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Article
Southern African Journal of Social Work and Social
Development
https://doi.org/10.25159/2415-5829/4588
https://upjournals.co.za/index.php/SWPR/index
ISSN 2415-5829 (Online), ISSN 0520-0097 (Print)
Volume 32 | Number 1 | 2020 | #4588 | 17 pages
© Unisa Press 2020
Social Workers’ Experiences of Psychological and
Physical Violence at the Workplace
Kgashane Johannes Malesa
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4157-9584
University of South Africa
maleskj@unisa.ac.za
Roshini Pillay
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4551-0616
University of the Witwatersrand, South
Africa
roshini.pillay@wits.ac.za
Abstract
Physical and psychological workplace violence perpetrated against social
workers by clients and their acquaintances is a global reality. However, it is
rarely discussed as social workers are trained to be client-centred, meaning that
they prioritise the care and well-being of others above all else. In South Africa,
the awareness of, and academic interest in, workplace violence and aggression
are growing, particularly because employees are experiencing increased
psychological distress and frustration. Despite this, there remains a dearth of
research that investigates workplace violence perpetrated against social workers
by clients. This qualitative study explored the experiences of 15 social workers
and 3 key informants regarding workplace violence at a South African State
Department in the Limpopo province. The study used interviews guided by a
semi-structured interview schedule. Purposive sampling was used, and data
were analysed using a thematic content analysis. The findings reveal that the
participants understood the concept of workplace violence and had directly
and/or indirectly been exposed to physical and more frequently psychological
forms of workplace violence. Interventions and prevention mechanisms include
increasing security in workplaces, training, counselling and education on
workplace violence.
Keywords: social worker; psychological and physical distress; social development;
workplace violence; workplace aggression
Introduction
Workplace violence came to the fore in the early 1990s predominantly in the United
States of America where it attracted interest both in public and private sector
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2
organisations (Foster 2012). In August 1994, an American social worker, Teri Zenner,
was killed while conducting a home visit (Blank 2005). Teri’s death is viewed as a stark
reminder that social workers are not taught to recognise and avert potential workplace
violence. As a result of Teri’s death, the Teri Zenner Social Work Safety Act, 2007, was
promulgated to ensure greater awareness of the safety of social workers (Criss 2010).
In South Africa, workplace violence against social workers is under-reported and most
research focuses mainly on healthcare personnel in the workplace (Kennedy and Julie
2013; Terblanche and Borcherds 2018).
Contributing to the under-reporting is the lack of clarity on the terms used to define
workplace violence, and workplace incivility adds complexity to research on this social
problem (Ringstad 2005; Terblanche and Borcherds 2018). Workplace violence is often
narrowly interpreted as referring only to physical assault, whereas it encompasses any
incident in which individuals are maltreated, terrorised, frightened or beaten during their
work, in their place of work (Steinman 2003). A more inclusive definition of workplace
violence is “violent acts directed toward workers, which includes physical assault, the
threat of assault, and verbal abuse, and it is widely recognised as having far-reaching
consequences for workers’ health and safety” (Magnavita and Heponiemi 2011, 203).
In South Africa, terms such as “bullying”, “abuse” and “harassment” are incorporated
as elements of the workplace violence (De Wet and Jacobs 2018).
Workplace violence occurs in any work setting or occupational group. Research
suggests that occupations where workers interact with the public are likely to experience
incidents of violence in the work environment (Di Martino 2002; Kennedy 2004;
Steinman 2003; WHO 2002). Despite that, physical workplace violence seems to be
most common in occupations such as law enforcement, in service delivery areas in
which theft is widely reported, and in the mental health sector where patients are
difficult to subdue (Burden 2017; Malangu 2012). However, psychological workplace
violence is under-reported (Arnetz et al. 2018).
The phenomenon of workplace violence in South Africa is a concern considering that
in the year 2016/2017 there were 2 129 001 serious offenses reported to the South
African Police Service (SAPS), 35 per cent of which were contact crimes. Contact
crimes are those that involve the use of violence or intimidation against a person (Crime
Registrar 2018). Though it is not clear how many of these incidents happened within
the workplace, the high figures are worth noting because these statistics suggest a
violent society which spills into the social work environment.
