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Living in the shadows: Diversity of amphibians, reptiles and birds in shade‐grown yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) plantations
Abstract
Native Ilex paraguariensis (yerba mate) is one of the most widespread crops in the Atlantic Forest region of southern South America and has an important economic and cultural value in Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. Despite the known potential of shade‐grown products (especially cocoa and coffee) to protect biodiversity, the benefits of shade‐grown yerba mate for biodiversity conservation in the Atlantic Forest remain scarce, one of the most threatened ecoregions in the world, also considered a biodiversity hotspot. In order to understand these potential benefits, it is important to identify how species use shade‐grown yerba mate plantations, as well as if it can be an strategy to improve or maintain biodiversity in complex socio‐ecological landscapes. We analysed the potential benefits of forests with shade‐grown yerba mate for birds, amphibian and reptiles in the Reserve for National Park ‘San Rafael’ and its buffer area (Itapúa Department, Paraguay). We evaluated differences in species richness and composition between three environments: forest with shade‐grown yerba mate, forest edge and monoculture crop plantations analysing beta diversity. A total of 112 bird species were recorded in all three environments. Regarding the herpetological community, we recorded 10 species (seven amphibians and three reptiles). Our results indicate that forests with yerba mate plantations not only maintains the bird species richness, but also its species composition differs significantly from edge and croplands, which might be an indicator of the contribution of shade‐grown yerba mate plantations to conservation. The results of the research would help to value the impact of sustainable agroforestry activities for the conservation of Atlantic Forest biodiversity.
Abstract in Spanish is available with online material.
... In another study in the "San Rafael" Reserve and its buffer area (Itapua Department, Paraguay), researchers analyzed the potential benefits of forests with shade-grown yerba mate for birds, amphibians, and reptiles, comparing species richness and composition between three environments: forest with shade-grown yerba mate, forest edge, and monoculture crop plantations. Their results suggest that forests with yerba mate plantations maintain high bird species richness, with its species composition differing significantly from edges and croplands (Cabral et al. 2020). ...
Agroforestry systems (AFS) are becoming increasingly relevant worldwide as society has come to recognize their multiple roles and services: biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, adaptation and mitigation of climate change, restoration of degraded ecosystems, and tools for rural development. This book summarizes advances in agroforestry research and practice and raises questions as to the effectiveness of AFS to solve the development and environmental challenges the world presents us today.
Currently AFS are considered to be a land use that can achieve a compromise among productive and environmental functions. Apparently, AFS can play a significant role in rural development even in the most challenging socioeconomic and ecological conditions, but still there is a lot of work to do to reach these goals. Considerable funding is spent in projects directed to enhancing productivity and sustainability of smallholders forestry and agroforestry practices. These projectsand programs face many questions and challenges related to the integration of traditional knowledge to promote the most suitable systems for each situation; access to markets for AFS products, and scaling up of successful AFS. These complex questions need innovative approaches from varying perspectives and knowledge bases.
This book gathers fresh and novel contributions from a set of Yale University researchers and associates who intend to provide alternative and sometimes departing insights into these pressing questions. The book focuses on the functions that AFS can provide when well designed and implemented: their role in rural development as they can improve food security and sovereignty and contribute to provision of energy needs to the smallholders; and their environmental functions: contribution to biodiversity conservation, to increased connectivity of fragmented landscapes, and adaptation and mitigation of climate change. The chapters present conceptual aspects and case studies ranging from traditional to more modern approaches, from tropical as well as from temperate regions of the world, with examples of the AFS functions mentioned above.
... Yerba mate, or Ilex paraguariensis, is a plant native to the subtropical region of South America (SA), found mainly in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay (Acevedo et al. 2019;Giberti 1995;Girardi et al. 2023). This plant has great cultural and economic importance in the region (Cabral et al. 2020), having been used for centuries by indigenous communities as a source of food, medicine, and stimulant (Heck and De Mejia 2007). Yerba mate has gained international prominence in recent years due to its nutritional and medicinal properties and its potential as an ingredient in beverages and foods (Gerber et al. 2023). ...
Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) is renowned for its nutritional and pharmaceutical attributes. A staple in South American (SA) culture, it serves as the foundation for several traditional beverages. Significantly, the pharmaceutical domain has secured numerous patents associated with this plant's distinctive properties. This research delves into the climatic influence on yerba mate by leveraging the CMIP6 model projections to assess potential shifts brought about by climate change. Given its economic and socio-cultural significance, comprehending how climate change might sway yerba mate's production and distribution is pivotal. The CMIP6 model offers insights into future conditions, pinpointing areas that are either conducive or adverse for yerba mate cultivation. Our findings will be instrumental in crafting adaptive and mitigative strategies, thereby directing sustainable production planning for yerba mate. The core objective of this study was to highlight zones optimal for
Ilex paraguariensis cultivation across its major producers: Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay, under CMIP6's climate change forecasts. Our investigation encompassed major producing zones spanning the North, Northeast, Midwest, Southeast, and South of Brazil, along with the aforementioned countries. A conducive environment for this crop's growth features air temperatures between 21 to 25 °C and a minimum precipitation of 1200 mm per cycle. We sourced the current climate data from the WorldClim version 2 platform. Meanwhile, projections for future climatic parameters were derived from WorldClim 2.1, utilizing the IPSL-CM6A-LR model with a refined 30-second spatial resolution. We took into account four distinct socio-economic pathways over varying timelines: 2021-2040, 2041-2060, 2061-2081, and 2081-2100. Geographic information system data aided in the spatial interpolation across Brazil, applying the Kriging technique. The outcomes revealed a majority of the examined
areas as non-conducive for yerba mate cultivation, with a scanty 12.25% (1.5 million km2) deemed favorable. Predominantly, these propitious regions lie in southern Brazil and Uruguay, the present-day primary producers of yerba mate. Alarming was the discovery that forthcoming climatic scenarios predominantly forecast detrimental shifts, characterized by escalating average air temperatures and diminishing rainfall. These trends portend a decline in suitable cultivation regions for yerba mate.
... In another study in the 'San Rafael' Reserve and its buffer area (Itapua Department, Paraguay), researchers analyzed the potential benefits of forests with shadegrown yerba mate for birds, amphibian and reptiles, comparing species richness and composition between three environments: forest with shade-grown yerba mate, forest edge and monoculture crop plantations. Their results suggest that forests with yerba mate plantations maintain high bird species richness, with its species composition differing significantly from edges and croplands (Cabral et al. 2020). ...
Given their ability to harmonize productivity with environmental functions, agroforestry systems (AFS) are an important strategy for conservation within human managed landscapes. AFS are heterogeneous in their design, management, and species composition, with consequences for their restoration, conservation, and productivity functions. AFS can function as biodiversity islands or can be incorporated into existing biodiversity islands as buffer zones because they can be integrated into already productive landscapes. This chapter provides an overview of the various ecological, social, and economic benefits of the main types of AFS systems and their applications as and within biodiversity islands. It also discusses the use of incentives to support and promote AFS in order to safeguard the contributions they provide to landscape biodiversity and rural communities.KeywordsBuffer zonesCertificationConnectivityMarketsOrganic farmingPayments for ecosystem services (PES)
... As a result, several Paraguayan NGOs, including the Fundacion Moises Bertoni and Guyra Paraguay, have positioned the Atlantic forest at front and center of their conservation efforts. Through these efforts, the idea emerged that shade-grown yerba mate can be an ecologically sound alternative in forest remnants (Cabral et al., 2020;Cockle et al., 2005) and serve as a counterweight to expansion on the extensive margin. ...
Purpose
This study explores the determinants of growth of credence-based exports of yerba mate from Paraguay, potential for increased export growth, and the fragility of the credence-based export model. Much of the growth in value of yerba mate exports from Paraguay is due to positioning of the good within the universe of products where consumption is driven by perceptions of sustainable production and health benefits to consumers. Credence claims for yerba mate—benefits to indigenous producing communities, environmental sustainability under certain production processes, healthful alternatives to energy drinks—are now widely known, but the growth of this awareness came via a new entrepreneurial strategy of a single firm.
Design/methodology/approach
Primary information was collected through interviews of actors in the Paraguayan yerba mate value chain during spring/summer 2020. These included representatives from three exporting companies, processors, public institutions and indigenous producers.
Findings
The Paraguayan yerba mate export boom was stimulated through the careful cultivation of an image of healthful consumption and sustainable production processes. The cost of this cultivation was borne mainly by a single firm. Findings suggest that future marketing efforts will need to reinforce credence claims, highlighting the benefits to indigenous producers.
Research limitations/implications
This case study explores the determinants of growth of credence-based exports of yerba mate from Paraguay, potential for increased growth, and the fragility of the credence-based model.
Originality/value
Findings are supported by field interviews with value chain participants and detailed analysis of extant data. The paper is the first to discuss the fragility of relying on credence attributes for long-term demand growth.
