TRAJECTORIES, TYPOLOGY AND IMPLICATIONS OF KIDNAPPING IN NIGERIA

Abstract

Kidnapping is one of the major security challenges facing Nigerians in recent time. Though it is not entirely a new phenomenon, yet, like a wild fire, it has continued to grow and assume horrendous dimensions. Some decades ago, kidnapping in Nigeria used to be regarded as a thing peculiar to some specific parts of the country, particularly the Niger Delta region which made news headlines due to the activities of the militants. However, today hardly there is a part of the country that is not faced with the threat of kidnapping thereby making it one of the most pervasive organised crimes in Nigeria. This is evident in series of kidnapping cases being reported which transcend social and spatial barriers across the country. Thus, relying on secondary sources of data, this study interrogated the existing literature to examine the trajectories, typology and implications of kidnapping on national development. The Queer Ladder Theory was adopted as theoretical framework for the study. Findings in the literature indicated harsh socioeconomic conditions occasioned by poor governance which breeds frustration, depression and aggression as some of the drivers of kidnapping. Based on the findings of the study, therefore, the study recommended creation of jobs by the three tiers of government, particularly at local government level which is closer to the people as a panacea to the menace of kidnapping in Nigeria.

Full text

International Journal of Management, Social Sciences, Peace and Conflict Studies (IJMSSPCS), Vol.3 No.2 June, 2020; p.g. 144 –
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TRAJECTORIES, TYPOLOGY AND IMPLICATIONS OF KIDNAPPING IN NIGERIA 144
TRAJECTORIES, TYPOLOGY AND IMPLICATIONS OF KIDNAPPING IN NIGERIA.
MUHAMMAD RIBADU AYUBA
Department of Sociology,
Faculty of Social Sciences,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
Email: ribadoayuba@gmail.com
mrayuba@abu.edu.ng
Tel: +2348036557188
Abstract
Kidnapping is one of the major security challenges facing Nigerians in recent time. Though it is not
entirely a new phenomenon, yet, like a wild fire, it has continued to grow and assume horrendous
dimensions. Some decades ago, kidnapping in Nigeria used to be regarded as a thing peculiar to some
specific parts of the country, particularly the Niger Delta region which made news headlines due to the
activities of the militants. However, today hardly there is a part of the country that is not faced with
the threat of kidnapping thereby making it one of the most pervasive organised crimes in Nigeria. This
is evident in series of kidnapping cases being reported which transcend social and spatial barriers across
the country. Thus, relying on secondary sources of data, this study interrogated the existing literature
to examine the trajectories, typology and implications of kidnapping on national development. The
Queer Ladder Theory was adopted as theoretical framework for the study. Findings in the literature
indicated harsh socioeconomic conditions occasioned by poor governance which breeds frustration,
depression and aggression as some of the drivers of kidnapping. Based on the findings of the study,
therefore, the study recommended creation of jobs by the three tiers of government, particularly at local
government level which is closer to the people as a panacea to the menace of kidnapping in Nigeria.
Keywords: Kidnapping, Trajectory, Typology, Queer Ladder Theory, Nigeria.
1. Introduction
It is understatement to describe kidnapping as a monstrous criminal activity that has
bedeviled Nigeria as a nation. Even though the current trends of the crime could be regarded
as relatively new, the horrendous dimensions it takes in different parts of the country is quite
worrisome. A recent global study of top 10 kidnap for ransom risk countries ranked Nigeria
second riskiest country in the world (Constellis, 2017). It has, thus, become a regular incidence
which inundates both print and online media outlets so much that it is no longer shocking to
break news about kidnapping in the country.
Initially, kidnapping activities in Nigeria used to be regarded as a thing of a particular militant
groups in the Nigeria’s oil rich Niger Delta where expatriates and wealthy local public and
private individuals were being targeted by the kidnappers. However, recent incidents have
revealed a remarkable change in the patterns and spatial spread of its occurrence as several
other regions of the country continue to experience the upsurge of kidnapping activities in
unequal proportions. As a matter of fact, it only takes one to look or feed well and have access
to some resources, however little, to be a potential kidnap victim in Nigeria today.

