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Effects of a Single Exercise Workout on Memory and Learning Functions in Young Adults – a Systematic Review
Translational Sports Medicine
Abstract
Background
Physical exercise improves mental health and cognitive function. The purpose of this systematic review was to evaluate the current literature examining the acute effects of a single exercise workout on learning and memory functions in young adults.
Methods
The review was conducted in alignment with the PRISMA guidelines. Studies were included if they were indexed in PubMed, published between 2009 and 2019, used an experimental study design and conducted on young human adults. The MeSH terms “exercise”, “learning” and “young adults” were used together with the filters Publication dates ‐ 10 years; Human Species; and Article types ‐ Clinical Trial.
Results
Thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria and were evaluated. The types of exercise stimulus that were used was walking, running or bicycling. Several different test instruments were used such as Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Trail Making Test A and B and Stroop Color Word Test. Exercise for two minutes to one hour at moderate to high intensity had a favorable effect on learning and memory functions in the selected studies.
Conclusions
This systematic review shows that aerobic, physical exercise before encoding improves learning and memory functions in young adults.
... Besides sleep, cardiovascular exercise has recently been discussed to benefit memory formation processes (Blomstrand & Engvall, 2021;Roig et al., 2016;Wanner et al., 2020). It is believed that exercise, when administered in close temporal proximity to memory encoding and particularly when carried out at vigorous intensities, produces a time-locked positive influence on memory consolidation (Wanner et al., 2020). ...
... In a recent meta-analysis, we concluded that exercise-effects on the consolidation of procedural memories were strongest when exercise immediately followed motor memory encoding (Wanner et al., 2020). Similarly, acute exercise has also been shown to have positive effects on declarative memory consolidation (Blomstrand & Engvall, 2021). Thus, acute exercise may benefit long-term memory for both procedural and declarative tasks. ...
... Similarly, Hötting et al. (2016) found that participants who exercised at high intensities (80% HR max ) forgot fewer words on a vocabulary test after 24 h compared with participants who rested after encoding. Other studies showed similar or even more pronounced effects, when exercise preceded memory encoding (Blomstrand & Engvall, 2021;Wang et al., 2020), indicating that effects may vary depending on the timing of exercise in relation to memory encoding. Contrary to what we expected, we did not find a significant effect on procedural memory retention. ...
Acute exercise has been shown to affect long‐term memory and sleep. However, it is unclear whether exercise‐induced changes in sleep architecture are associated with enhanced memory. Recently, it has been shown that exercise followed by a nap improved declarative memory. Whether these effects transfer to night sleep and other memory domains has not yet been studied. Here, we investigate the influence of exercise on nocturnal sleep architecture and associations with sleep‐dependent procedural and declarative memory consolidation. Nineteen subjects (23.68 ± 3.97 years) were tested in a balanced cross‐over design. In two evening sessions, participants either exercised (high‐intensity interval training) or rested immediately after encoding two memory tasks: (1) a finger tapping task and (2) a paired‐associate learning task. Subsequent nocturnal sleep was recorded by polysomnography. Retrieval was conducted the following morning. High‐intensity interval training lead to an increased declarative memory retention ( p = 0.047, d = 0.40) along with a decrease in REM sleep ( p = 0.012, d = 0.75). Neither procedural memory nor NREM sleep were significantly affected. Exercise‐induced changes in N2 showed a positive correlation with procedural memory retention which did not withstand multiple comparison correction. Exploratory analyses on sleep spindles and slow wave activity did not reveal significant effects. The present findings suggest an exercise‐induced enhancement of declarative memory which aligns with changes in nocturnal sleep architecture. This gives additional support for the idea of a potential link between exercise‐induced sleep modifications and memory formation which requires further investigation in larger scaled studies.
... Specifically, numerous studies have highlighted the significance of frontal alpha activity in cognitive functions, particularly in relation to attentional focus, which is essential for effective exercise performance. For instance, Blomstrand and Engvall(2021) and Smith et al. (2010) demonstrate that increased frontal alpha activity is linked to improved attentional focus during complex motor tasks. This correlation is further supported by Hosang et al. (2022), who notes that enhanced cognitive processing during exercise facilitates greater alpha modulation in frontal regions. ...