... In another study in the "San Rafael" Reserve and its buffer area (Itapua Department, Paraguay), researchers analyzed the potential benefits of forests with shade-grown yerba mate for birds, amphibians, and reptiles, comparing species richness and composition between three environments: forest with shade-grown yerba mate, forest edge, and monoculture crop plantations. Their results suggest that forests with yerba mate plantations maintain high bird species richness, with its species composition differing significantly from edges and croplands (Cabral et al. 2020). ...
This book gathers fresh and novel contributions from a set of Yale University researchers and associates from the academic, practitioner and development arenas, who intend to provide alternative and sometimes departing insights into some of the pressing environmental and development issues the world is facing today. The book focuses on the functions that agroforestry systems (AFS) can provide when well designed and implemented: their role in rural development as they can improve food sovereignty and contribute to provision of energy for the smallholders; and their environmental functions: contribution to biodiversity conservation, to increased connectivity of fragmented landscapes, and adaptation and mitigation of climate change. The chapters present conceptual aspects and case studies ranging from traditional to more modern approaches, from tropical and temperate regions of the world. Emphasis is placed on the value of indigenous knowledge and how scientific expertise can contribute to identifying marketable products, adding value and finding the proper markets to return the benefits to the producers.
AFS can be profitable at small, medium and large scales if products and services are given their proper monetary recognition. Government subsidies are needed similarly to conventional agriculture, with AFS contributing important environmental services which should be part of the financial equation. Farmer’s associations and rural movements can be instrumental in grouping needs and obtaining fair value for products through certification or other mechanisms. Partnerships among private and public institutions/ organizations are vital for proper implementation of landscape management strategies including AFS. Society is increasingly aware of the environmental issues that plague our world today thus hopefully leading to measures and policies that encourage AFS proper appreciation as a productive, sustainable and environmentally friendly landscape management strategy.
Ilex paraguariensis A. St. -Hil. (Aquifoliaceae), known commonly as “yerba mate,” is a native plant from South America. Its leaves are commonly used to prepare a popular infusion or tea that is energizing and a source of antioxidants. Yerba mate trees are usually grown in monocultures (known as yerbales) where the leaves are harvested several times a year, but this conventional management often results in decreased plant productivity and soil erosion. Since yerba mate grows naturally in subtropical forest and is shade tolerant, it can grow under the canopy of other tree species as a component of agroforestry systems (AFS). Moreover, incorporating trees in degraded yerbales has been shown to provide environmental and economic benefits. This chapter provides a list of native species that are suitable for growing in association with yerba mate, highlighting the use of species with monopodic growth, natural pruning, and a timber stem. These traits offer benefits when planted in mixed conditions as well as additional functions related to food, landscape, and restoration. A group of valuable wood species, known locally as “precious wood,” are a priority due to vulnerability from exploitation. Other species of interest exhibit good growth, valuable soil restoration functions, and the ability to naturally integrate over time to form a vertically heterogeneous and biodiverse forest. As producers attempt to bring products from yerba mate AFS to the market, there is a need for a traceability system to certify tree species throughout production. Yerba mate AFS offer numerous ecosystem services, namely, biodiversity enhancement, carbon sequestration, and the maintenance/restoration of landscape soil and water quality, all of which are discussed in more detail in the chapter. Methodologies used to manage these areas focus on maximizing productivity and profitability, optimizing livelihood benefits, biodiversity recovery, and carbon sequestration.
Agroforestry systems (AFS) are an important strategy for conservation within human managed landscapes, given their ability to harmonize productivity with environmental functions. AFS are heterogeneous in their design, management, and species composition, and this heterogeneity has implications on their restoration, conservation, and productivity functions. AFS can function as biodiversity islands (protected and/or managed areas of high biological diversity within human-dominated landscapes) or can be incorporated into existing biodiversity islands as buffer zones. In this way, they can be integrated into already productive landscapes. This chapter provides an overview of the various ecological, social, and economic benefits of the main types of AFS and their applications as and within biodiversity islands, expanding on their role in providing critical ecosystem services. It discusses the use of incentives to support and promote AFS, safeguarding the contributions they provide to landscape biodiversity and rural communities. Payments for environmental services (PES) can be specifically designed bundling several services including biodiversity as part of programs to promote desired land use changes such as AFS. Biodiversity credit markets are becoming increasingly important as a potential mechanism that can drive financing toward the protection, regeneration, and stewardship of biodiversity, including favoring biodiversity-friendly land use options such as AFS. Finally, the role of government initiatives in supporting agroecological transitions away from conventional agriculture is described, with insight into recent advances in the US. These programs work to support AFS and climate-smart agroecology over conventional agriculture, reinforcing the contributions of AFS to biodiversity islands in the agricultural landscape.
We review the taxonomy of two historically problematic taxa of Neotropical frogs belonging to the Physalaemus cuvieri group: P. albonotatus and P. cuqui. A thorough revision of morphological, bioacoustic, cytogenetic, and genetic characters throughout their ranges indicated that P. cuqui is a junior synonym of P. albonotatus. In addition, our analyses allowed the identification and description of a new taxon that was historically confused with the latter. The new species is externally indistinguishable from P. albonotatus, and both species are allopatric. Their distinction can be made only with their advertisement calls and on molecular grounds. Finally, to help stabilize the complex taxonomy of the P. cuvieri group, we provide a redescription of P. albonotatus with a neotype designation. This decision is based on the fact that we were unable to track extant type specimens in different herpetological collections that would be associated with the original description of this taxon, which is actually a composite of species. A comprehensive list of works dealing with both species is included, indicating whether they are referred to either P. albonotatus or the new species.
Yerba mate ( Ilex paraguariensis ) has several nutritional and pharmaceutical properties and is traditionally used in South America in the preparation of various types of beverages. The pharmaceutical industry has a large number of patents for products related to the properties of this plant. This study aims to analyze the climatic zoning of the yerba mate relative to climate change using CMIP6 model projections. Understanding the potential effects of climate change on yerba mate production and distribution is essential due to its economic and cultural importance. The CMIP6 model allows the analysis of future scenarios by identifying favorable and unfavorable areas for cultivation. The results provide subsidies for adaptation and mitigation measures, helping in strategic planning and decision-making related to sustainable yerba mate production. This study aimed to identify favorable areas for Ilex paraguariensis cultivation for the main producing countries, that is, Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay, under the CMIP 6 climate change scenarios. The study was conducted in producing regions of the North, Northeast, Midwest, Southeast, and South of Brazil and the countries Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay. The ideal air temperature for crop development ranges from 21 to 25°C and the ideal precipitation is > 1200 mm per cycle. Daily air temperature and precipitation data for the current scenario were collected using the WorldClim version 2 platform. Projections of future climate variables were obtained from the WorldClim 2.1 platform using the IPSL-CM6A-LR model, with a 30-second spatial resolution. Four shared socio-economic pathway scenarios were considered for four different periods: 2021–2040, 2041–2060, 2061–2081, and 2081–2100. Data from a geographic information system were used to carry out spatial interpolation throughout the Brazilian territory, using the Kriging method. The results showed that most of the studied territory is classified as unfavorable for yerba mate cultivation, with only 12.25% (1.5 million km ² ) considered favorable. The highest concentration of favorable areas is found in the South of Brazil and Uruguay, which are currently the main producers of yerba mate. Most future scenarios of climate change showed a high impact on the climate due to an increase in the mean air temperature and a reduction in precipitation, leading to possible negative impacts on yerba mate cultivation, with a total reduction of favorable areas in producing regions.
Wildlife in Southeast Asia is greatly affected by agricultural expansion. While intensive farming causes biodiversity decline, low-intensive farming can support some adapted wildlife. In Thailand, the rapid transformation of forests to agricultural landscapes over three decades has resulted in large forest and biodiversity loss, with several Endangered species suffering from cropland expansion. Among these, the Green Peafowl, an Endangered Galliformes widely distributed across Southeast Asia, has shown the capacity to adapt well to low-intensive agriculture landscapes by using crops as food sources. Here we investigated in detail the Green Peafowl’s habitat use in an agricultural landscape surrounding a large forest patch composed of three protected areas in northern Thailand. Using line transect surveys and compositional analysis, we estimated the monthly Peafowl use of different crop types and different crop structures between January 2020 and January 2021. The Green Peafowl’s habitat use was significantly non-random. The order of habitat preference was timber plantations > orchards > cropland > fallow land. The species also preferred cropland within a 500 m buffer zone around the forest patch. The species preferred crops with a canopy structure (timber and orchards) that resembles their natural habitat. Our results confirm that low-intensive and diversified agricultural landscapes could help to sustain the Green Peafowl population. Importantly, we also show that closed canopy crops, such as large tree plantations like teak, rubber and orchards, can provide good alternatives for reforestation to reconnect forest fragments and isolated patches in highly degraded habitats as they allow the species to move further away from forest edges within the degraded landscape.
La Fundación Moisés Bertoni (FMB), desde sus diferentes intervenciones en comunidades sociales aledañas a la Reserva Natural del Bosque Mbaracayú, ha considerado diferentes modelos donde fueron incorporando, reforestación, corredores verdes, sistemas agroforestales, siempre estando presente la Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St-Hil.) buscando desarrollar un modelo de restauración de paisajes en áreas de influencia de la Reserva Natural del Bosque Mbaracayú Canindeyú, Paraguay.