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Moreover, even regions with almost a near zero incidents of kidnapping some few decades
ago such as the northern region, have become hotspots of kidnapping in Nigeria, with the
northwest states of Kaduna, Katsina and Zamfara, being the most hit (Godwin, 2019). Thus,
several documented cases of high-net-worth kidnappings across the region abound. Some of
these include the notorious kidnapping of the former Comptroller-General of the Nigeria
Customs Service and the current District head of Daura emirate, the president’s home town,
Alhaji Musa Uba. The in-law to the sitting president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria was
held in captivity for sixty days before his eventual release by his kidnappers after a payment
of an undisclosed ransom (Bello, 2019). Few days after the incident, a minor – 16 year old boy,
was also kidnapped but regained freedom four days later after a payment of three hundred
thousand naira out of the initial five hundred thousand naira demanded by the kidnappers
(Bello, 2019).
Although the security operatives claim to have recorded some successes in terms of arrests of
some of the kingpin kidnappers across the country, the monstrous crime has seemingly
continued to grow unabated. It has become more worrisome considering its trends and type
of suspects being paraded as perpetrators of the crime. A case in point is the arrest of a gang
of kidnappers made up of young teenagers, the oldest of whom was 19 years in Kano
metropolis. These teenage kidnappers abducted, drugged and eventually killed a primary
school pupil in the metropolis (Gyamfi, Ogugbuaja, and Nzeagwu, 2019). This, among other
kidnapping incidents, speaks volume about the gruesome nature as well as the new
dimensions of the phenomenon in Nigeria. This study, therefore, attempts to examine the
historical trajectories and various types or dimensions of kidnapping activities in Nigeria with
the aim of making some laudable policy recommendations to address the phenomenon.
2. Theoretical Framework
The theory adopted in this work is the Queer Ladder Theory (QLT) to provide cogent
explanations of kidnapping as a social phenomenon. Daniel Bell (1919) was an American
sociologist who attempts to explain the fundamental nature of organised crimes as a way of
acquiring material resources and climbing higher social status (Okoli and Agada, 2014). The
QLT, therefore, basically assumes that organised crime is a deliberate behaviour that is
targeted at achieving a specific goal. It also assumes that organised crime can be regarded as
a conduit for attaining higher social status (social climbing) and/or a means of acquiring
economic power. The last assumption of QLT indicates that organised crime is a means of
wealth generation and power acquisition (Odoma and Akor, 2019; Okoli and Agada, 2014).
The assumptions of the QLT holds true particularly in societies where government’s capacity
to detect and ensure punitive measures against criminals is weak; where there is no equal
access to basic means of livelihood; where chances of upward social mobility among the
masses are too slim due to structural inefficiencies.
By application, therefore, the QLT explains the phenomenon of kidnapping as a form of
organised crime in Nigeria because it is crystal clear that the governments of the country over
the years have proven to lack the political will to address the phenomena of organised crimes
such as kidnapping. Kidnapping has been largely promoted in the country due to widespread
socioeconomic melancholy and attendant livelihood crisis. In other words, kidnapping has
been incentivised through the indolence of relevant government agencies to ensure