Objectives
Research indicates that the development of cognitive structures significantly influences motor learning. However, this perspective overlooks the broader nature of motor learning, which encompasses not only cognitive changes but also neurophysiological and behavioral factors. This study aims to simultaneously examine the intricate motor learning process through cognitive, neurophysiological, and behavioral lenses to achieve a more comprehensive understanding.
Methods
Thirty participants were randomly assigned to either a practice group (n = 15) or a control group (n = 15) and tested at pre-, post-, and retention tests. The practice group underwent an acquisition phase involving three practice days (3 × 100 trials of a golf putting task), while the control group did not participate.
Results
A hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted to group the basic action concepts into a coherent hierarchical structure, represented as a dendrogram. This dendrogram illustrated the relationships between basic action concepts. Analysis of mean group dendrograms revealed a significant increase in the organization of the cognitive structure within the practice group. EEG results indicated that the practice group's low and high alpha power increased significantly in frontal, central, and parietal areas (p < .05). Repeated measures ANOVA revealed that the practice group's motor performance errors decreased significantly (p < .05), while no changes were observed in the control group.
Conclusions
Our findings suggest that motor learning involves simultaneous cognitive, neurophysiological, and behavioral adaptations. It appears that the motor learning process involves gradually constructing these structures over time, providing an extensive understanding of the motor learning process.
... Meanwhile, aerobic exercise can also promote neuronal growth and synaptic plasticity in the brain, and this neuroplasticity can improve cognitive function and learning outcomes in college students. Studies have shown that regular aerobic exercise promotes the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine in the brain, which can improve cognitive functions such as attention and memory [7]. ...
Aerobic exercise is an effective way to improve cardiorespiratory function and enhance physical fitness, which has a positive impact on the physiological health level of college students, and this study aims to investigate the impact of aerobic exercise with different combinations of intensity on the enhancement of physiological health level of college students. Twenty college students, aged 18–24, in robust health and devoid of long-term exercise backgrounds, were recruited. They engaged in three 30-minute aerobic exercise regimens: low-to-moderate, low-to-high, and moderate-to-high intensity. Biomechanically, each intensity level triggered distinct muscular activation patterns and energy demands. The physiological health indexes of the subjects were measured before and after the exercise, including the heart rate, the degree of self-consciousness of fatigue, the oxygen saturation, the perfusion index, and the emotional state. All indicators can be measured by professional equipment, and different intensity groups are determined according to the intensity of aerobic respiration. The results of the study showed that before the exercise intervention, there was no difference between the physiological health indicators of all subjects, which was homogeneous. In contrast, after the exercise intervention, physiological health indicators showed changes due to different intensities of aerobic exercise. In the two indicators of heart rate and conscious fatigue, there was a significant difference in the enhancement of the two indicators by aerobic exercise (P < 0.05), and the greater the intensity of aerobic exercise, the greater the effect on heart rate and conscious fatigue. Higher intensity aerobic exercise spurred the heart to work harder, pumping blood more vigorously to fuel active muscles, as dictated by biomechanical principles. In the two indicators of oxygen saturation and perfusion index, the effect of aerobic exercise did not have a significant difference (P > 0.05), and did not show a specific pattern of change. In terms of emotional state indexes, the effects of aerobic exercise of different intensities on the subjects were reflected in different emotional indexes, but in terms of the overall emotional disturbance index, aerobic exercise of different intensities did not have a significant effect on the emotional disturbance index. In sum, aerobic exercise’s biomechanical benefits for students’ health are clear. Colleges should boost its promotion, offer varied programs, and guide participation to harness these advantages for enhanced physical and mental health.
... Therefore, the absence of relational memory enhancements and the lack of associations between lactate and BDNF with object and relational memory performance following RE may be a result of these effects and associations subsiding to a negligible level by the time object and relational memory recognition performance was assessed (;90-min following RE cessation). Past systematic reviews have shown that AE performed before or in close connection with encoding improves memory performance, with several studies demonstrating acute effects on memory sustained typically 30 but sometimes up to 120 minutes postexercise cessation (6). Given that the relational memory encoding task took place 30 minutes following RE, encoding could have been enhanced by the RE induced lactate and BDNF and therefore contributed to subsequent recognition performance. ...
