Content uploaded by Paul Longley Arthur
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Paul Longley Arthur on Dec 16, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
Migration Experiences: Acknowledging the Past, and Sustaining
the Present and Future∗
Published as:
Arthur, Paul Longley1, Marijke van Faassen2, Rik Hoekstra2, Nadezhda Povroznik3, Lydia Hearn1, and Nonja
Peters4. “Migration Experiences: Acknowledging the Past, and Sustaining the Present and Future.” In Digital
Heritage—Progress in Cultural Heritage: Documentation, Preservation, and Protection (Proceedings of the 7th
International EuroMed Conference), edited by Marinos Ioannides, Eleanor Fink, Raffaella Brumana, Petros
Patias, Anastasios Doulamis, João Martins, and Manolis Wallace, part 2, 224–34. Nicosia, Cyprus, October 29–
November 3, 2018. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 11197. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2019 (corrected
publication). https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-030-01765-1_25.
Abstract:
Australia is recognised as one of the world’s most culturally and ethnically diverse nations. Immigration has
historically played an important role in the nation’s economic, social and cultural development. There is a
pressing need to find innovative technological and archival approaches to deal with the challenge to digitally
preserve Australia’s migrant heritage, especially given the ageing of the European communities that were the
first to come under the postwar mass migration scheme. This paper reports on plans for a national collaborative
project to develop the foundational infrastructure for a dynamic, interoperable, migrant data resource for
research and education. The Migration Experiences platform will connect and consolidate heterogeneous
collections and resources and will provide an international exemplar underscoring the importance of digital
preservation of cultural heritage and highlighting the opportunities new technologies can offer. The platform
will widen the scope and range of the interpretative opportunities for researchers, and foster international
academic relationships and networks involving partner organisations (universities, libraries, museums, archives
and genealogical institutions). In doing so, it will contribute to better recognition and deeper understanding of
the continuing role played by immigrants in Australia’s national story.
Keywords:
migration heritage; intangible heritage; transnational history; digital humanities; research infrastructure;
Australia; Netherlands; Russia.
1 Introduction
1.1 Background: Worldwide Migration
In recent years international mobility has become a major issue in political, social, economic,
security and human rights terms. Border crossing is increasing exponentially, and we are
experiencing the largest displacement of individuals since World War II.1 According to an
estimate by the UN Population Division in 2017, the number of international migrants
worldwide was approximately 258 million (3.4% of global population).2 The enormous
increase in people movement around the world in recent times, whether in forced or chosen
∗ Please note: this is a ‘pre-print’ version of a published work. It may differ from the published work in minor
ways, such as page layout, editorial style and typographical corrections.
1 Edith Cowan University, 2 Bradford St, Mt Lawley, Perth 6050, Australia. paul.arthur@ecu.edu.au
2 Huygens ING, Oudezijds Achterburgwal 185, 1012 DK Amsterdam, Netherlands
3 Perm State University, Ulitsa Bukireva 15, 614990 Perm, Russia
4 Curtin University, Kent Street, Perth 6102, Australia
2
circumstances, has destabilised national boundaries and disrupted traditional concepts of
home, identity, citizenship, community and nation. In this era of shifting and porous borders,
Benedict Anderson’s phrase ‘imagined communities’, coined in the 1980s, is highly
relevant.3 Individuals and communities that are no longer anchored in physically bordered
spaces need to create communities, real or virtual, with which they can identify and where
they can engage, be supported and seek a sense of belonging and security.4 There are many
reasons for migration, ranging from voluntary migration to asylum-seeking due to political
conflict, resettlement following natural disaster, labour migration and migration undertaken
for educational or economic or family reasons. However, in most cases the reasons
commonly involve the undertaking of a journey (by choice or pressure of circumstances) to
leave one’s home environment to travel to a place that is foreign in terms of language and
culture.5,6 Whatever the reasons for undertaking them, the journeys represent transitions,
disruptions and upheavals in people’s lives, and for each individual migrant the years and
generations that follow are indelibly marked by that crossing and, in many cases, shaped by
it. Under the global statistics lie smaller-scale groupings of specific communities with
growing collective histories and individual stories of migration that are part of collective
history and identity but exist mostly in fragmented, dispersed and often ephemeral forms in
government records and reports, in a handful of dedicated museums and in the memories and
memorabilia of immigrants and their families.
