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Moral philosophy, ethical theories, and applied ethics

  • August 2020
DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.20697.75361
  • Conference: 8th Annual Ethics in Professional Practice Conference
Authors:
David J. Cox at RethinkFirst; Endicott College
David J. Cox
  • RethinkFirst; Endicott College
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Abstract

To be alive is to reside in the expanse of constant choice. Choice about how to live and choice about what to value. Ethics. Moral philosophers have long debated how we know what choice is right and why that choice is best. When observed over time, patterns of ethical choice and justification aggregate into ethical theories that can guide ethical decision-making in novel scenarios. Ethical theories become practically relevant in the domain of applied ethics – the application of ethical theory and moral philosophy to real-world decisions made under time constraints, with missing information, and socially significant uncertain consequences. Far from esoteric and abstract, ethical theories have direct relevance for everyday ethical decision-making in professional practice. This presentation reviews common ethical theories, research on ethical decision-making, and how ethical theories and research help practitioners develop systems to improve their professional practice.
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Moral Philosophy,
Ethical Theories,
and Applied Ethics
David J. Cox, PhD, MSB, BCBA-D
Principal Analyst of Behavioral Science & Analytics
Department of Data Science
GuideWell
How can I live
my best life?
What does it mean
to live a good life?
Overview
•Moral philosophy
•Ethical theories
•Applied ethics
Moral philosophy
•What is morality? (Gert, 2016)
•Statements about ‘right’ and ‘wrong’
•Latin:
•Moralis: proper behavior of a person; one’s disposition
•Mores (plural of moralis): customs, manners
•The function of morality
•Morality and ethics
Moral philosophy
•What is morality?
•‘Right’ and ‘wrong’
•Typically justified at individual level
•The function of morality
•Acquired, maintained, and reduced via social contingencies (Baum, 2005; Skinner, 1953, 1971)
•Possibility for non-social contingencies to take over
•Morality and ethics
Moral philosophy
•What is morality?
•‘Right’ and ‘wrong’
•Typically justified at individual level
•The function of morality
•Social & non-social contingencies
•Morality and ethics
Morality Ethics
Latin:
•Moralis: proper behavior of a
person; one’s disposition
•Mores (pl.): customs, manners
Greek:
•ҧ𝑒thos: the characteristic of a
culture, era, or community
•Possibility for independent,
non-socially mediated
contingencies to take over
•Requires interlocking
contingencies of people in
group
•Arguments about my
behavior •Arguments about regulating
behavior of people in group
“Right”, “wrong”,
“good”, “bad”
Acquired,
maintained, &
reduced via social
contingencies
Morality Ethics
>
My behavior Behavior of individuals
within a group
Conscientious Objection
E.g., abortion, contraception, withdrawal of life sustaining treatment
Refusal to participate in violence, vaccinations
Morality Ethics
My behavior Behavior of individuals
within a group
<
Practice Standards
E.g., scope of practice,
reinforcement before punishment procedures
develop intervention without a functional assessment
Moral philosophy
•What is morality?
•‘Right’ and ‘wrong’
•Typically justified at individual level
•The function of morality
•Social & non-social contingencies
•Morality and ethics
•Overlap, but distinct
Overview
•Moral philosophy
•Ethical theories
•Applied ethics
Ethical theories
1938
2050 BCE
Formal Consequences
for “Correct” Behavior
•Consequences
Ethical theories
•Consequences
Ethical theories
•Consequences
•Virtue
•Consequentialism
•Deontology
•Contract Theory
•Feminist ethics / ethics of caring
Brodhead, MT, Cox, DJ, & Quigley, SP (2018). Chapter 1: Introduction to ABA, ethics, and core ethical principles.
Practical Ethics for Effective Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.
Virtue Theory
•Some behaviors are always ‘right’ or ‘good’ regardless of contexts or
outcomes
Virtue Theory
•Some behaviors are always ‘right’ or ‘good’ regardless of contexts or
outcomes
Virtue Theory
•Some behaviors are always ‘right’ or ‘good’ regardless of contexts or
outcomes
•Moral excellence, or virtue, is proper focus of ethics and rules for behavior
Hurthouse, R., & Pettigrove, G. (2016). Virtue Ethics. In E.N. Zalta (Ed.) The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Virtue Theory
•Some behaviors are always ‘right’ or ‘good’ regardless of contexts or
outcomes
•Moral excellence, or virtue, is proper focus of ethics and rules for behavior
•Response should be maintained by non-social reinforcement
Hurthouse, R., & Pettigrove, G. (2016). Virtue Ethics. In E.N. Zalta (Ed.) The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Ethical theories
•Consequences
•Virtue
•Consequentialism
•Deontology
•Contract Theory
•Feminist ethics / ethics of caring
Consequentialism
•Only outcomes of behavior matter
Consequentialism
•Only outcomes of behavior matter
•Act consequentialism:
•“Right” or “wrong” iff act maximizes good, or minimizes harm
•Hedonism:
•Pleasure is only “right”
•Pain / aversiveness is only “wrong”
Consequentialism
•Only outcomes of behavior matter
•Act consequentialism:
•“Right” or “wrong” iff act maximizes good, or minimizes harm
•“Greatest happiness for the greatest number.”