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appropriate punitive measures against the criminals thereby making the chances of success
(acquisition of economic gains) and escaping justice higher than its risks or costs. Also, the
theory points to the fact that kidnapping strives in Nigeria due to the criminal quest for
material gains particularly among the teeming unemployed youths who have mostly lost
hope in making a living through a socially approved means let alone rising on the social
mobility ladder. Similarly, the manner in which political appointments and chieftaincy titles
are offered to the highest bidder makes the criminals also want to get rich quickly through
kidnapping which afford them the opportunity to become rich over night.
3. Methodology
This study basically interrogated the existing literature using secondary data which include,
but not limited to, academic journal articles, newspaper reports, bulletins, e-books among
others
4.0 Literature Review
This section consists of a review of relevant literature on the trajectories and typology of
kidnapping as well as their implications for national development.
4.1 Trajectories of Kidnappings in Nigeria
The root of the word kidnapping is believed to have derived from two words namely: ‘kid’
(infant) and ‘napping’ (to be caught sleeping). Tzanelli (2009) narrated that the act of
kidnapping originated in the 17th century Great Britain when infants of the wealthy families
would be caught sleeping for ransom hence the term ‘kid’ ‘napping’. Thus, there is a sort of
consensus among researchers that the concept of kidnapping first emerged as an act of child
abduction or stealing. Over time, it evolved to assume other forms and dimensions. One of
the earliest notorious global cases of kidnapping involved the well-publicised 1874’s
abduction of a four year old boy in Pennsylvania (Okoli and Agada, 2014). Since then several
other cases of kidnapping have been witnessed in varying degrees and in different dimensions
across the developed and developing countries including Nigeria.
One of the earliest well-publicised cases of kidnapping in Nigeria was allegedly by the
military government headed by Major General Muhammadu Buhari in 1983. The victim,
Umaru Dikko, was alleged to have stolen public funds to the tune of 1bn USD while he served
as a minister of transportation in the first democratically elected government of Nigeria led
by Alhaji Shehu Shagari. His foiled kidnap was allegedly arranged in order to repatriate him
and force him cough out the public funds he was accused of embezzling (Alex, 2012).
However, Nigerians became conscious of the acts of kidnapping with the advent of the
struggle of the Niger Delta militants from 1990s, whose initial motive was to draw the
attention of government and even the international community to their plights as a result of
the oil exploration activities occurring in their communities. To achieve this, they engaged in
random abductions of the expatriate oil workers in the region. They would keep the victims
in captivity and demand huge ransom for their as a condition for their release. The magnitude
of these abductions was so high that, according to Ibrahim and Mukhtar (2017), it drew global
attention particularly from countries of origin of the victims as they made headlines in almost
all local and some international media. It was estimated that between 2007 and 2009 alone

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over two hundred foreign nationals were kidnapped in the Niger Delta region (Philip, c, 2009).
Thus, the Niger Delta is known for its notorious gangs of kidnappers who posed as freedom
fighters agitating for the emancipation of their region from the chains of poverty occasioned
by environmental degradation caused by oil spillage. Efforts of arresting the situation by the
federal government (FG) at different times yielded little or no results as the kidnappers
continued to succeed in capturing their targets – mostly foreign nationals. This was
manifested in the arrest of one of the notorious leaders of the Niger Delta militants – Mujahid
Asari Dokubo by the FG. The militants confronted the FG by kidnapping nine expatriates of
different countries and demanded nothing but the release of their leader as a trade-off (Chidi,
Rose and Uche, 2015).
Thus, throughout the 1990s the militants operated and recorded some degree of successes.
Moreover, with the formation of the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta
(MEND) they simply got stronger and more terrifying. In 2003, the militants were reported to
have kidnapped 270 persons, 97 of whom were expatriates (Ogbuehi, 2018). Subsequent years
equally witnessed a rise in kidnapping incidents in the region with the foreign nationals being
the main targets. Even though kidnapping in Nigeria started in the Niger Delta, it has now
spread to other parts of the country. In fact it has become a national disaster that occurs in
every nook and cranny of the country almost on daily basis.
Since the activities of the Boko Haram in northern Nigeria took a horrendous dimension,
several kidnapping incidents have been reported in the region. One of the earliest notorious
kidnapping incidents was the Chibok girls’ abduction of Borno state in April 2014 by the Boko
Haram terrorists. By June of the same year another 20 women and sixty female including
children were reportedly kidnapped by the Boko Haram in Borno state (CNN Library, 2018).
By 2017, soon after the release of 100 abducted Chibok girls, another 113 girls were kidnapped
by the terrorists in Dapchi, Yobe state, northeast Nigeria. On the whole, it is estimated that
over 1000 children have been kidnapped in northeast Nigeria since 2013 (Busari, 2018).
While the kidnap rate in the northeast is largely characterised by the terrorist activities of Boko
Haram, the kidnappings in the northwest and the north central geopolitical zones are
predominantly attributed to the activities of the bandits, Fulani herdsmen and other
communal violence. Reported incidents of kidnapping in the local media from January 2018
to September 2018 shows Kaduna, Katsina, Zamfara, Rivers and Akwa Ibom as states with
the highest number of kidnapping cases. According to the Nigeria’s Inspector-General of
Police the northwest Nigeria recorded the highest kidnap rate with a total of 365 persons
kidnapped in the first quarter of 2019. Thus, Zamfara state, being the hotspot, has the highest
national kidnap rate with 281 victims; while Kogi and Niger followed with 65 and 51
respectively (Godwin, 2019). Since 2016 kidnapping cases in the northwest and north central
attributed to the Fulani herdsmen and bandits have skyrocketed.
However, it is pertinent to mention that spatial boundaries are not determinants of the origin
of the perpetrators as the criminals travel across other localities to commit the crime as in the
reported case of Murtala Umaru who, when arrested, revealed his role in multiple kidnap
cases in Edo state axis, south-south Nigeria. The suspect, who was of Fulani extraction,
admitted making over N100 million ransom which he extorted from his victims (Johnson,