Se expone la evolución de las intervenciones a lo largo del tiempo y el papel que ha tenido la Yerba mate en las comunidades sociales como un elemento socio-económico y cultural permitiendo comprender el papel de la especie para el desarrollo local. Haciendo énfasis en la perspectiva ecosistémica, donde puedan coexistir la conservación del bosque y la generación de ingresos económicos para los agricultores.
We examined the effects of landscape changes in an environmental gradient of forest, a Vernicia fordii plantation, and crops on the distribution patterns of amphibians in San Rafael National Park. We conducted eight periods of fieldwork between June 2012–April
2013 and used pit fall traps with drift fences to capture amphibians. We recorded eight species of the families Bufonidae, Leptodactylidae,
and Odontophrynidae. The environmental variables correlated with the abundance of amphibians were relative humidity, litter depth, herbaceous cover, and air temperature, and significant differences were found in species composition. Generalist species like Leptodactylus mystacinus and Physalaemus cuvieri were found in the most altered areas such as crops and the plantation. Rhinella ornata and Proceratophrys avelinoi were primarily restricted to primary forests, and their abundance was sensitive to forest lost and degradation. Our results support the idea that modified habitats influence distribution patterns of amphibians, and the protection of the remnants of pristine Atlantic Forest is a critical step in the conservation of anuran biodiversity in Paraguay.
Despite advances within particular groups, systematics of the Teiidae has long been unsatisfactory, because fewmorphological characters have been described for this family. Consequently, most species have been assigned to the large,polyphyletic, and poorly defined genera Ameiva and Cnemidophorus. We describe 137 morphological characters andscore them for most species of Neotropical Teiidae. Important, but previously undescribed, character suites include pupilshape; the frontal ridge; longitudinal division of the interparietal; the rostral groove; patterns of supraciliary fusion; thepreauricular skin fold; the “toothy” first supralabial; modified apical granules; the pectoral sulcus; expansion of scales atthe heel; tibiotarsal shields; scales between the digital lamellae along the postaxial edges of the toes; scale surfacemicrostructure of macrohoneycomb, macroridges, or lamellae; distribution patterns and morphology of lenticular scaleorgans; types of epidermal generation glands; and several hemipenial structures. We propose a new taxonomy of theTeiidae based on recovered evolutionary history and numerous morphological characters surveyed in this study. Werecognize three subfamilies: Callopistinae new subfamily, Teiinae Estes et al., and Tupinambinae Estes et al. To resolvepolyphyly of Ameiva and Cnemidophorus, we erect four new genera for various groups of Neotropical Teiidae: Ameivulanew genus, Aurivela new genus, Contomastix new genus, and Medopheos new genus. We resurrect Holcosus Cope fromthe synonymy of Ameiva and Salvator Duméril and Bibron from the synonymy of Tupinambis. On the basis of sharedderived characters, we propose new species groups of our redefined Ameiva and Cnemidophorus. We incorporate our newcharacters into a key to the genera and species groups of Teiidae. A phylogenetic hypothesis of Teiidae based onmorphological characters differs substantially from hypotheses based on mitochondrial DNA. The phylogeny based onmorphology is consistent with well-established biogeographic patterns of Neotropical vertebrates and explains extreme morphological divergence in such genera as Kentropyx and Aurivela.
Land converted to coffee agriculture occupies >5 million hectares of what was once prime overwintering natural habitat in the American Neotropics for migrating birds. When tree canopy is retained or restored (i.e., shade-grown), coffee farms can serve as habitat refuge for wildlife. Yet few studies have examined whether canopy tree identity impacts habitat quality for biodiversity. Specifically, whether or not certain tree species are disproportionately important for foraging insectivorous birds remains unclear. In this study, we quantified bird foraging activity on 22 tree species in two Latin American Bird Friendly© coffee farms. Specifically, we conducted timed observations on focal trees to determine 1) tree preferences, 2) foraging bird abundance, 3) foraging time, and 4) species richness of birds using each canopy tree species. We found that birds did not forage randomly, and instead exhibited preferences for particular native tree species. Nitrogen-fixing Fabaceae were consistently used more frequently, supported more resident and migratory birds for longer periods of time, and supported more bird species than trees in other families. We posit that the potential mechanism contributing to tree preferences is the increase in insect abundance and diversity that provide high-quality food for insectivores but do not present pest problems for coffee. Thus, tree species that support insects may provide multiple benefits for farmers in the form of bottom-up soil fertilization and top-down pest control. This study provides evidence that agroforestry land can be improved for birds of conservation concern by prioritizing canopy tree species that help birds and farm productivity.
Aim
The hypothesis that habitat fragmentation negatively influences biodiversity stems from island biogeography and metapopulation theory which predict negative impacts of decreasing patch size on richness and distribution patterns. Empirical support of this idea is weak in terrestrial systems, though tests of fragmentation effects are typically confounded with landscape composition and potentially obscured by imperfect detection. Here, we used multispecies occupancy models and a mensurative experimental design to test competing hypotheses about how forest fragmentation influences distributions of breeding forest bird species and communities.
Location
Southern Indiana, USA.
Methods
During the breeding seasons of 2011–2013, we recorded over 80,000 bird detections in 202 forest fragments using a sampling design that isolated the effects of patch size per se from the effects of forest amount within a 2 km radius, edge distance, local vegetation and sampling area. We modelled the effects of these covariates on distributions of individual species categorized by ecological trait groups (i.e., forest, forest interior or forest edge), and evaluated how forest loss and fragmentation impact species richness.
Results
Though our results indicated little effect of patch size on total species richness, decreasing patch size had a negative effect on interior species, and a positive effect on edge species. The effects of total forest amount were much more variable, and surprisingly had a negative influence on many species, particularly cavity nesters.
Main conclusions
Our results do not support theoretical predictions that forest patch size should positively influence bird species richness. However, composition of bird communities shifted towards edge species from interior species with decreasing patch size. Maintaining large forest patches is thus critical for supporting forest interior species, which tend to be of the greatest conservation concern.
El rol de las áreas silvestres protegidas es re-conocido a nivel mundial en términos de conservación in-situ. A nivel nacional, el 6,1% de territorio nacional está representado por Áreas Silvestres Protegidas públicas y privadas. La Asociación Guyra Paraguay posee 36.134 ha destinadas a conservación a perpetuidad, lo que permite conservar no solo especies sino también procesos ecológicos claves en diferentes ecorregiones en el Paraguay. Este trabajo resume la biodiversidad protegida en términos de aves, mamíferos, peces, anfibios y reptiles en las reservas privadas de Guyra Paraguay. A la fecha, 821 especies de vertebrados fueron re-gistrados en seis complejos de áreas protegidas de la institución que representan ecorregiones como Pantanal, Bosque Atlántico del Alto Para-ná, Pastizales Naturales, Chaco Seco y Médanos.
The role of protected areas has been recognized worldwide in terms of it importance to in-situ conservation. At national level, 6,1% of the national territory is represented by Protected Areas, including those privately and publicly owned. Guyra Paraguay owns 36.134 ha of lands destined to conservation in perpetuity, which allows conservation not only at the species level but also of ecological processes in different eco-regions in Paraguay. This research summarizes the biodiversity protected in terms of birds, mammals, fish, amphibians and reptiles in Guyra Paraguay´s private reserves. To the date, 821 vertebrate species have been recorded in Guyra Paraguay´s six protected area complex which represents eco-regions such as Pantanal, Atlantic Forest, Natural Grasslands, Dry Chaco and Medanos.
The Upper Parana Atlantic Forest (BAAPA) in Paraguay is one of the most threatened
tropical forests in the world. The rapid growth of deforestation has resulted in the loss of 91%
of its original cover. Numerous efforts have been made to halt deforestation activities, however
farmers’ perception towards the forest and its benefits has not been considered either in studies
conducted so far or by policy makers. This research provides the first multi-temporal analysis of
the dynamics of the forest within the BAAPA region on the one hand, and assesses the way farmers
perceive the forest and how this influences forest conservation at the farm level on the other. Remote
sensing data acquired from Landsat images from 1999 to 2016 were used to measure the extent of
the forest cover and deforestation rates over 17 years. Farmers’ influence on the dynamics of the
forest was evaluated by combining earth observation data and household survey results conducted
in the BAAPA region in 2016. Outcomes obtained in this study demonstrate a total loss in forest
cover of 7500 km2. Deforestation rates in protected areas were determined by management regimes.
The combination of household level and remote sensing data demonstrated that forest dynamics
at the farm level is influenced by farm type, the level of dependency/use of forest benefits and the
level of education of forest owners. An understanding of the social value awarded to the forest is a
relevant contribution towards preserving natural resources.
