited
to understand the glory of God from the perspective of the Cross and to walk on
the same path. Luke calls this path diakonia. In so doing, he puts the ‘breaking of
bread’ at the centre of the church’s life. The church, which learns in the Eucha-
ristic gathering the meaning of exodus, commits itself to ‘the pleasing deeds’, and
remembers all humanity, particularly the suffering ones, in a diaconal church that
lives its liturgical Eucharist in the love it learned from the divine words and makes
its way from glory to Cross” (Mrad, 2019:80-81).
The objective of a hermeneutic of wholemaking or catholicity is not so much to
interrogate and discredit the longstanding theological roots of what it means to be
human, but to uncover what already exists. Wholeness is already part of the history
of the church, although the church neglects to use the gifts of those at the margins.
Catholicity rejects binaries that cause domination and alienation, such as deacon
and deaconesses. The deaconess was neglected within the diaconal ecclesiology as
liturgy because the role of the deaconess was overlooked by the patriarchal system
of biblical and theological scholarship. Horan (2019:126) reminds us that, “Too
often we assume that we know with certitude what it means to talk about human
nature as if it corresponded to a static reality outside of our own hypothesising. We
must recall always that we are social creatures that construct meaning and systems
of symbolic significance.” Feminist hermeneutics has successfully challenged the
doctrinal and confessional absoluteness of some of the worse violations of women’s
rights – both in practice in diaconal ecclesiology and beliefs about anthropology
and ecclesiology. Radford Reuther makes human experience and not male experi-
ence the starting point of her hermeneutical circle (1983:12). Ackermann asserts
that Radford Reuther’s approach is inclusive and that does not divert from her
strongly propagating for the full humanity of women (2008:37-46).
Diaconal ecclesiology as liturgy unites those who have common beliefs. Most
liturgies unite those who are gathered in ritual and symbolic movements on spe-
cific times and in definitive spaces. This is unity that is based on ‘the negative.’ It
unites those in the circle based on the exclusion of others. Liturgy excludes certain
persons from communion because of the doctrinal or canonical prerequisites. For
most part of the service, the laity are merely spectators of the liturgical acts and
the ordained are regarded as the custodians of the liturgy. Such a notion of liturgy
influences the understanding of ministry and church as we discovered in the early
church. This kind of diaconal ecclesiology raised serious questions about the na-
ture of diakonia for the most vulnerable groups of society, those who are not part
Diakonia and Diaconal Church 131
of the official church and the rest of creation, including the non-human and non-
living beings.
6. Diaconal Ecclesiology as Creation
Diaconal ecclesiology as wholemaking has its starting point in God’s salvation for
the whole of creation. Horan (2019:6) asserts that, “Wholemaking is inherent to
creation because, although it may not always be visible to us from a quotidian
perspective, God’s intention remains the salvation of all creation-human and non-
human alike.” The long history of the static doctrinal formulations that distorts
the reciprocal and mutual relationship between humans and the rest of creation
must be interrogated through the lens of wholemaking. Such an interrogation will
uncover the distorted nature of humans that results in superiority, domination, and
alienation. Wholemaking will also recover the uniqueness of humans that is not
absolute and separate from creation, but shares uniqueness in the same particular
manner as non-human and non-living beings.
Diakonia takes on a different form when creation is at the centre and not the
human. Other parts of creation are viewed through a perspective of life-having and
life-giving. The environment is not only for the consumption of humans, but is cre-
ated by God and has dignity and worth. We find, for example, that in the Eucharist
the wine and bread is life-giving and symbolically represents the body and blood
of Christ. By partaking in the Eucharist, humans are made holy for Christ is holy.
Wholemaking presupposes that wholeness is present in the whole of creation
and is a gift to all creation. The binaries of men and women – lay and ordained –
pertaining to diakonia is discredited. Ministry through the lens of wholemaking is a
gift from God bestowed on the faithful. Whereas the Protestant Reformation revived
the diakonia, it steered diakonia in a different direction than the early church’s
models of ‘The Body of Christ’ or ‘Gifts of The Holy Spirit.’ Wholemaking is a dia-
lectical retreat to the inclusivity of diakonia. The feminist movement through people
like Radford Ruether “gives a comprehensive historical account between church as
spirit-filled community and church as institution. The former model of church was
characterised by charismatic ministry and the latter by the traditional leadership
as found in the synagogue. By the late first century, the bishops as pater familias
entrenched the patriarchal pattern of society in contrast to the earlier egalitarian
model” (Klaasen, 2016:14-15).
Wholemaking also affirms the diaconia of the laypersons. In the patristic period,
diakonia was a function of the laypersons. The Marcionite churches practice of
discipleship of equals and the New Prophesy’s Pentecostal outpouring of the Spirt
are two examples (Klaasen, 2016:16). When the deacon became an ecclesial order,
as a result of the church’s close association with the Roman Empire, ordination
132 John S Klaasen
Missionalia 48-1 Klaasen
excluded many laypersons from ministry. Diaconia is largely regarded as ministry
outside of the liturgy and consequently undervalued. This phenomenon is clearly
demonstrated in the present coronavirus crisis in South Africa.