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2018). Similarly, in 2017, four suspected Fulani herdsmen were arrested for kidnapping
another herdsman’s wife and demanding N200,000 ransom (Akingboye, 2017). Earlier in the
same year, a gang of kidnappers also kidnapped a 22 year old woman; kept her in their den
and raped her for good three days (Ojo, 2017). In 2018, two Americans and two Canadians
had also been kidnapped in an ambush in Kaduna state. The expatriates were abducted at the
expense of two policemen attached to them as their escorts (Adebayo, 2018). However, the
police claimed to have rescued them without payment of any ransom. A month later, two
German archaeologists from the Goethe University in Frankfurt were also abducted from an
excavation site in Kaduna state and got their freedom (Laessing, 2018) only after payment of
ransom to their abductors. Still in 2018, three wives of one famous businessman, Adamu
Nakwana, were kidnapped by suspected bandits in Birnin Gwari local government area of
Kaduna state demanding ransom (Ogbuehi, 2018).
Recent kidnappings of security personnel in different parts of the country are the new
dimensions of the phenomenon. Both serving and retired military and police officers have
been reportedly kidnapped in one location or another. In 2017, for instance, two military
personnel in Delta state were kidnapped in broad day light. It took the intervention of the
Operation Delta Safe to secure the release of the personnel. Also, in 2017 a retired police
divisional officer in Edo state was kidnapped and a ransom of N25 million demanded from
his son to regain his freedom. In 2018, four police officers were kidnapped and their
operational van set ablaze by suspected herdsmen in Benue state (Godwin, 2019). Similarly,
in August 2019 a Divisional Police Officer (D.P.O) Mr. Okoro was kidnapped along the Benin-
Asaba-Onitsha Expressway and was released only upon the payment of N3 million ransom
(Matthew, 2019). Earlier in May 2019 two officials of the Federal Road Safety Commission
(FRSC) were kidnapped in Osun State. Their abductors demanded N1 million ransom before
they were eventually freed (Matthew, 2019). Perhaps the most recent kidnapping incident
involving the security personnel in Nigeria is that of Musa Rabo, an Assistant Commissioner
of Police who was easily kidnapped on his way to Jos on October 19, 2019 (Tauna, 2019). His
kidnappers demanded N50 million ransom but the Nigeria Police Force on its twitter handle
declared that it was able to secure his release unhurt without payment of any ransom. These
incidents have demoralising effects on the psyche of the general public as the people who are
empowered by law to protect them have also become vulnerable to the kidnappers’ attacks.
Thus, with the official statistics estimating an average of 1000 kidnapping cases per year,
everyone residing or working in Nigeria is a potential victim or target of the kidnappers
irrespective of their nationality or socioeconomic status (Ibrahim and Mukhtar, 2017).
4.2 Highlights of Some Reported Kidnapping Incidents in Nigeria
The phenomenon of kidnapping has taken a horrendous dimension in Nigeria. Over the years,
the country has experienced different forms of kidnapping and in different locations. Some
decades ago, kidnapping was regarded as a modus operandi for the Niger Delta militants
who struggled for the emancipation of their region by forming various militant organisations.
However, recent occurrences reveal a new trend of kidnapping transcending socio-
geographic boundaries in the country. While the Boko Haram insurgents held sway in the
north east, the criminal Fulani elements have maintained the lead as the most terrifying
criminal groups in the North West. Thus, in this section, a timeline of kidnapping incidents in