1.2 Project Overview
Australia is recognised as one of the world’s most culturally and ethnically diverse nations,
and over recent decades there has been increasing community interest and extensive scholarly
research on immigration to Australia from the time of settlement in 1788, especially post-
WWII immigration. With the establishment of government-supported migration museums
followed by ‘a veritable explosion of exhibitions about immigration’ from the late 1980s until
the late 1990s,7 data—in the form of information, artefacts and stories relating to migrant
heritage—has been accumulating in these and other repositories.
Immigration has historically played an important role in the economic, social and
cultural development of Australia. In addition to supporting the Australian government’s
ongoing cultural commitment to developing as a diverse and culturally inclusive society,8
immigration continues to be of vital importance for practical reasons, such as the
maintenance of a stable level of population and, in the context of an ageing society, the future
maintenance of services. The 2016 census results, published by the Australian Bureau of
Statistics, show that ‘Nearly half (49%) of all Australians were either born overseas (first
generation) or have at least one parent born overseas (second generation)’.9 Most
importantly, Australians, including many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people,
therefore have links to one or more of the 200 immigrant source countries around the world.
In Australia large-scale digitisation of cultural heritage resources has been led by
national collecting institutions. While much has been achieved in this arena, digital
preservation of migrant cultural heritage remains a major challenge that now needs urgent
attention. The massive population shifts since WWII, characteristic of the postwar period,
have stretched most museums’ financial capacity to house collections that reflect Australia’s
ethnic diversity. As was typical of postcolonial countries, by the 1990s Australian museums
were housing mainly scientific specimens relating to Australia’s flora and fauna and artefacts
that reflected the experience of its dominant Anglo-Celtic culture. The word ‘museum’ was
still generally ‘reserved for collections in natural history, science and technology,
3
anthropology and ethnology’, and according to the writers of the 1975 Committee of Inquiry
on Museums and National Collections, the word itself had ‘a musty effect’.10 The study of
Aboriginal history only truly came into being in the early 1990s. Australia’s two immigration
museums, Adelaide (established in 1988) and Melbourne (1997), have been limited by the
dictates of traditional museum practices even as their remit has expanded in the digital era.
There is a pressing need to find innovative new technological and archival approaches to deal
with the challenge of digitally preserving Australia’s migrant heritage, especially given the
ageing of the European communities that were the first to come under the postwar mass
migration scheme.
This paper reports on plans for an international collaborative project to create and
develop the foundational infrastructure for a dynamic, interoperable, migrant data resource
for research and education. The development of this resource will not only benefit the
communities themselves in terms of citizenship, it will also facilitate cross-cultural
understanding by providing access beyond the individual communities. It will create a
reliable, expandable source of information and data to inform policy and to support the
diverse and extensive array of migration scholarship being pursued nationally. This project
was initiated by Nonja Peters, who over a period of decades has made a major international
contribution to mutual heritage understanding, in particular in relation to Dutch-Australian
history. Although there have been prior efforts to establish such a platform through the
Australian Research Council’s Linkage Infrastructure, Equipment and Facilities (LIEF)
projects scheme involving members of the project team, to date these have not been
successful and so there remains no integrated platform or data resource in Australia for the
preservation of immigrants’ cultural heritage. The broader ambition is to expand and build on
the authors’ established bilateral Netherlands-Australia research program in migration and
mutual heritage studies to include further international partners. In doing so this paper
responds directly to the EuroMed Conference’s call to ‘Refine, amend and publish main ideas
and visions of any technological platforms opened to the entire field of CH in the context of
preparation of the EU Horizon 2020 Framework Programme (2014–2020)’. Migration is a
global phenomenon; by approaching it in a global and collaborative way, it is possible to
better understand European migration in a world context.