Acute aerobic exercise improves memory, but this phenomenon is understudied in response to resistance exercise (RE) despite evidence that RE-induced increases in lactate and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) play mechanistic roles in memory performance. To determine the acute effect of RE on lactate, BDNF, and their associations with object and relational memory, blood lactate, and serum and plasma BDNF were taken from 36 adults (average age 23.64 ± 3.89 years; 18 woman) before and immediately after 42 minutes of high-intensity RE and a rest condition on counterbalanced days. Subjects then immediately studied a series of paired objects and completed object and relational recognition tasks. Results revealed a condition by trial interaction, previously studied objects were remembered less accurately following RE (d = 0.66) but recognition occurred faster (d = 0.28), indicating a speed-accuracy tradeoff following RE. There was no effect of either intervention on relational recognition performance. Lactate (d = 3.68) and serum BDNF (d = 0.74) increased following RE, whereas there was no time-related change in lactate and serum BDNF following rest. However, changes in lactate and BDNF did not predict any measures of object (rs < 0.25, ps > 0.16) or relation recognition (rs < 0.28, ps > 0.13). Collectively, these findings suggest that acute high-intensity RE selectively improves the processing speed of recognizing objects at the cost of less accurate recognition of previously studied objects. Furthermore, changes in object and relational memory performance are unlikely driven by acute increases in lactate or BDNF following high-intensity RE.
... My focus went from the assignment to the heat'' (P86). A contributing factor is that the immediate negative effects of the heat could have been mitigated by positive effects of the short-term aerobic exercise prior to the task solving, which has shown to improve learning and memory functions in young adults (Blomstr and Engvall, 2021). ...
... Systematic reviews have clarified that acute aerobic exercise can promote cognition across the lifespan, particularly in aspects of executive functioning such as inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Ai et al., 2021;Erickson et al., 2019;Hsieh et al., 2021). These cognitive benefits have been shown to persist for brief periods, at times up to 2 h (Basso & Suzuki, 2017;Blomstrand & Engvall, 2020). Chronic exercise, either as a function of 6-12 month clinical trials or based on selfreported exercise over extended periods, has shown benefits for attention, executive functioning, processing speed, and episodic memory (Cox et al., 2016;Gaertner et al., 2018;Smith et al., 2010). ...
Objective:
The primary aim of this paper is to review evidence and clinical implications related to lifestyle activities associated with promoting brain and cognitive health. Our review targets four key lifestyle factors: physical activity and exercise, social engagement, cognitively stimulating activity, and consuming Mediterranean-style diets.
Method:
We conducted a critical review of the lifestyle factor literature in the four domains listed earlier. We contextualize this literature review by translating findings, when possible, into evidence-based recommendations to consider when providing neuropsychological services.
Results:
There is significant current evidence supporting the role of physical activity and exercise, social engagement, cognitively stimulating activity, and consuming Mediterranean-style diets on positive brain and cognitive health outcomes. While some null findings are present in all four areas reviewed, the weight of the evidence supports the notion that engaging in these activities may promote brain and cognitive functioning.
Conclusions:
Clinical neuropsychologists can have confidence in recommending engagement in physical activity, social activity, and cognitively stimulating activity, and adhering to a Mediterranean-style diet to promote brain and cognitive health. We discuss limitations in existing lifestyle factor research and future directions to enhance the existing evidence base, including additional research with historically underrepresented groups and individuals with neurological conditions.
Memory and sustained attention are critical cognitive functions that significantly impact academic performance. Numerous studies have demonstrated that regular exercise can improve both short-term memory and sustained attention. However, to date, the association between aerobic fitness level and short-term memory and sustained attention among university students has not been extensively explored. Hence, the present study was carried out using a cross-sectional study design. A total of 38 participants (N=38) were recruited among university students. After obtaining their informed consent, participants' height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) were recorded. In addition, participants performed the digit span test to measure their short-term memory and the digit vigilance test to measure their sustained attention. A 20-m shuttle run was also carried out, and the data obtained from the shuttle run was used to calculate their estimated maximal oxygen uptake. All the data obtained were analysed using descriptive statistics and the Pearson correlation test (SPSS version 28). Results showed that participants had a normal BMI (22.28 ± 4.03 kg/m²). Majority (36.84%) of the female participants had a very poor aerobic fitness level (27.19 ± 4.71 ml/kg/min), and majority (15.79%) of the male participants had a poor aerobic fitness level (37.07 ± 7.45 ml/kg/min). Regarding the correlation analysis, there were no significant correlations (p>0.05) between aerobic fitness level and short-term memory and sustained attention. In conclusion, the present study found that short-term memory and sustained attention were not affected by aerobic fitness level. However, further studies may address the limitations highlighted in the present study.