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Nigeria from 2011 to 2019 has been reviewed. Table 1 below shows a timeline of some reported
kidnapping incidents in Nigeria:
Table 1: Timeline of Reported Kidnapping Incidents in Nigeria
S/N
Victim
Year
Place
Ransom
demanded/p
aid
Released/
killed
1
Mr. Ohunyom Ernest
2011
Lagos
N85 Million
Released
2
Mr. Ojukwu Cosmas
2012
Lagos
$1Million
Released
3
Mr. Mbarikatta Williams
Uboma
2012
Lagos
N20 million
Released
4
Mohammed Jamal (Labanese)
2012
Lagos
N17 million
Released
5
Mr Leo Abraham
2012
Lagos
N15Million
Released
6
Mr. Paul Cole
2012
Lagos
N20 Million
Released
7
Mr. Kingsley Nwokenta
2012
Lagos
N15 Million
Released
8
Mr. Anthony Ozoanidobi
2012
Lagos
N15 Million
Released
9
Mr. Tom
2012
Benin
N100
Million
Released
10
Owner of Kings Paint
2012
Benin
N40 million
Released
11
Mr. Randaki
2012
Benin
N30 million
Released
12
Mr. Dan Odiete
2013
Benin
N100 million
Released
13
Owner of Uyi Technical
2013
Benin
N100 million
Released
14
Elias Ukachukwu
2015
Lagos
$1 Million
Released
15
Chief Raymond Okoye
2015
Lagos
$1 Million
Released
16
Mr.Uche Okafor
2015
Lagos
$1 Million
Released
17
Mr. James Udoji
2016
Lagos
$1 Million
Released
18
Mr. Francis Umeh
2016
Lagos
$1 Million
Released
19
Col. Samaila Inusa
2016
Kaduna
Unknown
Killed
20
Rev. Fr. John Adeyi
2016
Benue
Unknown
Killed
21
Margaret Emefiele
2016
Delta
N1.5 Billion
Released
22
Mr & Mrs Pius Mallam
2016
Kaduna
Unknown
Released
23
Amb. Bagudu Hirse
2016
Kaduna
Unknown
Released
24
Isa Achuja (HRM)
2017
Kogi
N20 Million
Released
25
Mr. Donatus Duru
2017
Lagos
N150
Million
Released
26
2 German Archaeologists
2017
Kaduna
Unknown
Released
27
Oba Joel Daodu
2017
Ondo
N15 Million
Released
28
2 military officers
2017
Delta
Unknown
Rescued
29
A retired DPO
2017
Edo
25 million
Released
30
A wife of a Fulani herdsman
2017
Ondo
200,000
Released
31
2 Americans and 2 Canadians
2018
Kaduna
Unknown
Released
32
3 wives of a business mogul
Adamu Nakwana
2018
Kaduna
Unknown
Released
33
A Divisional Police Officer
2019
Edo
3 million
Released
34
2 officials of FRSC
2019
Osun
1 million
Released
35
ACP Musa Rabo
2019
Kaduna
50 million
Rescued
36
Musa Uba, Ex CG of Nigeria
Custom
2019
Daura
Unknown
Rescued
Source: Adapted from Odoma and Akor (2019) and modified by the author