Small forest fragments may play a major role in fragmented areas, but there is scarce empirical data to test this hypothesis. To understand in which context birds can use small Atlantic Forest fragments, we tested the presence of 11 bird species in 30 small fragments (4–10 ha), in a range of matrices (eucalyptus-pasture), and in different landscape configurations. The results showed that landscape composition is a good predictor for presence of birds in small fragments and their use can be further associated with matrix type. Considering the number of species, and the species Chiroxiphia caudata, we found a pattern in which models that consider the matrix composition are the most plausible. Relative importance of the variables indicates that matrix is the most important single variable among the selected species (five among eight). This suggests that small fragments are effective for increasing connectivity, mainly in landscapes with a higher percentage of permeable matrix.
A região Noroeste é a mais desmatada e com menor concentração de Unidades de Conservação do estado de
São Paulo. Apesar dos avanços científicos recentes, ainda existem lacunas de conhecimento de herpetofauna. O presente estudo teve como objetivo fornecer informações sobre riqueza, abundância e uso do habitat dos répteis da Fazenda Cambuhy, que abrange os municípios de Matão, Nova Europa e Tabatinga. As amostragens ocorreram entre os anos de 2013 a 2015, utilizando-se quatro metodologias: armadilhas de interceptação e queda, procura visual limitada por tempo, procura em estradas e encontros ocasionais. Foram incluídos também os registros disponíveis em coleções cientíicas e na literatura. Foram registradas 46 espécies de répteis pertencentes aos grupos Squamata e Crocodylia. As espécies mais frequentes foram Salvator merianae (N = 55), espécie mais abundante em todos os ambientes amostrados, Notomabuya frenata (N = 14), amostrada somente nas florestas e Ameiva ameiva (N = 4), registrada nos ambientes antrópicos e florestais. A composição de espécies registrada reflete o posicionamento da área de estudo, apresentando a maioria das espécies associadas aos biomas Cerrado e Mata Atlântica. A riqueza de répteis da Fazenda Cambuhy representa 21% da riqueza de répteis do estado, sendo de grande signfiicância para conservação da herpetofauna da região Noroeste do estado de São Paulo.
A major conservation challenge in mosaic landscapes is to understand how
trait-specific responses to habitat edges affect bird communities, including
potential cascading effects on bird functions providing ecosystem services to
forests, such as pest control. Here, we examined how bird species richness,
abundance and community composition varied from interior forest habitats
and their edges into adjacent open habitats, within a multi-regional sampling
scheme. We further analyzed variations in Conservation Value Index (CVI),
Community Specialization Index (CSI) and functional traits across the forestedge-open
habitat gradient. Bird species richness, total abundance and CVI
were significantly higher at forest edges while CSI peaked at interior open habitats,
i.e., furthest from forest edge. In addition, there were important variations
in trait- and species-specific responses to forest edges among bird communities.
Positive responses to forest edges were found for several forest bird species with
unfavorable conservation status. These species were in general insectivores,
understorey gleaners, cavity nesters and long-distance migrants, all traits that
displayed higher abundance at forest edges than in forest interiors or adjacent
open habitats. Furthermore, consistently with predictions, negative edge effects
were recorded in some forest specialist birds and in most open-habitat birds,
showing increasing densities from edges to interior habitats. We thus suggest
that increasing landscape-scale habitat complexity would be beneficial to declining
species living in mosaic landscapes combining small woodlands and open
habitats. Edge effects between forests and adjacent open habitats may also favor
bird functional guilds providing valuable ecosystem services to forests in longstanding
fragmented landscapes.
A major conservation challenge in mosaic landscapes is to understand how trait-specific responses to habitat edges affect bird communities, including potential cascading effects on bird functions providing ecosystem services to forests, such as pest control. Here, we examined how bird species richness, abundance and community composition varied from interior forest habitats and their edges into adjacent open habitats, within a multi-regional sampling scheme. We further analyzed variations in Conservation Value Index (CVI), Community Specialization Index (CSI) and functional traits across the forest-edge-open habitat gradient. Bird species richness, total abundance and CVI were significantly higher at forest edges while CSI peaked at interior open habitats , i.e., furthest from forest edge. In addition, there were important variations in trait-and species-specific responses to forest edges among bird communities. Positive responses to forest edges were found for several forest bird species with unfavorable conservation status. These species were in general insectivores, understorey gleaners, cavity nesters and long-distance migrants, all traits that displayed higher abundance at forest edges than in forest interiors or adjacent open habitats. Furthermore, consistently with predictions, negative edge effects were recorded in some forest specialist birds and in most open-habitat birds, showing increasing densities from edges to interior habitats. We thus suggest that increasing landscape-scale habitat complexity would be beneficial to declining species living in mosaic landscapes combining small woodlands and open habitats. Edge effects between forests and adjacent open habitats may also favor bird functional guilds providing valuable ecosystem services to forests in long-standing fragmented landscapes.
Hill numbers (or the effective number of species) have been increasingly used to quantify the species/taxonomic diversity of an assemblage. The sample‐size‐ and coverage‐based integrations of rarefaction (interpolation) and extrapolation (prediction) of H ill numbers represent a unified standardization method for quantifying and comparing species diversity across multiple assemblages.
We briefly review the conceptual background of H ill numbers along with two approaches to standardization. We present an R package iNEXT (i N terpolation/ EXT rapolation) which provides simple functions to compute and plot the seamless rarefaction and extrapolation sampling curves for the three most widely used members of the H ill number family (species richness, S hannon diversity and S impson diversity). Two types of biodiversity data are allowed: individual‐based abundance data and sampling‐unit‐based incidence data.
Several applications of the iNEXT packages are reviewed: (i) Non‐asymptotic analysis: comparison of diversity estimates for equally large or equally complete samples. (ii) Asymptotic analysis: comparison of estimated asymptotic or true diversities. (iii) Assessment of sample completeness (sample coverage) across multiple samples. (iv) Comparison of estimated point diversities for a specified sample size or a specified level of sample coverage.
Two examples are demonstrated, using the data (one for abundance data and the other for incidence data) included in the package, to illustrate all R functions and graphical displays.
Loss and fragmentation of natural habitats are key contributors to the decline of populations and impoverishment of biological communities. The response to these disturbances can vary substantially among taxa and depends on spatial metrics of habitat fragments and the surrounding landscape. Herein we test how fragment area, shape, isolation, and matrix quality affect reptile richness, abundance, and occurrence in Brazilian Atlantic Forest fragments, a biodiversity hotspot with a poorly studied reptile fauna. We used 23 forest fragments, ranging from 2 to 30 hectares, surrounded by different matrix types, including sugarcane crop fields, cattle ranching, subsistence farmlands and rural communities. Species richness, total reptile abundance, population abundance, and occurrence probability of many species decreased with fragment area. Model selection suggested that fragment area is the main predictor of both richness and abundance, but matrix quality as well as fragment shape are also important predictors. For population abundance and occurrence probability, fragment area and proximity were the most important predictors followed by fragment shape and matrix quality, but the strength and even the sign of predictors varied substantially among species. We highlight that the value of small fragments should not be neglected for the conservation of Atlantic Forest reptiles.
Although some species groups have been recognized in the leiuperine genus Physalaemus, no phylogenetic analysis has previously been performed. Here, we provide a phylogenetic study based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences from 41 of the 46 species of Physalaemus. We employed the parsimony criterion using the software TNT and POY and the Bayesian criterion using the software MrBayes. Two major clades were recovered inside the monophyletic Physalaemus: i) the highly supported Physalaemus signifer Clade, which included P. nattereri and the species previously placed in the P. deimaticus and P. signifer Groups; and ii) the Physalaemus cuvieri Clade, which included the remaining species of Physalaemus. Five species groups were recognized in the P. cuvieri Clade: the P. biligonigerus Group, the P. cuvieri Group, the P. henselii Group, the P. gracilis Group and the P. olfersii Group. The P. gracilis Species Group was the same as that previously proposed by Nascimento et al. (2005). The P. henselii Group includes P. fernandezae and P. henselii, and was the sister group of a clade that comprised the remaining species of the P. cuvieri Clade. The P. olfersii Group included P. olfersii, P. soaresi, P. maximus, P. feioi and P. lateristriga. The P. biligonigerus Species Group was composed of P. biligonigerus, P. marmoratus, P. santafecinus and P. riograndensis. The P. cuvieri Group inferred here differed from that recognized by Nascimento et al. (2005) only by the inclusion of P. albifrons and the exclusion of P. cicada. The paraphyly of P. cuvieri with respect to P. ephippifer was inferred in all the analyses. Distinct genetic lineages were recognized among individuals currently identified as P. cuvieri and they were congruent with cytogenetic differences reported previously, supporting the hypothesis of occurrence of formally unnamed species.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Inc.