Purpose:
Today's children are increasingly inactive, with >50% not meeting the recommended 60 minutes of daily physical activity (PA). Recent reports suggest scores in reading and mathematics have also declined. Virtual reality (VR) is a technology that can be used to simulate real-world scenarios, like classroom learning. This study investigated whether a single dose of walking benefits learning in a VR classroom (measured via quiz performance).
Method:
Forty-seven children (15 females, 9.64 [0.12] y) completed 2, randomized and counterbalanced 20-minute interventions on separate days: acute PA (walking) and seated rest (control), followed by a stationary educational lesson in a distracting VR classroom. Children then completed a quiz on the lesson.
Results:
Children had higher quiz performance following PA (z-score = 0.16 [0.13]) compared with following rest (z-score = -0.18 (0.14); F1,45 = 6.17, P = .017), indicating that PA enhanced learning. Children with average intelligence quotient had quiz performance that was higher after PA (z-score = 0.04 [0.20]) compared with after rest (z-score = -0.60 [0.19]), t(22) = 3.34, P = .003. Higher intelligence quotient children did not demonstrate differences in quiz performance after PA compared with after rest.
Conclusions:
Learning in a VR classroom may be improved following acute PA, particularly for children with average intelligence quotient. These findings support public health guidelines promoting PA across the day.
The modern workplace has been optimized towards increasing productivity, often at the cost of long-term worker wellbeing. This systemic issue has been acknowledged in both research and practice, but has not yet been solved. There is a notable lack of practical methods of incorporating physical activity and other wellbeing practices into productive workplace activities. We see a gap between research endeavors and industry practice that motivates a call for increased collaboration between the two parties. In response, our workshop aims to bring together researchers and practitioners to work together in identifying a set of grand challenges for the field. Through collaboration, we will create a concrete research agenda to create a resilient future workplace that explicitly incorporates holistic worker wellbeing.
Currently, there is limited evidence regarding various neurophysiological responses to strength exercise and the influence of the adopted practice schedule. This study aimed to assess the acute systemic effects of snatch training bouts, employing different motor learning models, on skill efficiency, electric brain activity (EEG), heart rate variability (HRV), and perceived exertion as well as mental demand in novices. In a within-subject design, sixteen highly active males (mean age: 23.13 ± 2.09 years) randomly performed snatch learning bouts consisting of 36 trials using repetitive learning (RL), contextual interference (blocked, CIb; and serial, CIs), and differential learning (DL) models. Spontaneous resting EEG and HRV activities were recorded at PRE and POST training bouts while measuring heart rate. Perceived exertion and mental demand were assessed immediately after, and barbell kinematics were recorded during three power snatch trials performed following the POST measurement. The results showed increases in alpha, beta, and gamma frequencies from pre-to post-training bouts in the majority of the tested brain regions (p values ranging from < 0.0001 to 0.02). The CIb model exhibited increased frequencies in more regions. Resting time domain HRV parameters were altered following the snatch bouts, with increased HR (p < 0.001) and decreased RR interval (p < 0.001), SDNN, and RMSSD (p values ranging from < 0.0001 to 0.02). DL showed more pronounced pulse-related changes (p = 0.01). Significant changes in HRV frequency domain parameters were observed, with a significant increase in LFn (p = 0.03) and a decrease in HFn (p = 0.001) registered only in the DL model. Elevated HR zones (> HR zone 3) were more dominant in the DL model during the snatch bouts (effect size = 0.5). Similarly, the DL model tended to exhibit higher perceived physical (effect size = 0.5) and mental exertions (effect size = 0.6). Despite the highest psycho-physiological response, the DL group showed one of the fewest significant EEG changes. There was no significant advantage of one learning model over the other in terms of technical efficiency. These findings offer preliminary support for the acute neurophysiological benefits of coordination-strength-based exercise in novices, particularly when employing a DL model. The advantages of combining EEG and HRV measurements for comprehensive monitoring and understanding of potential adaptations are also highlighted. However, further studies encompassing a broader range of coordination-strength-based exercises are warranted to corroborate these observations. CITATION: Ammar A, Boujelbane MA, Simak ML et al. Unveiling the acute neurophysiological responses to strength training: An exploratory study on novices performing weightlifting bouts with different motor learning models.