Innovation in the humanities and creative arts is increasingly dependent on enabling
infrastructure to support research excellence. The Migration Experiences platform will
connect and consolidate heterogeneous collections and resources for the field of migration
studies and will provide an international exemplar underscoring the importance of digital
preservation of cultural heritage and highlighting the opportunities new technologies can
offer.11 The platform will widen the scope and range of the interpretative opportunities for
researchers, and foster international academic relationships and networks involving partner
organisations (universities, libraries, museums, archives and genealogical institutions). In
doing so, it will contribute to better recognition and deeper understanding of the continuing
role that immigrants play in Australia’s national story.
2 Designing a Digital Platform for Preserving and Accessing Migrant Cultural Heritage
The Migration Experiences platform is in the early phases of development, focusing on
consultation and scoping that will guide the formulation of a prototype schema funded
through the ‘Digital Preservation and Documentation of Australia’s Migrant Cultural
Heritage’ grant awarded by the Australian National Commission for UNESCO (2018–19).
The platform is intended to enable:
4
•
Research and analysis of the migration experience—from selection through to
resettlement, including the array of human emotions without which the immigration
story would be incomplete, which consists not only of loss, grief, despair and
homesickness, strangeness, anxiety and relief but also the joy of reunion and the
satisfaction of ‘making it’ in a new land; and
•
Digital preservation of Australia’s immigrants’ cultural heritage—which is, at the
same time, also a part of the heritage of the migrants’ former homelands.
Heritage can be defined as ‘that which comes or belongs to one by reason of birth; an
inherited lot or portion; or something reserved for one’.12 However, while we most often refer
to material possessions in discussions about our cultural heritage (historic buildings,
archaeological sites and artefacts held in museums, archives and libraries), Vasiliki Nihas,
speaking as chair of the Cultural Council of the Australian Capital Territory, has maintained
that the inheritance we most often receive and leave behind is ‘our experience and our
expression of culture, individually and collectively. Because … it represents a metaphor for
the human condition of growth and discovery, [and because] the stories it evokes are
powerful and can create connections across cultural [and national] boundaries’.13 While this
is challenging in all cases, it is even more so if the inheritance is international and the
heritage objects that cast light on different aspects of culture are dispersed over different
countries and many repositories, as is inevitably the case for migrant heritage.
As set out in the UNESCO Charter on the Preservation of the Digital Heritage (2003),
‘The purpose of preserving the digital heritage is to ensure that it remains accessible to the
public’.14 The Migration Experiences platform will be built on the principles of a
collaborative international research framework and the open sharing of datasets.
The project will be developed in two main stages. The first phase will involve the
scoping and design of core features, plus a preliminary data schema focused on inter-
operability and open data standards, tested using available digitised materials. Later iterations
will enhance the data repository schema, introduce further interoperability protocols and
explore links with other national and international repositories, refining the design as needed
and developing domain-specific research tools. Pilot studies will then set out to capture, share
and preserve text-based migrant stories and multimedia records/data of individual migration
experiences in order to test the approach and for feature refinement. These studies will be
informed by the prior experience of developing the Dutch Australians at a Glance (DAAAG)
archive and repository. A diverse range of resources available digitally will be identified and
linked in order to test the data model. Resources will include published research findings
relevant to migration experience; migrant group histories; digitised diaries, letters, oral
histories, voice recordings, films, documentaries, virtual exhibitions, photographic indexes,
research bibliographies and artefact databases; migrant biographies held by ethnic
communities, migrant families and individuals; and links to shipping lists, immigration
records, registration migration cards of ‘aliens’,15 citizenship requests held by Australian and
overseas collecting institutions and genealogical records.
The second phase of the project will focus on identifying relevant records, located in
Australian and international collecting institutions, which are currently unavailable or
minimally available in digital form and seek to digitise a selection of these, initially to test
data matching and linkage methods, but also to expand the platform’s content. There is
enormous practical and economic benefit in connecting the data from such research
institutions. This phase of the project will build upon the successful cooperation already
5
established amongst a diverse range of researchers working in key Australian and overseas
universities and collecting institutions.