Mabuya frenata is a relatively common skink in the region of Valinhos, Sao Paulo State, Southeastern Brazil, an area with a highly seasonal climate. The activity, thermal ecology, habitat use, and diet of this species were studied in the vincinity of Valinhos. Lizards were active throughout daylight periods, but the activity pattern differed among seasons, being more uniform in the rainy season than in the dry season. The mean body temperature of active M. frenata was 31.6 +/- 3.2 C and was correlated with air and substrate temperatures, although direct insolation may also be an important heat source for this lizard. Unlike environmental temperatures, the mean activity temperature of M. frenata did not differ among seasons, which, combined with field observations, suggests that this lizard thermoregulates. The microhabitat preferred for M. frenata was granitic boulders. The diet included a great variety of arthropods, although termites were the dominant items. The diet of M. frenata did not differ between sexes nor among seasons and was related to prey availability in the environment.
Stenocercus caducus es un Tropidurinae descrito para Paraguay, Brasil (Mato Grosso e Pará) Bolivia (Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Santa Cruz, Tarija) y Argentina (Jujuy, Salta). Aparentemente es poco exigente en cuanto al hábitat, ya que es encontrado en áreas de cerrados, cerradones, matas ciliares y eventualmente en áreas antropizadas. En este estudio se presentan aspectos ecológicos de S. caducus, muestreados en 18 fragmentos insertados en una matriz de pradera, en la región sudeste de Mato Grosso en un área de la Floresta Estacional Semidecidua Submontana. Se realizaron las colectas en período seco y lluvioso entre diciembre de 2002 y agosto de 2004, a través de trampas tipo pitfall, con esfuerzo muestreal de 9.000 baldes/día. Fue determinada la estructura poblacional, observando la ocurrencia de solo adultos en el período lluvioso y predominancia de jóvenes en el período seco. La relación sexual encontrada estuvo próxima a 1:1 en ambos períodos, no siendo encontrada diferencias significativas en los patrones morfométricos entre los sexos. En cuanto al uso de hábitat, la especie se mostró generalista, utilizando tanto la matriz de pastos o pradera, orilla e interior de los fragmentos, aparentando preferencia por la orilla. En relación con la dieta, estaba exclusivamente compuesta por artrópodos, detectándose una ingestión que incluye un amplio espectro de presas, siendo más frecuentes y numerosas los insectos de los órdenes Coleóptera, Himenóptera (Formicidae) e Isóptera. La aparente plasticidad de la especie en cuanto al uso de hábitat y dieta contribuye para que sea exitosa, ya que una vez que se amplía el territorio de forrajeo aumenta la capacidad de sobrevivencia, siendo favorecida por la transformación de las áreas de Cerrado en un mosaico de fragmentos, debido a los constantes impactos antrópicos que suceden.
A phylogeny of the species-rich clade of the Neotropical frog genus Leptodactylus sensu stricto is presented on the basis of a total evi- dence analysis of molecular (mitochondrial and nuclear markers) and non-molecular (adult and larval morphological and behavioral characters) sampled from > 80% of the 75 currently recognized species. Our results support the monophyly of Leptodactylus sensu stricto, with Hydrolaetare placed as its sister group. The reciprocal monophyly of Hydrolaetare and Leptodactylus sensu stricto does not require that we consider Hydrolaetare as either a subgenus or synonym of Leptodactylus sensu lato. We recognize Leptodactylus sensu stricto, Hydrolaetare, Adenomera, and Lithodytes as valid monophyletic genera. Our results generally support the traditionally recognized Leptodactylus species groups, with exceptions involving only a few species that are easily accommodated without proposing new groups or significantly altering contents. The four groups form a pectinate tree, with the Leptodactylus fuscus group diverging first, followed by the L. pentadactylus group, which is sister to the L. latrans and L. melanonotus groups. To evaluate the impact of non-molecular evidence on our results, we compared our total evidence results with results obtained from analy- ses using only molecular data. Although non-molecular evidence comprised only 3.5% of the total evidence matrix, it had a strong impact on our total evidence results. Only one species group was monophyletic in the molecular-only analysis, and support differed in 86% of the 54 Leptodac- tylus clades that are shared by the results of the two analyses. Even though no non-molecular evidence was included for Hydrolaetare, exclusion of that data partition resulted in that genus being nested within Leptodactylus, demonstrating that the inclusion of a small amount of non-molecular evidence for a subset of species can alter not only the placement of those species, but also species that were not scored for those data. The evolu- tion of several natural history and reproductive traits is considered in the light of our phylogenic framework. Invasion of rocky outcrops, larval oophagy, and use of underground reproductive chambers are restricted to species of the Leptodactylus fuscus and L. pentadactylus groups. In con- trast, larval schooling, larval attendance, and more complex parental care are restricted to the L. latrans and L. melanonotus groups. Construction of foam nests is plesiomorphic in Leptodactylus but their placement varies extensively (e.g., underground chambers, surface of waterbodies, natu- ral or excavated basins). Information on species synonymy, etymology, adult and larval morphology, advertisement call, and geographic distribu- tion is summarized in species accounts for the 30 species of the Leptodactylus fuscus group, 17 species of the L. pentadactylus group, eight species of the L. latrans group, and 17 species of the L. melanonotus group, as well as the three species that are currently unassigned to any species group.
Se presentan los resultados de la categorización de la herpetofauna de la
República del Paraguay, utilizando las categorías propuestas por la Unión Internacional para la
Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN). El 10,9% de las 82 especies de anfibios analizados y el
14,9% de las 161 especies de reptiles, se encuentra en alguna de las categorías de riesgo de
extinción propuestas por UICN. Esto indica que es necesario encarar acciones de conservación
a corto y largo plazo para evitar y/o disminuir la pérdida de espécies.
La fauna de anfibios de Paraguay es una de las menos conocidas si la
comparamos con la de otros países del sur de América del Sur. Luego de una exhaustiva revisión
de las colecciones de diversos museos, así como de la bibliografía pertinente, estamos en
condiciones de presentar una lista comentada que incluye tres especies de cecilias y 79 taxa de
anuros para dicho país. De ellas, 12 son nuevas citas para Paraguay y se confirma la presencia
de otras 8, que habían sido previamente mencionadas pero sin incluir ejemplares de referencia.
Por otra parte, 34 taxa de anfibios se excluyen de la fauna paraguaya por diversos motivos
(explicados en cada caso) y creemos probable la presencia de otros 28 taxa, registrados en diversas
localidades de Argentina, Bolivia y Brasil próximas a la frontera con Paraguay.
This manual can be downloaded for free from URL
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/output/tree-diversity-analysis
Effective data analysis requires familiarity with basic concepts and an
ability to use a set of standard tools, as well as creativity and imagination.
Tree diversity analysis provides a solid practical foundation for training in
statistical methods for ecological and biodiversity studies.
This manual arose from training researchers to analyse tree diversity data
collected on African farms, yet the statistical methods can be used for a
wider range of organisms, for different hierarchical levels of biodiversity and
for a variety of environments — making it an invaluable tool for scientists and
students alike.
Focusing on the analysis of species survey data, Tree diversity analysis
provides a comprehensive review of the methods that are most often used in
recent diversity and community ecology literature including:
• Species accumulation curves for site-based and individual-based species
accumulation, including a new technique for exact calculation of sitebased
species accumulation.
• Description of appropriate methods for investigating differences in
diversity and evenness such as Rényi diversity profiles, including methods
of rarefaction to the same sample size for different subsets of the data.
• Modern regression methods of generalized linear models and generalized
additive models that are often appropriate for investigating patterns of
species occurrence and species counts.
• Methods of ordination for investigating community structure and the
influence of environmental characteristics, including recent methods
such as distance-based redundancy analysis and constrained analysis of
principal coordinates.
The manual also introduces a powerful new software programme,
BiodiversityR, that is capable of performing all the statistical analyses
described in the book. The software is built using the free R language and
environment for statistical computing, and several of its libraries such as
the vegan community ecology package and the R-commander graphical
user interface. The software is provided on CD.
After publishing this manual, the BiodiversityR software was modified into
a package that can be downloaded and installed from URL
https://cran.r-project.org/package=BiodiversityR
The vegan community ecology package can be downloaded from URL https://cran.r-project.org/package=vegan.
Installation guidelines for windows users are available from URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.4706.0082.
A tutorial for ensemble suitability modelling is available from URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1993.7684.
Shade coffee certification programs have emerged over the past six years to verify that coffee marketed as ''shade grown'' is actually grown on farms that provide higher quality habitat for biodiversity. In spite of good intentions and an increasing market, little consensus exists on whether current criteria can successfully identify coffee farms of conservation significance. This paper provides the first ecological evaluation and compar- ison of shade-grown coffee criteria used by major certification programs. Using vegetative data, we evaluated criteria developed by the Rainforest Alliance, the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center (SMBC), and the Specialty Coffee Association of America across a range of coffee agroecosystems in Chiapas, Mexico, to determine which management practices each program would certify. Fruit-feeding butterflies and forest bird species found in these coffee agroecosystems were compared with nearby forest reserves as indicators of biodiversity and conservation potential. These agroecosystems fall into three categories: rustic, com- mercial polyculture, and shaded monoculture. The rustic system contained significantly higher fruit-feeding butterfly diversity and an avifauna more similar to that found in forest reserves than the other systems. This was also the only agroecosystem that met the criteria for all certification programs, while the shaded monoculture fell short of all sets of criteria. This suggests that certification programs are succeeding in discriminating between the extremes of shade coffee production. Certification programs differed, however, in their treatment of the intermediate, commercial polyculture systems, reflecting different philos- ophies for conservation in managed ecosystems. Programs promoted by SMBC use high standards that would exclude all but the most diverse commercial polyculture or rustic systems to certify only those systems that support high levels of biodiversity. The program supported by the Rainforest Alliance only excludes the shaded monoculture while engaging the others in the move toward greater sustainability. The merits of each approach should be put to rigorous debate, and their ability to contribute to biodiversity conservation should be reflected in product marketing. This study suggests that further research can provide a stronger scientific basis and independent verification for the certification of green products that claim to enhance biodiversity conservation in tropical agroecosystems.