Children are becoming increasingly inactive, unfit, and overweight, yet there is relatively little causal evidence regarding the effects of physical activity on brain health during childhood. The present study examined the effects of an after-school physical activity program (FITKids2) on the microstructure of white matter tracts in 7- to 9-year-old children. We measured the microstructural properties of white matter via diffusion tensor imaging in 143 children before and after random assignment to either a 9-month after-school physical activity program (N = 76, mean age = 8.7 years) or a wait list control group (N = 67, mean age = 8.7 years). Our results demonstrate that children who participated in the physical activity program showed increased white matter microstructure in the genu of the corpus callosum, with no changes in white matter microstructure in the wait list control group which reflects typical development. Specifically, children in the physical activity program showed increases in fractional anisotropy (FA) and decreases in radial diffusivity (RD) in the genu from pre- to post-test, thereby suggesting more tightly bundled and structurally compact fibers (FA) and increased myelination (RD), with no changes in estimates of axonal fiber diameter (axial diffusivity, AD). The corpus callosum integrates cognitive, motor, and sensory information between the left and right hemispheres of the brain, and the white matter tract plays a role in cognition and behavior. Our findings reinforce the importance of physical activity for brain health during child development.
Purpose
To evaluate the temporal effects of acute exercise on episodic memory.
Design
A quasi-experimental study.
Sample
Eighty-eight college students (N = 22 per group).
Measures
Four experimental groups were evaluated, including a control group, exercising prior to memory encoding, exercising during encoding, and exercising during memory consolidation. The exercise stimulus consisted of a 15-minute moderate-intensity walk on a treadmill. Participants completed the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) to assess learning and memory. Prospective memory was assessed via a Red Pen Task. Long-term memory (recognition and attribution) of the RAVLT was assessed 20 minutes and 24 hours after exercise.
Analysis
Repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) assessed the performance of RAVLT scores of trials 1 to 5 across groups. One-way ANOVA assessed the performance of individual trials across groups, whereas χ² assessed the performance of the Red Pen Task across groups.
Results
Regarding learning, the interaction of groups × trial was marginally statistically significant (F 12,332 = 1.773, P = .05), indicating that the group which exercised before encoding did better than the group that exercised during encoding and consolidation. For both 24-hour recognition and attribution performance, the group that exercised before memory encoding performed significantly better than the group that exercised during consolidation (P = .05 recognition, P = .006 attribution).
Discussion
Engaging in a 15-minute bout of moderate-intensity walking before a learning task was effective in influencing long-term episodic memory.
Objective
To systematically summarize the experimental effects of exercise on cognitive-related memory function among young to middle-aged adults, which has yet to be done in the literature.
Data Source
PubMed.
Study Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Studies were included if they were published in the English language, indexed in PubMed, employed an experimental study design (eg, traditional parallel group randomized controlled trial: either acute intervention or chronic/training intervention study), and conducted among human adults. Studies were excluded if nonhumans (ie, animal models) were studied, if children/adolescents (<18 years) or older adults (>50 years) were evaluated, and if select chronic diseases (eg, diabetes and dementia) were present.
Data Extraction
A systematic review approach was employed.
Data Synthesis
An extraction table was created synthesizing the key results, and recommendations for future research are emphasized.