Workplace violence tends to have negative effects on the employer, employees and the
service consumers. In a study conducted in the Limpopo province, Malangu (2012)
found that workplace violence by clients or people accompanying patients against
professionals such as social workers, nurses and doctors has a negative impact on
employee productivity and service delivery. In South Africa there are no definite
statistics projecting the actual financial implications of workplace violence or the
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number of workplace violence victims annually. Nevertheless, Kennedy and Julie
(2013) confirm that workplace violence has reached epidemic levels even though there
is under-reporting.
Since social work is a practicing profession (Teater 2013) that often requires direct
public interaction with clients, the aim of this study is to gather information on social
workers’ experiences of workplace violence in the line of duty, perpetrated by clients,
their family members and community members, in order to understand the extent to
which it affects social workers.
Theoretical Framework for the Study
The theoretical framework that underpins this study is the “two-factor theory” of
Frederick Herzberg (Johnson et al. 2018) which suggests that security is one of the
factors which may contribute to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Employees are less
motivated to provide effective service delivery when they fear for their safety. Service
effectiveness is affected when there is a lack of understanding of the rights,
responsibilities and relevant interventions available to prevent workplace violence
(Terblanche and Borcherds 2018). The two-factor theory mentions two important
aspects which have relevance to the study: satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
Circumstances relevant to overall satisfaction include a safe working environment, fair
remuneration, effective supervision, effective relations with co-workers, and
organisational policies (Arendse 2013). Unfavourable conditions perpetuate workplace
violence by clients towards social workers. This is because dissatisfied and highly
stressed clients are more likely to act aggressively towards social workers. In extreme
instances, clients may threaten, assault or kill social workers as a consequence of
extreme agitation caused by structural problems (Tzafrir, Enosh, and Gur 2015). Unsafe
working conditions were raised as a concern by social workers at the 2015 national
social work indaba in Durban, South Africa (Sithole 2017).
Understanding Social Workers’ Experiences of Workplace Violence
Social workers are trained to be client-centred and to develop an unconditionally
positive regard for clients. Therefore, they find it hard to understand how the very people
they are helping may become aggressive towards them (Enosh, Tzafrir, and Gur 2013;
Grobler and Schenk 2009; Tzafrir, Enosh, and Gur 2015). Feelings expressed by social
workers when exposed to workplace violence by clients and community members
include self-blame, hurt, anger and even shame. Considering the absence of a clear
understanding and description of workplace violence as a construct (Tzafrir, Enosh, and
Gur 2015), this is unsurprising. Client aggression towards a social worker results in
mental and physical health concerns of the social worker such as hyper-vigilance,
anxiety, depression and physical pain. Moreover, when client aggression occurs
frequently, social workers may experience an additional blunting of emotions and a
disregard of danger signs (Enosh, Tzafrir, and Gur 2013). Social workers can be caught
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4
in the crossfire between conforming to governmental and legislative requirements and
client needs on the one hand, and interacting with frustrated, violent and aggressive
clients on the other (Wiskow 2003).
The reality is that social workers and all other employees who deal with the public are
at risk of being victims of workplace violence (Terblanche and Borcherds 2018).
Significantly, the literature highlights that the intent to harm, whether physically or
psychologically, is at the core of any definition of workplace violence (Ariza-Montes et
al. 2013; Rippon 2000). The workplace violence that employees experience from clients
can be either physical or emotional and can be placed into two categories, namely
physical and non-physical (psychological) (Luck, Jackson, and Usher 2006).
Despite social workers experiencing some form of physical or psychological workplace
violence daily, many violent interactions remain unreported (Kvas and Seljak 2015).
Consequently, the exact frequency of the occurrence of workplace violence is not
known. In addition, the potential scope for violent interactions during the course of work
is broadened by the nature of typical social work duties, which include conducting home
visits and attending court cases. Social workers are therefore likely to be exposed to
potentially violent clients without the relative safety of an office environment where
colleagues and security might be present (Boyle and Wallis 2018).
Contributing Factors to Workplace Violence
Exploring workplace violence inherently presupposes a desire to understand what
causes people’s violent reactions. Although such a full understanding is beyond the
scope of this article, it is, nevertheless, helpful to identify work-related factors that may
create a work environment conducive to violence. In order to prevent workplace
violence, its causes, risk factors and background must be understood. Kennedy (2004)
categorises influential factors of workplace violence as situational, individual,
organisational and environmental factors.