While the focus of the Migration Experiences project is currently on Australian
migration data, the infrastructural framework is intended, as noted, to be a scalable model and
template that can ultimately be reapplied in other national contexts. The vision is for this
platform to become a key resource for researchers to utilise for accurate, up-to-date and
scholarly research findings, as well as oral history and bibliographic, genealogical and
archival material available via databases in Australia and around the world on immigration
experiences that relate to Australia. In designing this infrastructure, the project will follow a
‘bazaar’ model (concept developed at an NIAS- Lorentz workshop organised by members of
the project team in Leiden in 2016), in which every heritage custodian, individual or
institutional, has the opportunity to contribute and connect their materials to the larger
heritage ensemble without over-reliance on a central organisational steering mechanism that
would be difficult to devise or operate in such a diverse and international setting. To achieve
this, the project will need to address legal and cultural barriers to data sharing: specifically,
copyright and data reuse issues around digital collections, and tools to expedite the execution
of data/image sharing agreements between partner organisations. The platform is envisaged
to ultimately allow individual researchers and institutional collections to link, share and
critically evaluate information pertaining to many facets of the migration experience. The
intention is for the site to also be relevant on a personal, family and community level—for
research and education now and into the future—to the nearly 200 ethnic groups that
constitute Australian society.
3 Data Sharing, Integration and Interoperability
3.1 Data Models
The Migration Experiences platform will be specifically informed by and will incorporate
features of the following leading international migration, digital history and digital
infrastructural projects—which the authors of this paper have led or with which they are
actively involved.
The Migrant: Mobilities and Connection project developed by Hugyens ING,
Netherlands, offers a best-practice example of data sharing and analysis.16 The project
focuses on immigrants who moved to Australia from the postwar Netherlands and their life
histories, including longitudinal perspectives (origins, religion or health), and it investigates
how these can be reconstructed on the basis of the registration systems used at the time.
Underlying the project is the Timbuctoo/Anansi open-source repository system developed by
Huygens ING in the context of CLARIAH (Common Lab Research Infrastructure for the
Arts and Humanities), to support academic research in the arts and humanities, which ‘often
yields complex and heterogeneous data’.17 The project database enables data comparison
and linkage of emigrant registration cards from the National Archives of the Netherlands
with Australian migrant dossiers from the National Archives Australia. This is intended to
facilitate research that bridges the gap between migrant agency and policy by reconstructing
life-courses of migrants, and mapping and analysing the networks surrounding them, to make
visible their influence on individual lives.
The online resource Digitalhistory.ru, a major digital history project developed by the
Perm Center for Digital Humanities, Russia, has recently extended its metadata fields to
6
include migration data, and it provides an example of data aggregation, developed in the
Russian context but incorporating data and projects from many parts of the world.18
Aggregated data can help to show otherwise hidden linkages and patterns of connection
between entities, as well as resolving ambiguities or contradictions in data held across diverse
online or digitised resources. Digitalhistory.ru is a recent example of best practice in
information retrieval and documentation for digital cultural heritage resources. It provides
a catalogue of history-oriented information systems and demonstrates their application in the
humanities for research and for education. It includes fields for the standardised description
of organisations, authors, countries and links to web resources, as well as an extensive list of
thematic descriptions of content (for example, geography, time, types of primary sources and
fields related to the description of migration history and cultural heritage). The project takes a
multiresource approach to linking data from virtual museums as well as other information
focused on the representation of historical sources and cultural heritage, including electronic
archives and libraries, and online collections.19
In Australia, the Humanities Networked Infrastructure (HuNI) provides an existing
model for data aggregation and integration, incorporating rich biographical data to enable
new understandings of social trends and phenomena in the study of Australian people, history
and culture, including aspects relevant to migration studies.20 HuNI brings together data from
30 of Australia’s most significant humanities and creative arts datasets and makes them
available for use by researchers across the arts and humanities and more widely by the
general public. The project’s objectives are to make Australia’s wealth of cultural resources
more accessible and connected; to break down barriers between humanities disciplines and
support collaboration and data sharing between researchers, nationally and internationally; to
create efficient workflows for researchers working with cultural data centred around
enhanced discovery, analysis and sharing; and for the HuNI data aggregate service to lay the
foundation for collaborative cross-disciplinary online research capability into the future.