The bird communities of Atlantic Forest have been studied using point counts of either 10 or 20 min. Nevertheless, many factors may affect the efficiency of the method and have not been evaluated in this ecosystem for a proper design of studies. We evaluated the influence of some factors in unlimitedistance point counts surveyed in a bird community studied during the breeding season in an Atlantic Forest at the San Rafael National Park, Paraguay. Counts were 20-min long, divided into four 5 min intervals, and sampled within 30 min before dawn to 3 h after sunrise, and repeated counts were surveyed at each point. The total number of individuals and species detected per count varied significantly during the morning period, being greater in the first hour after sunrise. Nevertheless, individual species differed in patterns of detection during the morning. At least, 87% and 93% of the bird species were detected in the first 5 and 10 min of 20-min counts, respectively. The number of new species detected was three times higher during the first 5 min of 20-min counts than in later intervals. Also, a significant decrease in detections occurred in the last two intervals of the counts. The number of species at a point increases with each additional count surveyed, but species decline substantially after the fourth visit. The results indicate that 10-min count durations are sufficient for survey this bird community and that four visits to a point count during different hours of the morning would be needed to cover the variability in the activity pattern of its birds.
South American Stenocercus lizards occur mostly in the Andes and adjacent lowland areas from northern Colombia and Venezuela to central Argentina at elevations of 0-4000 m. In this paper, 61 species of Stenocercus are recognized, including one resurrected as S. angulifer. Morphologically, S. angulifer more closely resembles S. aculeatus. For each species, a diagnosis, description, and summary of distribution are provided based on examination of 2001 specimens and data from the literature. Notes on color in life and natural history are included for most species. Additionally, a dichotomous key to assist in the identification of specimens is provided.
The point count method has been widely used in tropical forest for sampling bird communities. In the present study, we investigated if data on richness and abundance acquired using the point count method are different comparing spring/summer (breeding season) and fall/winter (non-breeding season) in three types of the Brazilian Atlantic forest. Twelve sites were sampled seasonally during one year. In general we recorded more species and individuals during the breeding seasons. However, bird communities vary seasonally among the forest types and functional groups. We demonstrate that the use of point counts in tropical forest should be adjusted considering the differences in forest types and feeding guilds.
The difficulty and length of time required for seed germination of mate (Ilex paraguariensis), as well as the pressing need for clonal multiplication of improved genetic material, has resulted in several studies related to vegetative propagation in an effort to obtain rooted cuttings more quickly and with better genetic quality. Currently, the biggest challenge is propagating and rooting adult plants selected in the field without requiring clear cutting to generate conditions for the basal induction of juvenile sprouts. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop a method to rescue adult mate plants through the generation of epicormic sprouts. To accomplish this, tree branches of mate that were at least 19 years of age were collected and packed in trays with sand for sprouting. Different solutions containing a mixture of sucrose and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) were sprayed in branches at 29, 22, 15, 8 and 1 day(s) before collection. We conclude that the vegetative propagation of adult mate trees is technically efficient and requires no treatment with sucrose or IBA and results in the formation of plants suitable for planting or serving as mother plants for continuous multiplication via cloning.
We surveyed birds in cacao (Theobroma
cacao) plantations in the state of Tabasco, Mexico. The shade canopy was planted by farmers and consisted of approximately 60 species of trees with no single dominant species. Canopy height averaged 15 m and the structure was multi-storied. We conducted 220 ten minute, 25 m radius point counts for birds and detected 1550 individuals from 81 species. The average number of birds/point and the expected diversity in a fixed number of individuals within the cacao surveyed were well within the range of other lowland habitats, including agricultural sites, that we have surveyed previously in neighbouring Chiapas. In the Tabascan cacao, the migrant group was composed, in part, of forest species, and dimorphic species were represented primarily by males, which in other areas are known to dominate forest or forest-like habitats. In contrast to the composition of migrant species, we found few resident forest specialists in Tabascan cacao. Instead, the tropical resident group was composed of large-bodied generalist species that use small patches of trees in open habitats. These results (moderate diversity, low numbers of forest specialists) differ from the few studies completed in ‘rustic’ cacao systems located near large tracts of forest. The planted shade cacao agroecosystem – at least in the absence of nearby forest – may have a limited value for conserving lost tropical forest bird diversity, but it provides habitat for woodland-associated migratory species. Our results also indicate that the planted shade cacao plantations supported few small omnivorous or frugivorous species, probably because cacao itself, as well as the dominant shade trees, produce primarily mammal or wind dispersed fruit and seeds.
In the Atlantic forest region, there is a need to develop economic activities that can be carried out in buffer zones around
parks, with minimal impact on forest bird species. One such possibility is the farming of yerba mate, Ilex paraguariensis, under native trees. We compared bird speciesȁ9 presence and abundance between a forest reserve and an adjacent plantation
of shade-grown yerba mate, to determine which species might use such plantations. Of the 145 species that were regularly recorded
in the forest, 66%, including five globally threatened species, were also regularly recorded in the plantation. Most canopy
species and tree trunk insectivores showed similar abundance in both habitats, but forest floor and understory species were
absent from the plantation. Within the plantation, higher tree density did not lead to a greater abundance of forest birds.
Yerba mate grown under native trees could be used to rehabilitate cleared land and allow recolonization by some Atlantic forest
bird species.
The traditional shade cacao plantations (cabrucas) of southern Bahia, Brazil, are biologically rich habitats, encompassing
many forest-dwelling species. However, a critical question for the conservation management of this specific region, and the
highly fragmented Atlantic forest in general, is to what extent the conservation value of cabrucas relies on the presence
of primary forest habitat in the landscape. We investigated the relative importance of cabrucas and forests for the conservation
of five diverse biological groups (ferns, frogs, lizards, birds and bats) in two contrasting landscapes in southern Bahia,
one dominated by forest with some interspersed cabrucas, and one dominated by cabrucas with interspersed forest fragments.
The community structure (richness, abundance and diversity) of all biological groups differed between cabrucas and forests,
although these differences varied among groups. A high number of forest species was found in the cabrucas. However, there
were pronounced differences between the two landscapes with regard to the ability of cabrucas to maintain species richness.
Irrespective of the biological group considered, cabrucas located in the landscape with few and small forest fragments supported
impoverished assemblages compared to cabrucas located in the landscape with high forest cover. This suggests that a greater
extent of native forest in the landscape positively influences the species richness of cabrucas. In the landscape with few
small forest fragments interspersed into extensive areas of shade cacao plantations, the beta diversity of birds was higher
than in the more forested landscape, suggesting that forest specialist species that rarely ventured into cabrucas were randomly
lost from the fragments. These results stress both the importance and the vulnerability of the small forest patches remaining
in landscapes dominated by shade plantations. They also point to the need to preserve sufficient areas of primary habitat
even in landscapes where land use practices are generally favorable to the conservation of biodiversity.
KeywordsAtlantic forest-Bats-Birds-Butterflies-Cabruca-Ferns-Frogs-Landscape context-Lizards-Shade cacao plantation
This practical manual of amphibian ecology and conservation brings together a distinguished, international group of amphibian researchers to provide a state-of-the-art review of the many new and exciting techniques used to study amphibians and to track their conservation status and population trends. The integration of ecology and conservation is a natural outcome of the types of questions posed by these disciplines: how amphibians can and should be sampled, marked, and followed through time; how abundance and population trends are measured; what are the robust statistical methods that can be used in ecology and conservation; what roles do amphibians play in community structure and function; how do animals function in their environment; and what affects the long-term persistence of species assemblages? Although emphasizing field ecology, sections on physiological ecology, genetics, landscape ecology, and disease analysis are also included. The book describes the latest statistical approaches in amphibian field ecology and conservation, as well as the use of models in interpreting field research. Much of this information is scattered in the scientific literature or not readily available, and the intention is to provide an affordable, comprehensive synthesis for use by graduate students, researchers, and practising conservationists worldwide.