Chappell and Di Martino (2006) suggest that some work situations appear particularly
to be associated with an enhanced risk of violence. The risk of violence is increased
when direct contact with the public is an inherent requirement of work (Mayhew and
Chappell 2007). Examples of such occupations include the health services, local
government, passenger transport, banking institutions, hotels and the catering industry
(Mayhew and Chappell 2007). Employees who frequently encounter workplace
violence are those working in an enforcement capacity, including child welfare workers,
probation officers and security guards (Malangu 2012). Considering that workers in
such professions interact with people in distress, it is unsurprising that clients often
express anger and aggression, and workers in these environments typically consider
workplace violence to be part of their job. Within this group of employees, social
workers, psychiatric nurses, and prison or probation officers commonly face frequent
exposure to workplace violence.
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5
Implications of Workplace Violence
Any form of violence can have a serious effect on the workforce, the employer and the
victim. Exposure to violence tends to have psychological consequences, such as
depression, stress and stress-related illnesses. When this results in absenteeism,
organisational costs escalate and productivity and profitability decline (Randall 1997).
Financial implications associated with the aftermath of violent events may include
additional security immediately following a violent event, building repairs, salary
continuation for those who are injured, employee turnover, increase in workers’
compensation claims, attorney fees, and long-term counselling care for the remaining
employees (Giga, Hoel, and Lewis 2008; Hoel et al. 2011; Najafi et al. 2018).
Intervention Programmes to Prevent Workplace Violence
Environmental risk factors, training and communication are three areas in which
programmes can be developed to prevent workplace violence (Wiskow 2003).
Environmental factors may include conducting a risk audit of the physical space to
review aspects such as adequate lighting, decor and furniture, especially in the areas that
are accessed by the general public. Adequate security that includes alarms and closed-
circuit television can be ensured. Training can result in increased and improved
knowledge around workplace violence. A training programme that was developed in
South Africa for the Gauteng Department of Health included topics such as
understanding workplace violence, the rights and responsibilities to prevent it,
recognition and assessment of workplace violence, and plans to reduce it (Terblanche
and Borcherds 2018). Given the nature of social work, particularly the frequent need to
assist clients outside of the office environment, social workers should receive
comprehensive training on the risk factors associated with their work and should have
knowledge of emergency procedures.
Clear communication facilitates improved reporting and assessment of workplace
violence. Ensuring organisational integration through transparent communication
enables managers to adequately assess needs and facilitate intervention and debriefing
programmes (Kvas and Seljak 2015). This enables appropriate policy formulation and
procedural clarity for the creation of a safe workplace (O’Rourke, Wrigley, and
Hammond 2018), thus aligning with the two-factor theory of motivation that underpins
this research.
Research Design and Methodology
The study adopted a qualitative approach using an exploratory case study design that
focused on a single social phenomenon over a bounded time frame (Babbie 2013). The
population was defined and social workers employed at district offices of the Limpopo
Department of Social Development were recruited through an information session
during a monthly meeting and were asked to make direct contact with the researchers.
Non-probability purposive sampling was used to select 15 permanently employed social
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workers. The inclusion criteria required all participants to be registered as social
workers, with more than one year’s work experience. The participants self-identified as
having been exposed to physical or psychological violence perpetrated by clients.
Table 1 categorises the participants in terms of gender and experience.
Table 1: Profile of participants
Demographic factors
Sub-category
Participants
Number
Gender of social workers
Male
7
Female
8
Years of experience
2
9
3
4
4
1
5
1
Key informants
Male
Female
1
2
Years of experience
5
1
6
1
10
1
In addition, three social work supervisors (two females and one male) also took part in
the study as key informants. The key informants were selected because they occupy
managerial positions at the municipalities within which the researchers conducted the
study and allowed for triangulation (Creswell 2007). The researchers believed that the
key informants were of value as they inhabit social and professional roles.