Wholemaking bridges the gap between service and liturgy. Catholicity is not so
much about essentials and universals, than it is about present realities and the
particular. Liturgy and service forms a continuum. Liturgy is initiated within the
communities. During worship, worshippers are empowered to exercise ministry
that is relevant, life-giving, and wholemaking in their communities. Christensen
(2019:47) asserts that, “A major focal point of the early church was the liturgical
celebrations where the servants of the church were present. The tasks performed
by deacons and deaconesses were manifold and reflect the fundamental diaconal
ecclesiology of the early church, which was grounded in its liturgical life and visible
in its social work.”
7. Conclusion
Diakonia and diaconal ecclesiology are complex concepts that have diverse
meanings as illustrated by Christiansen’s historical perspectives of the two terms.
The ecumenical movement, such as the WCC and the LWF, demonstrates the di-
versity of the many different modes of diaconia and diaconal ecclesiology that are
described in their documents. In this paper, the author analysed the two dominant
and earliest perspectives of service and liturgy through the lens of wholemaking. A
number of limitations, such as binaries, static theological anthropologies, exclusiv-
ity, domination, and alienation were identified. A new way of diaconal ecclesiology
was thus constructed. The pillars of such a diaconal ecclesiology for a time of crisis
are God’s salvation for the whole of creation, the affirmation of the diaconia of the
laypersons, and the continuum between liturgy and service.
References
Ackermann, D. (2008). Rosemary Radford Ruether: Themes from a Feminist Liberation
Story. Scriptura, 97, 37-46.
Adna, J. (2019). Concepts of the Church in the New Testament, in S. Dietrich, Jørgensen, K.,
Korslien, K.K. & Nordstokke, K. (eds.). The Diaconal Church, Oxford: Regnum, 55-64.
Breed, G., & Semenya, K. (2015). Ubuntu, Koinonia and Diakonia, a Way to Reconciliation
in South Africa? HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, 1-9.
Christensen, M.M. (2019). Historical Perspectives on Diaconal Ecclesiology, in S. Dietrich,
Jørgensen, K., Korslien, K.K. & Nordstokke, K. (eds.). The Diaconal Church, Oxford:
Regnum, 41-54.
Dietrich, S. (2014). Mercy and Truth are met Together: Righteousness and Peace Have
Kissed Each Other (Psalm 85:10): Biblical and Systematic Theological Perspectives on
Diakonia and Diaconal Church 133
Diakonia as Advocacy and Fight for Justice, in S. Dietrich, Jørgensen, K., Korslien K.K.
& Nordstokke, K. (eds.). Oxford: Regnum, 13-27.
Dulles, A. (1985). The Catholicity of the Church. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Horan, D.P. (2019). Catholicity and Emerging Personhood: A Contemporary Theological
Anthropology. New York: Orbis Books.
Klaasen, J.S. (2016). Feminist Theology and Christian Ministry: The Dialectic Approach of
Rosemary Radford Ruther. Journal of Gender and Religion in Africa, 22(1), 5-20.
Knoetze, H. (2019). Diakonia Trinitatis Dei as/and Transformational Development: A South
African Perspective. The Ecumenical Review, World Council of Churches, 71(1-2),
147-160.
Lutheran World Federation. (2009). Diakonia in Context: Transformation, Reconcilia-
tion, Empowerment. Geneva: Lutheran World Federation.
Meylahn, J.A. (2020). Being Human in the Time of Covid-19. HTS Teologiese Studies/Theo-
logical Studies, 76(1), 1-6.
Mrad, N.A. (2019). Diaconal Perspectives between the Book of Acts and the Orthodox Lit-
urgy in S. Dietrich, Jørgensen, K., Korslien, K.K. & Nordstokke, K. (eds.). The Diaconal
Church, Oxford: Regnum, 65-82.
Nordstokke, K. (2019). Diakonia as Mark of the Church, in S. Dietrich, Jørgensen, K.,
Korslien, K.K. & Nordstokke, K. (eds.). The Diaconal Church, Oxford: Regnum, 26-40.
Parbiala, P. & Simango, G. (2014), Diakonia and Human Dignity. The Ecumenical Review,
World Council of Churches, 66(3), 330-340.
Radford Ruether, R. (1983). Sexism and God-talk: Toward a Feminist Theology. London:
SCM Press.
World Council of Churches. (2014). Ecumenical Conversations, Reports, Affirmations and
Challenges from the 10th Assembly. Geneva: World Council of Churches Publications.
World Council of Churches. (2017). The Executive Committee of the World Council of
Churches. Bossey, Switzerland, 7-12 June, Doc. No.17 App.