Shade-grown coffee, which is grown under a forest-like canopy of trees, is a production system widely regarded as environmentally sustainable and enabling for biodiversity conservation. Although shade-coffee systems enhance pest-control services from birds, there is an important potential tradeoff, namely lower coffee yields. Yet few studies have explicitly examined this tradeoff and the economic incentives required for smallholders to adopt shade practices rather than conventional systems, in which coffee is grown in full sun or little shade. We formulated a dynamic optimization problem to model a grower's decision to convert land from conventional to shade-grown production based on (1) expected yields and costs of each system, (2) gains from pest-control services provided by birds and (3) price premiums for higher-quality, sustainably-grown coffee. Our results suggest that at least 36% of a five-hectare farm should be allocated to shade-grown coffee to maximize inter-temporal income. This proportion is positively related to (1) production savings associated with birds, (2) prices for shade-grown and conventional coffees, (3) number of trees used for shade and (4) yields of shade-grown coffee. We show that smallholders have incentives to allocate more land to shade-grown coffee when they benefit from bird conservation under the appropriate market conditions.
Over the last decades there have been a considerable number of deforestation studies in Latin America reporting lower rates compared with other regions; although these studies are either regional or local and do not allow the comparison of the intraregional variability present among countries or forest types. Here, we present the results obtained from a systematic review of 369 articles (published from 1990 to 2014) about deforestation rates for 17 countries and forest types (tropical lowland, tropical montane, tropical and subtropical dry, subtropical temperate and mixed, and Atlantic forests). Drivers identified as direct or indirect causes of deforestation in the literature were also analysed. With an overall annual deforestation rate of −1.14 (±0.092 SE) in the region, we compared the rates per forest type and country. The results indicate that there is a high variability of forest loss rates among countries and forest types. In general, Chile and Argentina presented the highest deforestation rates (−3.28 and −2.31 yearly average, respectively), followed by Ecuador and Paraguay (−2.19 and −1.89 yearly average, respectively). Atlantic forests (−1.62) and tropical montane forests (−1.55) presented the highest deforestation rates for the region. In particular, tropical lowland forests in Ecuador (−2.42) and tropical dry forests in Mexico (−2.88) and Argentina (−2.20) were the most affected. In most countries, the access to markets and agricultural and forest activities are the main causes of deforestation; however, the causes vary according to the forest types. Deforestation measurements focused at different scales and on different forest types will help governments to improve their reports for international initiatives, such as reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) but, more importantly, for developing local policies for the sustainable management of forests and for reducing the deforestation in Latin America.
In this study, we tested the potential of restored areas to maintain biodiversity in the scope of a recently proposed category of protected area called “Restoration Reserves”. To accomplish this, we compared bird richness and functional group structure of two small forest fragments (<250ha) with adjacent recently reforested areas (9 and 7 years of reforestation). Reforested areas had equal or higher bird richness and similar functional group structure. These results indicate that reforested areas are capable of maintaining current levels of biodiversity and reducing species extinction debt in small forest fragments, which is the main purpose of “Restoration Reserves”. However, when we compared a large forest fragment with an old adjacent reforested area (20 years of reforestation), we found that it was of limited value for certain functional groups. Therefore, “Restoration Reserves” could provide essential additional habitat in highly fragmented landscapes that consists mainly of small forest fragments.
Resumen. Paraguay ha perdido en la actualidad un 88.5% de Bosque Atlántico del Alto Paraná, siendo esta ecorregión un Hotspot de biodiversidad global y la Reserva Natural del Bosque Mbaracayú (RNBM) protege una importante muestra de este ambiente. En este trabajo se actualiza la lista de la herpetofauna de Mbaracayú, identificando la riqueza y afinidades ecológicas de las especies presentes en el área. Para ello se revisaron colecciones y se realizaron actividades de campo donde se efectuaron muestreos por observación directa y empleo de trampas en diferentes puntos del área de estudio. Se registraron 28 anfibios y 37 reptiles, de los cuales 22 especies de cada taxón fueron encontrados durante actividades de campo. La RNBM es un área con alta riqueza de herpetofauna. En parte esta diversidad se debe al gran tamaño del área y a la alta heterogeneidad ambiental, evidenciado por las afinidades ecológicas de sus especies. Palabras clave: afinidad ecológica, biodiversidad, Bosque Atlántico del Alto Paraná, Cerrado, heterogeneidad ambiental, riqueza de especies. Abstract. Paraguay has currently lost 88.5% of the Alto Parana Atlantic Forest, being this a Hotspot of global biodiversity, and Reserva Natural del Bosque Mbaracayú (RNBM) protects an important sample of this environment. In this work we updated the list of herpetofauna from Mbaracayú, identifying species richness and ecological affinities of the species present in the area. For that, we review collections and we made fieldwork where we sampled through direct observation and use of traps in different sites of the study area. We recorded 28 amphibians and 37 reptiles, of which 22 species of each taxon were found during fieldwork. The RNBM is an area with a high richness of herpetofauna. Part of it is given to the big size of the area, and also to the high environmental heterogeneity, proved by the ecological affinities of its species.
We employed three techniques for sampling amphibians (nocturnal stream searching, pitfall traps with drift fences, and automatic tape recording of anuran calls) concurrently for six nights at 20 forest sites in south-east Queensland, Australia, to compare their performance. Nocturnal stream searching was the most sensitive sampling technique, detecting the most species with the fewest nights of survey. Pitfall trapping was the least sensitive sampling technique. On average, a minimum of four nights of survey was required to detect the range of amphibian species present at a site. Nocturnal stream searches and automatic tape recorders were robust in the range of conditions encountered during the survey, with no significant relationships found between temporal or spatial variation in their performance and weather or site conditions. This systematic study represents one of few to compare different techniques for sampling amphibians in a given region, and the first such study to compare automatic tape recording of anuran calls with other, more traditional sampling techniques.
1. Introduction 2. Estimation 3. Hypothesis testing 4. Graphical exploration of data 5. Correlation and regression 6. Multiple regression and correlation 7. Design and power analysis 8. Comparing groups or treatments - analysis of variance 9. Multifactor analysis of variance 10. Randomized blocks and simple repeated measures: unreplicated two-factor designs 11. Split plot and repeated measures designs: partly nested anovas 12. Analysis of covariance 13. Generalized linear models and logistic regression 14. Analyzing frequencies 15. Introduction to multivariate analyses 16. Multivariate analysis of variance and discriminant analysis 17. Principal components and correspondence analysis 18. Multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis 19. Presentation of results.
An important consequence of habitat fragmentation for wildlife communities is
the effect of an increase in the ratio of habitat edge to interior. This study
compares the bird communities at forest/farmland edges and in forest
interior at Bunyip State Park, Victoria. Overall, there was a significantly
higher number of bird species and individuals in forest edge than in forest
interior sites. The greater diversity of species at edge sites appeared to be
due to an increase in forest-edge specialists, as opposed to an influx of
open-country species. Four bird species: the white-throated treecreeper
(Cormobates leucophaeus), the superb fairy-wren
(Malurus cyaneus), the grey shrike-thrush
(Colluricincla harmonica) and the grey fantail
(Rhipidura fuliginosa) were significantly more abundant
in edge sites. There were no species that were significantly more abundant in
interior sites. Differences between the bird communities in edge and interior
sites were attributed to increased foraging opportunities in the open country
adjacent to forest edges.
This tutorial demostrates the use of basic ordination methods in R package vegan. The tutorial assumes basic familiarity both with R and with ordination methods. Package vegan supports all basic ordination method, including non-metric multidimensional scaling. The constrained ordination methods include constrained analysis of proximities, redundancy analysis and constrained correspondence analysis. Package vegan also has support functions for environ-mental fitting and ordination graphics. In addition to ordination methods, vegan contains several methods for analysis species di-versity, but these methods are not discussed in this tutorial.