HuNI was funded by the NeCTAR (National eResearch Collaboration Tools and
Resources) project, which is part of Australia’s strategic investment of over $2.8 billion,
made between 2005 and 2016 via the National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy
(NCRIS), to provide accessible, nationally networked research infrastructure. Yet the
humanities have not historically benefitted from major investments in digital research
platforms in Australia. The initial investments from 2005 to 2011 were guided by the 2006
National Research Infrastructure Roadmap, which had a science and technology emphasis,
although humanities and social sciences were introduced into the 2008 edition.21 Much
energy in the education sector later went into developing a 2011 roadmap, and while it
included a humanities-focused capability area, the roadmap was not finally implemented.
Adjacent and intersecting programs, such as the Australian Government’s SuperScience
Initiative and its Education Investment Fund, separately contributed over $2.3 billion from
2009 to 2015 for the construction and development of teaching and research infrastructure,
mainly in the university sector. This included national projects and programs that remain
current, such as ANDS (the Australian National Data Service), RDS (Research Data Services,
and before this RDSI, or Research Data Storage Infrastructure), and NeCTAR (National
eResearch Collaboration Tools and Resources).
The Migration Experiences platform will contribute to national and international
digital humanities and creative arts infrastructure by collaborating with other providers that
are working toward the efficient discovery and sharing of data. To ensure long-term
interoperability it will adhere to interoperability protocols developed for NCRIS projects such
7
as HuNI. This approach will also maximise searchability of data, ensuring that researchers
can find pertinent search results quickly and efficiently.
3.2 Migration Museums as Models
The project is also informed by the example of the digital strategies of migration museums.
The Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation, which funds the Ellis Island Immigration
Museum via corporations, foundations and private contributions, launched the “Family
History Centre” in 2001. Its database contained the given name and surname, ethnicity, last
town and country of residence, date of arrival, age, gender, marital status, ship of travel, port
of departure and the line number on the manifest of 22 million immigrants, passengers and
crew members who passed through the Port of New York between 1892 and 1924, the peak
years of Ellis Island’s processing.22 This data, which was taken directly from microfilms of
the ship’s manifests provided by the National Archives and Records Administration, had
never before been available electronically. This searchable collection has now been extended
to contain over 51 million passenger records.23
In Europe, emigration to the ‘promised land’ is on par with war and memorialisation
as a focus for museums. For example, in 2007 Germany opened the Auswanderers Haus
German Emigration Center Theme Museum, in Bremerhaven. At a cost of 21 million euros,
this ‘stellar center’ is dedicated to the seven million emigrants who gathered in Bremerhaven
between 1830 and 1974 to board a ship headed for the ‘new world’. A few months later, the
engaging Ballinstadt Emigration Museum was opened in Hamburg. It records the story of the
five million emigrants (Germans, Central and Eastern Europeans) who left their homelands—
due to dire poverty, hunger and hopelessness, or political and religious persecution—via the
port of Hamburg in search of a better life across the Atlantic. In Italy an emigration museum
opened in Rome in 2009, and there are many other such examples over the past decade of
museums recording the exodus of citizens.24
The displays in these two German emigration museums are impressive in that they
provide easy access to both the big picture and the detailed human stories that underlie it. At
the Auswanderers Haus there are spectacular digital initiatives that have been created using
linked data resources. In the Gallery of the Seven Million, basic documents and shipping list
information are recorded for the overwhelming majority of the emigrants. However, in some
cases, visitors can also listen to the stories of individuals and identify their artefacts
throughout the museum displays. As a representative sample, these exhibits are relevant for
all the emigrants who left Germany to settle in a host country, and to the wider population
that seeks to better understand the history of emigration to America.
These are only a handful of examples of the many migration museums that have
developed digital resources for public engagement and access that the Migration Experiences
project will draw upon and learn from in order to ensure successful implementation.