Results
Among the 17 evaluated studies, 2 were published before the year 2000 (ie, 1998 and 1999), 2 were published in 2007, and the remaining 13 were published in the years 2011 and beyond. This highlights the emergence of this research topic within this age-group (young to middle-aged adults). Among the 17 evaluated studies, 14 were conducted among healthy samples, with 3 conducted among those with a diagnosis of depression. Among the 17 studies, 4 employed a chronic training protocol, with 13 utilizing an acute exercise protocol. Among the 3 experimental studies in the depressed population, all demonstrated a favorable effect of exercise on memory function. Among the 14 trials in the nondepressed population, 10 (71%) demonstrated a favorable effect of exercise on some aspect of memory function.
Conclusion
Acute and chronic exercise appears to play a pronounced effect on memory function among young to middle-aged adults. Implications and recommendations for future research are outlined in this systematic review.
We examined the effects of different acute exercise durations and recovery periods on cognitive function in a counterbalanced, cross-over randomized controlled experiment. We placed 352 participants, aged 18 to 35 years into one of 16 experimental groups. Each participant visited the laboratory twice, separated by a 1-week washout period. Either Visit 1 or 2 consisted of an acute bout of moderate-intensity treadmill exercise (10, 20, 30, 45, or 60 minutes) followed by a period of rest (5, 15, or 30 minutes) before taking a set of five cognitive tests; the other visit consisted only of completing the cognitive tests (no exercise). Cognitive tests sampled multiple cognitive parameters, including reasoning, concentration, memory, attention, and planning. We found that a short recovery period (i.e., 5 minutes) may have a less favorable effect on planning ability but may be beneficial for memory. In addition, for various exercise durations and recovery periods, a Group × Time × Resting (nonexercise) A cognitive interaction effect was observed such that for both memory and inhibitory cognitive ability, acute exercise (vs. no exercise) had an enhancement effect for those with lower resting cognitive functioning. The length of the acute exercise recovery period and resting cognitive ability most influenced the association between exercise and cognitive function.
Recent studies have shown that concurrent physical activity enhances learning a completely unfamiliar L2 vocabulary as compared to learning it in a static condition. In this paper we report a study whose aim is twofold: to test for possible positive effects of physical activity when L2 learning has already reached some level of proficiency, and to test whether the assumed better performance when engaged in physical activity is limited to the linguistic level probed at training (i.e. L2 vocabulary tested by means of a Word-Picture Verification task), or whether it extends also to the sentence level (which was tested by means of a Sentence Semantic Judgment Task). The results show that Chinese speakers with basic knowledge of English benefited from physical activity while learning a set of new words. Furthermore, their better performance emerged also at the sentential level, as shown by their performance in a Semantic Judgment task. Finally, an interesting temporal asymmetry between the lexical and the sentential level emerges, with the difference between the experimental and control group emerging from the 1st testing session at the lexical level but after several weeks at the sentential level.
Objective: Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) in ultra-high magnetic field can be used for non-invasive quantitative assessment of brain glutamate (Glu) and glutamine (Gln) in vivo. Glu, the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, is efficiently recycled between synapses and presynaptic terminals through Glu-Gln cycle which involves glutamine synthase confined to astrocytes, and uses 60–80% of energy in the resting human and rat brain. During voluntary or involuntary exercise many brain areas are significantly activated, which certainly intensifies Glu-Gln cycle. However, studies on the effects of exercise on ¹H-MRS Glu and/or Gln signals from the brain provided divergent results. The present study on rats was performed to determine changes in ¹H-MRS signals from three brain regions engaged in motor activity consequential to forced acute exercise to exhaustion.
Method: After habituation to treadmill running, rats were subjected to acute treadmill exercise continued to exhaustion. Each animal participating in the study was subject to two identical imaging sessions performed under light isoflurane anesthesia, prior to, and following the exercise bout. In control experiments, two imaging sessions separated by the period of rest instead of exercise were performed. ¹H-NMR spectra were recorded from the cerebellum, striatum, and hippocampus using a 7T small animal MR scanner.
Results: Following exhaustive exercise statistically significant increases in the Gln and Glx signals were found in all three locations, whereas increases in the Glu signal were found in the cerebellum and hippocampus. In control experiments, no changes in ¹H-MRS signals were found.