•Hedonism:
•Pleasure is only “right”
•Pain / aversiveness is only “wrong”
•Only outcomes of behavior matter
Consequentialism
Ethical theories
•Consequences
•Virtue
•Consequentialism
•Deontology
•Contract Theory
•Feminist ethics / ethics of caring
Deontology
•Behavior in context
Kant, I. (1785/2005). Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
•Behavior in context
•Weakness of Virtue Theory
•Behavior isn’t always right or wrong
•No agreed on upon virtues
•Not behavior based
•Weakness of Consequentialism
•Consequences not in our control
•Calculations impractical
•Uncomfortable conclusions
Deontology
Kant, I. (1785/2005). Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
•Behavior in context
•Follow the rules defined by context
Deontology
Ethical theories
•Consequences
•Virtue
•Consequentialism
•Deontology
•Contract Theory
•Feminist ethics / ethics of caring
Ethical theories
•Consequences
•Virtue
•Consequentialism
•Deontology
•Contract Theory
•Feminist ethics / ethics of caring
Ethical theories
•Consequences
•Virtue
•Consequentialism
•Deontology
•Contract Theory
•Feminist ethics / ethics of caring
Contract Theory
•Agreement to social arrangements shows they’re normative
•We all agree to play the game
•Contractual Approaches:
1. Role of social contract
2. Parties involved
3. Type of Agreement
4. Object of agreement
5. What is agreement supposed to show
Rawls, J (1971). A theory of justice. Cambridge, MA: Belknap.
Contract Theory
•Agreement to social arrangements shows they’re normative
•We all agree to play the game
•Many contractual approaches
•Veils of ignorance are hypothetical
•Contingencies favor providers
Ethical theories
•Consequences
•Virtue
•Consequentialism
•Deontology
•Contract Theory
•Feminist ethics / ethics of caring
•Regulating behavior misses the point
•Independent, rational, impartial, and impersonal decision-making about
universal rules
•Care for others provides framework
•Core of care
•Moral equality of all people
•Historical female experience
•Feminist deliberation
Feminist ethics / ethics of caring
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Harvard University Press.
Noddings, N (1984). Caring: A feminine approach in ethics and moral education. University of California Press.
•Regulating behavior misses the point
•Independent, rational, impartial, and impersonal decision-making about
universal rules
•Care for others provides framework
•Ambiguous, local, and familiar
•Difficulty generalizing
•Moral relativism
Feminist ethics / ethics of caring
Sullivan, S.O., & Pecorino, P.A. (2002). Ethics: An online textbook.
Ethical theories
•Consequences
•Virtue
•Consequentialism
•Deontology
•Contract Theory
•Feminist ethics / ethics of caring
Overview
•Moral philosophy
•Ethical theories
•Applied ethics
Applied Ethics
Morality Ethics
“Right”, “wrong”,
“good”, “bad”
Examines what is right to do and why it is right
for specific issues
My behavior Behavior of individuals
within a group
Applied Ethics
Applied Ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
Applied Ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems
•and policies
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
Virtue
vs.
Consequentialism
Deontology vs. Consequentialism
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
Virtue
Ethics
Deontology
Consequentialism
Contract
Theory
Ethics of
Caring
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
Virtue
Ethics
Deontology
Consequentialism
Contract
Theory
Ethics of
Caring
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
•What is right = descriptive ethical behavior
•Why it is right = normative ethical behavior
All the stuff we’ve been
talking about today.
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
•What is right = descriptive ethical behavior
•Why it is right = normative ethical behavior
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
Gert, B., & Gert, J. (2016). The definition of morality. In E.N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. The Free Press.
What is right
Why it is right
Applied ethics
Cox, D.J. (accepted). Descriptive and normative ethical behavior
appear to be functionally distinct. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis.