Data Collection
Data were collected using two semi-structured interview schedules for the participants
and the key informants. The interview schedules were pretested with social workers
who were not part of the sample. Face-to-face interviews were used for the data
collection based on a predefined set of broad questions (Nicholls 2009). The semi-
structured nature of the tool allowed for probing and an exploration of the topics, and
to elicit thick descriptions of the participants’ experiences of workplace violence
(Rossetto 2014). Interviews were conducted at mutually agreed times in offices that
ensured confidentiality. While English was predominantly used during the interviews,
some participants were more comfortable with expressing themselves in their mother
tongues which were Sepedi, Xitsonga and Tshivenda.
Ethical Considerations
Ethics clearance for this study was obtained from the Non-Medical Ethics Committee
of the University of the Witwatersrand, and permission for the study was granted by the
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Department of Social Development, Limpopo province. As workplace violence is a
sensitive topic that may cause psychological distress to participants, the counselling
services of a social worker in private practice based in the Limpopo area were offered.
All the participants were given an information sheet on the study and they all provided
written consent. The identities of the participants were protected by using pseudonyms.
Data Analysis
The method of data analysis used in this study was a thematic content analysis, which
is a descriptive presentation of qualitative data (Creswell 2007). The researchers
compiled verbatim transcriptions of the audio-taped interviews. Subsequently the data
were converted into themes or categories to extract relevant information and to
extrapolate findings (Boeijie 2010).
Trustworthiness included credibility and was achieved through triangulation of the data
from the participants and the data of the key informants, which was carried out by the
researcher (Smith and McGannon 2018). Confirmability was ensured as the first author
of this paper was an employee of the Department of Social Development at the time of
the research and adopted a reflexive stance when analysing the data. By keeping a
reflexive journal this author was able to interrogate the data thoroughly and obtain an
understanding of context in order to avoid personal bias (Alvesson and Sköldberg 2017;
Babbie 2013). Dependability was achieved by providing rich information on the process
of the study so that it could be replicated in another setting (Pandey and Patnaik 2014).
Presentation and Discussion of Results
Where relevant, verbatim quotations were relied on to illustrate the participants’
perceptions and to corroborate relevant literature (Creswell 2007). Themes were
identified to ensure that all the significant aspects pertinent to the research questions
were covered. The discussion below is guided by the six themes in Table 2.
Table 2: Summary of themes
Themes
Understanding workplace violence
Physical incidents of workplace violence
Psychological and emotional incidents of workplace violence
The effects of workplace violence
The lack of reporting or under-reporting of workplace violence
Organisational factors that contribute to workplace violence
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Understanding Workplace Violence
During the interviews the participants were asked, “What is workplace violence in your
own understanding?” Their responses indicated an awareness and understanding of the
construct of workplace violence. For example, one participant when defining workplace
violence said:
Any form of violence that occurs within the premises of work or outside the premises
of work but in relation to work. (Jo-Anne)
Another participant demonstrated a similar understanding by defining workplace
violence as:
Those kinds of acts that are committed, it can be from employee to employee or just
people surrounding the workplace or it could be people from outside the agency coming
to violate you during working hours. (Jacky, social worker)
In defining the concept of workplace violence, 13 participants indicated that it refers to
being physically, psychologically or emotionally attacked by another person while on
duty during official office hours, which are between 08:00 and 16:00. Considering that
social workers are not exclusively office bound, workplace violence may be
encountered during home visits or at other locations where they are performing work-
related duties. The two-factor theory states that factors in the workplace such as safety
in the workplace and working conditions may cause job satisfaction or dissatisfaction
(Arendse 2013). It was interesting to note that the key informants confirmed the
suspicion that social workers encounter workplace violence on a daily basis. For
example, when asked to define workplace violence a key informant started by saying:
Workplace violence does exist and is happening daily, social workers are being attacked
by clients. Workplace violence is when you are being insulted or physically attacked by
the client or colleagues in relation to work issues while on duty. (Thapelo, key
informant)
This quote demonstrates the perception by the key informant that workplace violence
within the South African context, specifically in the Limpopo province, is likely to occur
often. This frequency is similar to the findings by Gaudine, Patrick, and Busby (2019)
which reported increasing prevalence of workplace violence despite minimal research
into this topic.
All 15 participants were able to define some of the critical aspects of workplace violence
such as being physically or psychologically attacked. The participants did not use the
World Health Organization’s (WHO) (2002) definition of workplace violence, but they
signposted a similar understanding of the concept. The WHO’s definition emphasises
the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself,
another person, or against a group or community that either results in or has a high
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likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or
deprivation. These elements were highlighted in the participants’ definitions of the
concept.