Neotropical skinks are unique among lizards and other vertebrates in their degree of convergence, in reproductive traits, with eutherian mammals. They have also been famously difficult to classify into species, largely because of a conservative body plan and paucity of conventional diagnostic characters. Currently there are 26 recognized species, six of which occur only on Caribbean islands. All are placed in a single genus, Mabuya. We conducted a systematic revision of Neotropical skinks using both conventional and unconventional morphological characters, supplemented by DNA sequence analyses. We define 61 species grouped into 16 clades, recognized here as genera. They include three available generic names (Copeoglossum, Mabuya, and Spondylurus) and 13 new genera: Alinea gen. nov., Aspronema gen. nov., Brasiliscincus gen. nov., Capitellum gen. nov., Exila gen. nov., Manciola gen. nov., Maracaiba gen. nov., Marisora gen. nov., Notomabuya gen. nov., Orosaura gen. nov., Panopa gen. nov., Psychosaura gen. nov., and Varzea gen. nov. These 16 genera of skinks form a monophyletic group and are placed in the Subfamily Mabuyinae of the skink Family Mabuyidae. Six other skink families are recognized: Acontidae, Egerniidae, Eugongylidae, Lygosomidae, Scincidae, and Sphenomorphidae. We describe three new subfamilies of Mabuyidae: Chioniniinae subfam. nov., Dasiinae subfam. nov., and Trachylepidinae subfam. nov. We describe 24 new species of mabuyines: Capitellum mariagalantae sp. nov., Capitellum parvicruzae sp. nov., Copeoglossum aurae sp. nov., Copeoglossum margaritae sp. nov., Copeoglossum redondae sp. nov., Mabuya cochonae sp. nov., Mabuya desiradae sp. nov., Mabuya grandisterrae sp. nov., Mabuya guadeloupae sp. nov., Mabuya hispaniolae sp. nov., Mabuya montserratae sp. nov., Marisora aurulae sp. nov., Marisora magnacornae sp. nov., Marisora roatanae sp. nov., Spondylurus anegadae sp. nov., Spondylurus culebrae sp. nov., Spondylurus caicosae sp. nov., Spondylurus haitiae sp. nov., Spondylurus magnacruzae sp. nov., Spondylurus martinae sp. nov., Spondylurus monae sp. nov., Spondylurus monitae sp. nov., Spondylurus powelli sp. nov., and Spondylurus turksae sp. nov. We also resurrect 10 species from synonymies: Alinea lanceolata comb. nov., Alinea luciae comb. nov., Capitellum metallicum comb. nov., Mabuya dominicana, Marisora alliacea comb. nov., Marisora brachypoda comb. nov., Spondylurus fulgidus comb. nov., Spondylurus nitidus comb. nov., Spondylurus semitaeniatus comb. nov., and Spondylurus spilonotus comb. nov. Of the 61 total species of mabuyine skinks, 39 occur on Caribbean islands, 38 are endemic to those islands, and 33 of those occur in the West Indies. Most species on Caribbean islands are allopatric, single-island endemics, although three species are known from Hispaniola, three from St. Thomas, and two from Culebra, St. Croix, Salt Island, Martinique, the southern Lesser Antilles, Trinidad, and Tobago. Co-occurring species typically differ in body size and belong to different genera. Three ecomorphs are described to account for associations of ecology and morphology: terrestrial, scansorial, and cryptozoic. Parturition occurs at the transition between the dry and wet seasons, and the number of young (1-7) is correlated with body size and taxonomic group. Molecular phylogenies indicate the presence of many unnamed species in Middle and South America. A molecular timetree shows that mabuyines dispersed from Africa to South America 18 (25-9) million years ago, and that diversification occurred initially in South America but soon led to colonization of Caribbean islands and Middle America. The six genera present on Caribbean islands each represent separate dispersals, over water, from the mainland during the last 10 million years. Considerable dispersal and speciation also occurred on and among Caribbean islands, probably enhanced by Pleistocene glacial cycles and their concomitant sea level changes. Based on IUCN Redlist criteria, all of the 38 endemic Caribbean island species are threatened with extinction. Twenty-seven species (71%) are Critically Endangered, six species (16%) are Endangered, and five species (13%) are Vulnerable. Sixteen of the Critically Endangered species are extinct, or possibly extinct, because of human activities during the last two centuries. Several of the surviving species are near extinction and in need of immediate protection. Analysis of collection records indicates that the decline or loss of 14 skink species can be attributed to predation by the Small Indian Mongoose. That invasive predator was introduced as a biological control of rats in sugar cane fields in the late nineteenth century (1872-1900), immediately resulting in a mass extinction of skinks and other reptiles. The ground-dwelling and diurnal habits of skinks have made them particularly susceptible to mongoose predation.
Given a resource gradient (e.g. light intensity, prey size) in a community, species evolve to use different parts of this gradient; competition between them is thereby reduced. Species relationships in the community may be conceived in terms of a multidimensional coordinate system, the axes of which are the various resource gradients (and other aspects of species relationships to space, time, and one another in the community). This coordinate system defines a hyperspace, and the range of the space that a given species occupies is its niche hypervolume, as an abstract characterization of its intra‐community position, or niche. Species evolve toward difference in niche, and consequently toward difference in location of their hypervolumes in the niche hyperspace. Through evolutionary time additional species can fit into the community in niche hypervolumes different from those of other species, and the niche hyperspace can become increasingly complex. Its complexity relates to the community's richness in species, its alpha diversity.
Species differ in the proportions of the niche hyperspace they are able to occupy and the share of the community's resources they utilize. The share of resources utilized is expressed in species' productivities, and when species are ranked by relative productivity (or some other measurement) from most to least important, importance‐value or dominance‐diversity curves are formed. Three types of curves may represent manners in which resources are divided among species: (a) niche pre‐emption with strong dominance, expressed in a geometric series, (b) random boundaries between niches, expressed in the MacArthur distribution, and (c) determination of relative importance by many factors, so that species form a frequency distribution on a logarithmic base of importance values, a lognormal distribution. The forms of importance‐value curves do not permit strong inference about resource division, but are of interest for their expression of species relationships and bearing on measurement of diversity.
Summary 1 Disturbance may cause community composition across sites to become more or less homogenous, depending on the importance of different processes involved in commu- nity assembly. In north-eastern North America and Europe local (alpha) diversity of forest plants is lower in forests growing on former agricultural fields (recent forests) than in older (ancient) forests, but little is known about the influence of land-use history on the degree of compositional differentiation among sites (beta diversity). 2 Here we analyse data from 1446 sites in ancient and recent forests across 11 different landscapes in north-eastern North America and Europe to demonstrate decreases in beta diversity and in the strength of species-environment relationships in recent vs. ancient forests. 3 The magnitude of environmental variability among sites did not differ between the two forest types. This suggests the difference in beta diversity between ancient and recent forests was not due to different degrees of environmental heterogeneity, but rather to dispersal filters that constrain the pool of species initially colonizing recent forests. 4 The observed effects of community homogenization and weakened relationships between species distributions and environmental gradients appear to persist for decades or longer. The legacy of human land-use history in spatial patterns of biodiversity may endure, both within individual sites and across sites, for decades if not centuries.
Single‐tree harvesting with on‐site lumber production produces gaps in Amazonian forest canopy that are structurally different from natural treefall gaps. Harvest gaps are much more open, and there is neither leaf litter nor partial shading as in natural treefalls, so these anthropogenic gaps receive more intense sunlight. We used HOBO XT temperature and light data loggers to measure thermal environments in forest patches. These data were combined with data on lizard activity, activity temperatures, and habitat use to determine whether human‐made gaps influence the structure of Amazon forest lizard assemblages. Human‐made treefalls are not only more extreme thermally than surrounding forest habitat patches and natural treefalls, but they are warmer than expected based on increased light alone. Large‐bodied teiid lizards, which are typically uncommon or rare within forest, bask in sun in treefalls to gain heat. The body temperatures of these heliotherms average 36.1° C. Nonheliothermic species avoid treefalls and remain in shade within the forest. Their body temperatures average 27.7° C. Heliothermic lizards using treefall gaps are large‐bodied predaceous species that feed on vertebrates as well as invertebrates. Increasing the number of anthropogenic treefall gaps in a forest may increase the immigration and population growth of heliothermic lizards, thereby increasing their population density. Predation by these lizards and dominance over smaller lizards in interference competition (for food) may have a cascading effect on forest species, changing community structure.
Impacto de la Cosecha Individual de Arboles en Ambientes Termales de Lagartijas de Bosques Tropicales Lluviosos del Amazonas
La cosecha de árboles individuales con producción de madera en el sitio crea espacios en el dosel del bosque amazónico que son estructuralmente diferentes a los espacios creados por la caída natural de árboles. Espacios por cosecha son mucho mas abiertos y no dejan ni hojarasca, ni sombreado parcial como sucede en la caída natural de árboles, esto ocasiona que estas áreas abiertas por actividades antropogénicas reciban relativamente mayor iluminación solar. Utilizamos colectores de datos de temperatura HOBO XT y de intensidad luminosa para medir ambientes termales en parches del bosque. Estos datos se combinaron con datos de actividad de lagartijas, temperaturas de actividad y uso del hábitat para determinar si los espacios abiertos por humanos influencían la estructura de los ensamblajes de lagartijas del Amazonas. La caída de árboles provocada por humanos no son únicamente mas exstremos térmicamente que los parches de hábitat boscoso circundantes y los espacios abiertos provocados por la caída natural de arboles, sino que fueron mas calientes de lo esperado debido al incremento de la intensidad luminosa. Lagartijas de cuerpo grande poco comunes o raras dentro del bosque se asolean en áreas abiertas para incrementar el calor. Las temperaturas corporales de estas lagartijas heliotérmicas promedian 36.1° C. La mayoría de las especies de lagartijas no heliotérmicas evitan las áreas abiertas y permanecen en la sombra dentro del bosque. Las temperatures corporales de éstas últimas promedia 27.7° C. Las lagartijas heliotérmicas que utilizan los espacios abiertos presentan cuerpos grandes y son especies depredadoras que se alimentan tanto de vertebrados como de invertebrados. El incremento de espacios abiertos ocasionados por actividades antropogénicas en un bosque puede incrementar la inmigración y crecimiento poblacional de lagartijas heliotérmicas, incrementando en consecuencia la densidad poblacional. La depredación de estas lagartijas y su dominio sobre otras lagartijas pequeñas en competencia por interferencia (por alimento) puede tener un efecto de cascada sobre especies del bosque, cambiando la estructura de la comunidad.