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
•What is right = descriptive ethical behavior
•Why it is right = normative ethical behavior
•Groups of people are variable
Functionally independent
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
•What is right = descriptive ethical behavior
•Why it is right = normative ethical behavior
•Groups of people are variable
Functionally independent
How are Your Values Ranked?
1. Client’s best interests
Consequentialism
2. Follow the Code
Deontology
3. Adhere to Contracts
Contract Theory
4. Behave virtuously
Virtue Theory
1. Adhere to Contracts
Contract Theory
2. Client’s best interests
Consequentialism
3. Behave virtuously
Virtue Theory
4. Follow the Code
Deontology
Applied ethics
•Incompatible behaviors
•New behaviors
•Organizational systems and policies
Overview
•Moral philosophy
•Ethical theories
•Applied ethics
Overview
•Moral philosophy
•Ethical theories
•Applied ethics
How can I live
my best life? What does it mean
to live a good life?
How can I live
my best life? What does it mean
to live a good life?
David J. Cox, Ph.D., M.S.B., BCBA-D
@davidjcox_
cox.david.j@gmail.com
https://www.linkedin.com/in/coxdavidj/
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Cox26
... Historically, the difference between right or wrong at the individual level versus the professional level has been captured by a distinction between morality and ethics. At its root, morality comes from the Latin word moralis which refers to the proper behavior of a person and one's individual disposition (Cox, 2020;MacIntyre, 2003). When many people adopt the same pattern of "proper individual behavior," moralis takes the plural form and becomes mores -customs and manners of a group of people. ...
... In contrast, ethics comes from the Greek word ethos which refers to the proper behavior that characterizes a culture, era, community, or profession (Cox, 2020). Ethics aims to answer the question of, as a group of people with some shared goal or skill set, what are the rules about right and wrong that are relevant to us all? ...
... Past writers have typically theoretically extended research in the experimental analysis of behavior to argue that morality and ethics are broadly maintained by socially mediated consequences delivered based on the similarity of a group members' behavior with the cultural standards of what is right versus wrong for that group of people (Skinner, 1953). More recently, research has begun to emerge that demonstrates these functional relations empirically (Cox, 2020). ...
Ethical Decision-Making and Evidenced-Based Practices
Chapter
Full-text available
  • May 2022
Implementing evidence-based practices (EBPs) first requires that behavior analysts practicing within the autism intervention field (hereafter applied behavior analysts) choose from available intervention options. To choose the “right” intervention, behavior analysts practicing within the autism intervention field considers characteristics of the client, intervention context, rules set forth by the employing agency, rules set forth by payers, and rules set forth by the profession of applied behavior analysts. Thus, guidelines and opinions on what is the “right” intervention is determined by a complex interaction between published data on intervention effectiveness and claims about right and wrong – ethics. To make complex phenomena tractable, scientists often develop models of the variables important to a phenomenon and how those variables interact. In this chapter, we use models to describe the components of ethical decision-making with EBPs and how those components interact. First, we discuss causal models of ethical decision-making and how such understanding helps applied behavior analysts avoid biased ethical decision-making with EBPs. Next, we discuss commonalities among published decision models for choosing from available EBPs. Finally, we combine models from the first two sections into a practical ethical decision-making model with EBPs and walk the reader through an example use of the model when making a decision between discrete-trial teaching and natural environment training for two similar clients.
View
Influence of Televisibility and Harm Probability on Clinical-Ethical Decision Making
Article
  • Jun 2023
Researchers have recently begun to use a behavioral economics framework to study the clinical-ethical decisions made by practicing behavior analysts. Much of this work, however, has examined broad patterns as opposed to isolating the underlying behavioral processes. In this study, we sought to extend past research by studying how clinical-ethical decisions would be influenced by a parametric manipulation of the probability that each available option would be televisible or cause short-term harm to the client. Behavior analysts (n = 15) were largely influenced only by the probability of short-term harm. In contrast, the control group (n = 30) was influenced by the probability each choice was televisible and the probability of short-term harm. Further, across all choices, control group participants showed a higher tendency than behavior analysts to not allow the individual to engage in the harmful behavior. Quantitative models built using machine learning algorithms were able to predict ~75% of choices made by participants using only the independent variables manipulated in this study. At the individual level, a probability loss discounting framework seemed to account for the data; however, deviations from traditional probability loss discounting methods provide many areas for future research. In total, the present experiment highlights the potential behavioral processes involved in clinical-ethical choices, similarities between individual (moral) and group-level (ethical) responding, and areas where practicing behavior analysts may have preferences that differ from their clients or their clients’ caregivers.
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