Physical Incidents of Workplace Violence
Most of the incidents described in the interviews were of psychological violence, but
two male social workers, Fulufhelo and Mareda, narrated their experiences of physical
violence. Fulufhelo indicated that he had experienced physical workplace violence
twice and one incident was with a client who was mentally ill. Mareda described being
hurt in the following quote:
I once had this joint interview, male and female, couple. So this gentleman was saying
err [taking time to think] he wants his property from the wife. It’s like this man went to
Johannesburg for a while, the wife had to support children, buy furniture for the house
by herself but the husband wants to claim them as his. He said he wanted the house …
it is his house and everything in the house. He mentioned that he married his wife and
paid everything. So his wife was having this letter written ‘I will pay this much and later
will come and finish so much lobola [bride price]’. So that lady produced that letter and
then the man saw that there is evidence to prove him otherwise and that he was lying.
After that the gentleman wanted the letter and the lady instructed me not give the letter
to her husband. So they started to fight over the letter and then when I was giving back
the letter to the lady, the man grabbed my hand, twisted it and took the letter and started
fighting physically with his wife. I managed to escape, went to the supervisor so that he
can intervene.
Both social workers recounted experiences of being physically hurt by their clients, and
in Mareda’s account he became distraught in retelling the incident. These two incidents
emphasise the fact that social workers are assaulted in their line of work. Both these
incidences of physical violence by clients on male social workers may suggest that male
social workers are at greater risk. Nontshimudi in her response to Mareda’s ordeal
indicated that
… we, in many times, put our male social workers in trouble because we seek protection
from them when clients are aggressive to us, this compromises their safety but we are
left with no any other option as the department is doing very little to protect us.
Thus male social workers need additional protection and training as when they try to
assist their female colleagues they are more likely to become victims of workplace
violence, which is similar to the finding in a study by Jayaratne, Croxton, and Mattison
(2004) that found male social workers were more likely to experience workplace
violence.
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Psychological and Emotional Incidents of Workplace Violence
A total number of 15 social workers experienced emotional violence, which they
perceived as excessive. One participant, Kgalema, spoke with a sad, low voice:
Sometimes, the clients’ responses can be very harsh and hurting especially that we do
not expect them to be harsh to us.
One of the key informants, Ms Matakana, indicated that, based on the complaints she
had heard from her subordinates, the violence they perceived was mostly emotional
violence:
… in most cases, complaints I get are those which clients insults or shout at the social
workers and this is what I think an emotional abuse by clients towards social workers.
One female participant, Phuti, experienced vicarious trauma when clients were
assaulted in her presence:
I remember when I was with clients, a couple, so I was writing everything they were
saying. While I was writing I just heard the husband slapping the wife. When I asked
him what is happening, he started swearing at me and said I don’t know anything and
that this is his wife. I was stuck there in the office and if he had something dangerous
like a knife or an object, he would have done something bad to me.
Phuti’s response demonstrates the type of vicarious trauma to which social workers may
be exposed, which was also noted by Lanctôt and Guay (2014).
Effects of Workplace Violence
The participants stressed that the exposure to danger related to workplace violence also
affects their immediate and extended families. During the interviews some participants
explained how emotional stress develops as a result of verbal and non-verbal abuse by
clients or members of the public in the form of open or veiled threats, insults and
hostility. A participant said:
Workplace violence has got bad effect, because at the end of the day, one goes to home
not being happy, when you arrive at your place you will still be not happy, and it then
affects your family. (Joseph, social worker)
Workplace violence could result in social workers isolating themselves and disengaging
from the public or service consumers owing to fear. Four of the participants stated that
they feared for their own lives or those of their relatives. They reported having to keep
their children away from public places and sending them to private schools. The
perception by the participants was that their profession puts them at risk since any
dissatisfied client might hurt them or their family. Thus, workplace violence not only
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11
impacts negatively on the emotional and psychological well-being of social workers,
but also on that of their families.
Lack of Reporting or Under-reporting of Workplace Violence
The key informants admitted that no records of workplace violence were being kept. In
addition, seven of the participants decided not to report such incidents of client
aggression, saying that even if they were to report such incidents to the supervisor,
nothing would be done. Lungile mentioned that:
I am not sure what the other social worker did with the matter but with me I only tried
to calm the clients and did nothing after they have left. I kept the matter within me.