4 Conclusion
One of the greatest challenges facing society today is the need to rethink the construction and
transmission of historical knowledge in an increasingly globalised world of fluid national
identities, mass migration and an Internet accessible to a vast general public. Cultural
historian Maria Grever noted a decade ago that ‘digital interactivity is set to revolutionise the
preservation and study of all forms of history, … every day the Internet attracts thousands of
8
visitors, representing various publics’.25 The Migration Experiences platform will
acknowledge immigrants’ contribution to Australian society, including the diversity and
wealth of their original cultures. At a broad level it will also provide a positive sense of dual
belonging for immigrants and their descendants by raising public awareness of the many
facets of migration experience and thus building cross-cultural understandings and empathy.
It will support inclusiveness by educating the public to question and challenge cultural
stereotypes. The central aim of the project is to create a structure that, through its use of
existing successful models, and its linkages with other national and international data
infrastructure, can develop a resource that will be economical, scalable, lasting and
sustainable for future generations to build upon and use.
The United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) have both acknowledged the
urgent need to preserve intangible and tangible heritage resources in the face of the
accelerated pace of cultural and economic globalisation. As the UNESCO Medium-Term
Strategy (MTS) for 2014–2021 points out, ‘The world is growing closer together’.26 This is
occurring not only in physical terms through exponential growth in air travel, global trade
and international tourism but also as a result of the communications revolution, especially the
rapid uptake of digital media in people’s daily lives around the world. The technological
advances of information and communications also offer an opportunity to link and connect
the dispersed records of migration to create new infrastructures for migration research. The
Migration Experiences project responds directly to UNESCO’s call for ‘new intersectoral
approaches and partnerships’.27 This research is underpinned by the key principles and
priorities of UNESCO’s 2018–2021 Draft Programme, specifically ‘inclusivity; . . . the fight
against poverty and the reduction of inequalities; the overarching goal of peace, peaceful
societies, intercultural understanding and global citizenship; the fight against gender
inequality; … supporting populations in crisis, conflict and disaster situations’. UNESCO’s
2018–2021 agenda gives ‘unprecedented recognition of cultural heritage and cultural
diversity’.27
From an Australian perspective, by integrating and preserving immigrants’ cultural
heritage for posterity, and viewing it, following Nihas, as an ‘active long-term and ongoing
contribution to the evolving narrative of Australian identity, Australian nationhood and the
Australian politic’, the Migration Experiences project aims to strengthen immigrants’ sense
of belonging and identity as citizens while enabling a deeper understanding of the many
strands and influences that make up a nation’s history in a globalised world.
Acknowledgement
This research is supported by the research grant ‘Digital Preservation and Documentation of Australia’s Migrant
Cultural Heritage’, Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, United Nations Educational Scientific
and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 2018–2019.
9
References
1 Amit, K., Bar-Lev, S.: Immigrants’ sense of belonging to the host country: the role of life satisfaction,
language proficiency, and religious motives. Soc. Indic. Res. 124(3), 947–961 (2015)
2 United Nations: Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. International Migration
report 2017 (ST/ESA/SER.A/403) (2017)
3 Anderson, B.: Imagined Communities. Rev. ed. Verso, London (1991)
4 Arthur, P.L.: Things fall apart: identity in the digital world. Life Writ. 14(4), 541–550 (2017). Cardell, K.,
Douglas, K. (eds.) Locating Lives
5 Papastergiadis, N.: The Turbulence of Migration: Globalization, Deterritorialization and Hybridity. Wiley,
Hoboken (2018)
6 Arthur, P.L.: Transcultural studies in Australian identity. In: Arthur, P.L. (ed.) Migrant Nation: Australian
Culture, Society and Identity. Anthem, London (2018)
7 Szekeres, V.: Museums and multiculturalism: too vague to understand, too important to ignore. In: Griffin, D.,
Paroissien, L. (eds.) Understanding Museums: Australian Museums and Museology. National Museum
Australia, p. 8 (2011). http://nma.gov.au/research/ understanding-museums/index.html
8 Tudge, A.T.: Celebrating Australian multiculturalism on harmony day, 21 March 2018, Press release.
http://minister.homeaffairs.gov.au/alantudge/Pages/celebrating-australian-multiculturalism-on-harmony-
day.aspx
9 See Australian Bureau of Statistics data. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/lookup/
Media%20Release3. See also Nihas, V.: Migration heritage: Beyond the memory box. MHC Forum (1999).