Conclusion: Increase in glutamine signals from the brain areas engaged in motor activity may reflect a disequilibrium caused by increased turnover in the glutamate-glutamine cycle and a delay in the return of glutamine from astrocytes to neurons. Increased turnover of Glu-Gln cycle may be a result of functional activation caused by forced endurance exercise; the increased rate of ammonia detoxification may also contribute. Increases in glutamate in the cerebellum and hippocampus are suggestive of an anaplerotic increase in glutamate synthesis due to exercise-related stimulation of brain glucose uptake. The disequilibrium in the glutamate-glutamine cycle in brain areas activated during exercise may be a significant contributor to the central fatigue phenomenon.
Evidence supports that acute exercise benefits long-term memory. However, it is unclear whether these effects are due to benefits to encoding or consolidation. The purpose of this study was to more effectively isolate encoding and consolidation to advance our understanding of the specific nature of the effects of exercise on long-term memory. Using a within-subject design, participants completed a control session (no exercise), an encoding and consolidation condition (exercise prior to exposure to the memory task, E + C), and a consolidation condition (exercise following exposure). The exercise was 30 min of moderate-intensity cycling. Memory was assessed using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test with recall assessed at 60 min and recall and recognition assessed at 24 hr. Results showed that the E + C condition had significantly better recall at 60 min and 24 hr than the no-exercise condition. This provides additional evidence that acute exercise benefits encoding more than consolidation.
Emerging research demonstrates that exercise is favorably associated with several cognitive outcomes, including episodic memory function. The majority of the mechanistic work describing the underlying mechanisms of this effect has focused on chronic exercise engagement. Such mechanisms include, e.g., chronic exercise-induced neurogenesis, gliogenesis, angiogenesis, cerebral circulation, and growth factor production. Less research has examined the mechanisms through which acute (vs. chronic) exercise subserves episodic memory function. The purpose of this review is to discuss these potential underlying mechanisms, which include, e.g., acute exercise-induced (via several pathways, such as vagus nerve and muscle spindle stimulation) alterations in neurotransmitters, synaptic tagging/capturing, associativity, and psychological attention.
Objective:
Research demonstrates that acute exercise may enhance retention of multi-trial episodic memories. Previous work has examined the effects of exercise on the mean level of memory recall. However, no study has examined whether exercise can influence the acquisition of new items, which was the purpose of this experiment.
Methods:
Using a randomized controlled trial design, participants (young adults; Mage=22yrs) completed either a high-intensity bout of treadmill exercise for 15-min (n=22) or sat (n=22) prior to completing a multi-trial episodic memory task. This task involved recalling 15 words for six successive trials, as well as after a 20-min delay (Trial 7). The performance on the multiple trials was categorized into gains (items not recalled on Trial n that were recalled on Trial n+1) and losses (items recalled on Trial n that were not recalled on Trial n+1).
Results:
The exercise group recalled more words on Trial 6 (11.4 vs. 9.7; P=0.009) and after the 20-min delay (10.9 vs. 9.4; P=0.01). The exercise group (vs. control) had a smaller proportion of losses from Trial 3-4 (10.4% vs. 20.3%; P=0.04) and had a greater proportion of gains from Trial 5-6 (38.5% vs. 14.8%; P=0.01).
Conclusions:
The exercise-induced multi-trial memory effect may be influenced by greater item gains.
To examine the temporal effects of high-intensity exercise on learning, short-term and long-term retrospective memory and prospective memory. Among a sample of 88 young adult participants, 22 were randomized into one of four different groups: exercise before learning, control group, exercise during learning and exercise after learning. The retrospective assessments (learning, short-term and long-term memory) were assessed using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test. Short-term memory included a 20-min delay assessment, with long-term memory including a 24-hour follow-up assessment. Prospective memory was assessed using a time-based procedure by having participants contact (via phone) the researchers at a follow-up time period. The exercise stimulus included a 15-min bout of progressive maximal exertion treadmill exercise. High-intensity exercise prior to memory encoding (vs. exercise during memory encoding or consolidation) was effective in enhancing long-term memory (for both 20-min and 24-hr follow-up assessments). We did not observe a differential temporal effect of high-intensity exercise on short-term memory (immediate post-memory encoding), learning or prospective memory. The timing of high-intensity exercise may play an important role in facilitating long-term memory.