Considering the seriousness of workplace violence, management and social workers
need guidance on the significance and implications of legislation and policy, such as the
Occupational Health and Safety Act. This would presumably facilitate accurate record-
keeping of incidents of psychological and physical workplace violence.
Organisational Factors that Contribute to Workplace Violence
The participants noted a distinct disparity between security and environmental safety
precautions that are in place at the regional offices of the Department of Social
Development, and those in place at provincial and national offices. The absence of
adequate security measures at the regional offices resulted in workplace violence at the
hands of clients. The only security measure taken at the regional offices of the
Department of Social Development were security guards at the gates of the premises.
These guards did not possess the appropriate equipment to search for dangerous
weapons when people entered the premises.
Participant Gabautlwane responded angrily by saying:
Firstly, the client can even enter the premises without any source of identification. So
the first thing is to ensure that whoever enters the premises is known to the security
through identification card, ID or so and if that is not corrected then we have a problem.
Tightening security will mean having CCTV cameras.
The need for effective and efficient security at the offices that social workers operate
from is seen as an essential preventive measure. In addition, the lack of operational and
capital resources was found to be another concern raised by the participants, as this
created an unwarranted impression that social workers were ineffective:
Mostly because of lack of resources, clients come to us and insult us for not doing our
jobs. [Participant speaks with an angry voice]Some cases need you to visit the family
and how do you go without transport? Some of these cases requires you to write reports
and without computer you can’t type a report to court, and all these cases if are being
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12
delayed, influence clients to conclude that we are not working then violence start.
(Modjadji, social worker)
Dlamini and Sewpaul (2015) echoed this concern, noting that inadequate resources
create an unhealthy work environment. The lack of resources is regarded by the two-
factor theory as one of the factors leading to employees’ demotivation. When the
researchers explored which resources social workers believe are fundamental in
enabling them to provide better services, most of the participants mentioned computers,
transport, stationary, printers, photocopiers and telephones. The literature, in support of
what our study found, shows that the lack of resources impacts negatively on service
delivery, which indirectly leads to frustrated clients, thus adding to the probability of
aggressive behaviour and workplace violence perpetrated against social workers
(Alpaslan and Schenck 2012).
Conclusion
Workplace violence has a devastating effect on the social and psychological well-being
of social workers as well as that of their families and relatives. This article documented
how social workers in the Limpopo area often fall victim to psychological or physical
workplace violence perpetrated by clients. It further illustrated that workplace violence
is often under-reported or not reported at all. As a consequence, organisational
awareness of this concern is low, and appropriate measures by means of policies and
procedural guidelines are not implemented. Of additional concern is the fact that there
appear to be no intervention strategies in place to debrief affected social workers, and
no apparent attempts to engage in preventive measures.
Client-initiated violence has a significant physical and emotional impact on social
workers, the organisation and society at large. At a structural level consideration should
be given to the environmental factors within the workplace, which include reviewing
social work resources as well as appropriate safety measures. Key stakeholders such as
policymakers, education content developers and professional bodies need to understand
that exposure to workplace violence is an inherent risk associated with social work as a
profession. Prospective social work students and registered social workers should
receive appropriate training in this regard, and the profession should strive to develop a
comprehensive body of knowledge on personal safety and protection.
In addition, the apparent lack of appropriate professional resources provides a
substantial constraint on social workers, who find themselves incapable of rendering
professional services as a direct consequence. Inadequate budgetary allocations and
poor organisational planning exacerbate the problem, cause friction between social
workers and clients, and provide fertile breeding grounds for client resentment and
frustration, which are likely to be directed at the social worker as the primary point of
contact for social services. Other necessary preventive initiatives include ongoing
employee wellness programmes and ongoing training and education at all levels in the
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13
organisation. Further research on the topic of social worker exposure to workplace
violence is needed beyond the Limpopo area to include various other non-governmental
social services. Nationally, better strategies should be developed to ensure adequate and
comprehensive reporting and record-keeping practices for all instances of violence
between social workers and clients.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the critical readers Oncemore Mbeve and Cristel Grobler. The editing
of this article was done by Dr Jenny Stacey.
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