http://www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au/mhc-reports/forum99/nihas.html
10 Museums in Australia: 1975 Report of the Committee of Inquiry on Museums and National Collections
including the Report of the Planning Committee on the Gallery of Aboriginal Australia, p. 5 (1975).
http://www.nma.gov.au/ data/assets/pdf_file/0018/1269/Museums_ in_Australia_1975_Pigott_Report.pdf
11 Peters, N., Marinova, D., van Faassen, M., Stasiuk, G.: Digital preservation of cultural heritage. In: Zacher,
L.W. (ed.) Technology, Society and Sustainability, pp. 107–114. Springer, Cham (2017).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47164-8_7. See also Arthur, P.L., Ensor, J., van Faassen, M., Hoekstra, R.,
Peters, N.: Migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage. J. Jpn. Assoc. Digit. Hum.
(accepted, forthcoming in 2018/19)
12 Macquarie Dictionary, p. 831. https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au
13 Hunt, E.: Barely half of population born in Australia to Australian-born parents. The Guardian (Australia
edition), 27 June 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/jun/27/australia-reaches-tipping-
point-with-quarter-of-population-born-overseas
14 UNESCO: Charter on the Preservation of the Digital Heritage, UNESCO Organisation des Nations Unies
pour l’éducation, la science et la culture (2003).
https://www.unesco.nl/sites/default/files/dossier/charter_digitaal_erfgoed.pdf?download=1
15 See Australian Government Aliens Act 1947. https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2004C01845
16 Migrant: Mobilities and connection project. Huygens ING, The Netherlands.
https://www.huygens.knaw.nl/migrant-mobilities-and-connection/?lang=en
17 Timbuctoo (open source repository system). Huygens ING, The Netherlands.
https://www.huygens.knaw.nl/timbuctoo/, https://www.clariah.nl/
18 Centre for Digital Humanities, Perm State University, Russia. Digitalhistory.ru
19 Povroznik, N.: Virtual museums and cultural heritage: challenges and solutions. In: Mäkelä, E., Tolonen, M.,
Tuominen, J. (eds.) Proceedings of the Digital Humanities in the Nordic Countries 3rd Conference, Helsinki,
Finland, 7–9 March (2018). http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2084/short14.pdf
20 Humanities Networked Infrastructure (HuNI). https://huni.net.au
21 The 2008 Roadmap included recognition of the Humanities area: ‘Six capability areas have emerged as a
result that essentially incorporate the former priority capabilities . . . together with a new capability recognising
the important and pervasive influences of the Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences’ (p. viii), and ‘A new
capability in the Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (HASS) has been identified in recognition of the wide-
ranging contributions these disciplines make to the national interest. Investment in this area would relate to a
HASS eResearch infrastructure including data creation and digitisation of research materials’ (p. 17)
22 Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation. https://www.libertyellisfoundation.org/AFIHC-celebrates-grand-
opening
23 Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation. https://www.libertyellisfoundation.org
24 Other examples of emigration museums include the new Irish Emigration Museum in Dublin, Ireland; the
House of Emigrants in Vaxjo, Sweden; and the Red Star Line Museum in Antwerp, Belgium
10
25 Grever, M.: Fear of plurality: historical culture and historiographical canonization in Western Europe. In:
Epple, A., Schaser, A. (eds.) Gendering Historiography: Beyond National Canons, pp 45–64. Verlag, Frankfurt
(2009)
26 UNESCO: 37 C/4 Medium-Term Strategy 2014–2021. UNESCO, Paris (2014)
27 UNESCO: 39 C/5 Volume 1 Draft Resolutions First Biennium 2018–2019. UNESCO, Paris (2017)