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Even though table 1 above is not exhaustive, yet it can be deduced that the incidents of
kidnapping have become so prevalent in Nigeria, and tend to affect different categories of
people by transcending geographic boundaries or demarcations.
4.3 Typology of Kidnapping
For proper understanding of the act of kidnapping, Okoli and Agada (2014) identified three
elements that need to be taken into account: (i) taking one away against their consent; (ii)
keeping one in false imprisonment or illegal confinement; and (iii) extortion of ransom from
the victim. Thus, several types and classifications of kidnapping have been made and
discussed by different researchers in the literature. Some of these researchers include Turner
(1998), Pharaoh (2005), Mohammed (2008), Eze and Ezeibe (2012), Ottuh and Aitufe (2014),
Okoli and Agada (2014) among others. Zannoni (2003) broadly categorised kidnapping into
three (3): a) Criminal kidnapping: This according to Zannoni (2003) is a kidnapping motivated
by the quest to obtain ransom from the victim’s family, business or associates; b) Political
kidnapping: this type of kidnapping is informed by the desire to advance a political course
often through the use of sophisticated weapons. Militant and terrorist activities fall under this
category; and c) Pathological kidnapping: also known as emotional kidnapping (Zannoni,
2003). It is a type of kidnapping where the motive is to inflict psychological pains on the
victim. Examples of this include rape, child abduction by separated parents among others.
The United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime (UNODC, 2003) officially classified
kidnapping into: kidnapping for ransom, kidnapping between or within criminal groups,
kidnapping for sexual exploitation, kidnapping linked to family or spouse disputes, revenge
kidnapping, political kidnapping and ideological kidnapping. However, the kidnapping for
ransom seem to be the most common in Nigeria where wealthy people are being abducted in
exchange for money. Similarly, the Overseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC, 2019)
identified kidnap for ransom as one of five (5) basic types of kidnapping. According to OSAC
(2019) kidnap for ransom is a major strategy used by kidnappers to source for funds with
which to run their illicit operations. It is regarded as the oldest and the most popular form of
kidnapping which entails taking hostage in order to extract some money from their relatives
or business associates. Thus, in developing countries like Nigeria, expatriates and wealthy
individuals constitute the larger group of the victims of this type of kidnapping. Several cases
involving foreigners in the country abound. For instance, in 2015, an American missionary
was abducted in south of Abuja and a ransom worth $300,000 demanded for her release.
Another type of kidnapping identified by the OSAC (2019) is tiger kidnapping or proxy
bombings. It is a form of kidnapping in which ransom is not sought; rather the victim is forced
into doing a specific action for the criminals like coercing a banker to disclose the password
of the vault of the bank in order to steal from it. Sometimes, the victim could be kidnapped
and coerced to plant an explosive in a target (proxy bombing) which is very common among
militant groups through guerrilla warfare. The tiger kidnapping is common in western and
Asian countries. Express kidnapping is the third type of kidnapping and which is most
common in several parts of Africa and Latin America. It is, according to the OSAC (2019), a
kidnapping that involves only the perpetrator and the victim where the victim is threatened
by the criminal through the use of weapon or other dreadful means usually to coerce them to
make ATM withdrawals of maximum daily amount of cash. In some instances the victim is

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held hostage to pass the night with the criminals, particularly when the victim exceeds the
daily maximum limit of withdrawals. Express kidnappers use different strategies or forms to
execute their evil intentions. Apart from using weapon to physically conscript the victim and
get him/her do what they want, the express kidnappers sometimes pose as taxi drivers or even
police officers in order to fool their unsuspecting victim. For instance, the Crimes and Safety
Report for South Africa in 2016 identified express kidnappings by kidnappers posing as police
officers around the country’s airports as a major security threat facing travellers into the
country. The kidnappers, dressed in police uniforms would mount a checkpoint and stop the
unsuspecting victim to either rob him/her or abduct them for an express kidnapping. In most
cases, the victims of express kidnapping are eventually released unharmed especially if the
victims cooperated well with his/her captors. This type of kidnapping has led to the
innovation of ride-share applications in numerous countries such as Nigeria. For instance, the
introduction of Uber in Nigeria is partly seen as a laudable initiative which helps to curb the
menace of express kidnapping in the country. However, the ride-share system too is being
penetrated to perpetrate express kidnapping by the criminals as evidently shown in South
Africa in 2017 when a couple was attacked and forced to withdraw money from an ATM by a
criminal who posed as a rideshare driver.
The fourth type of kidnapping identified by OSAC (2019) is political and ideological
kidnapping. This is a kidnapping that is politically and/or ideologically motivated. Here, the
victims of kidnapping are held hostage by their abductors to swap for their members who are
being held by government as prisoners. Thus, the victims are deemed to have some sort of
kidnap ransom value; ransom value in the sense that they are either personalities that the
government cannot afford to ignore their abduction or for fear of losing political relevance.
Also, this type of kidnapping could be carried out in order to acquire some negotiations
advantage over the government or simply for propaganda purposes. Here, the victim’s
immediate family has little or no role to play in securing the release of the victim, and as such
the victim’s fate rests on the outcome of the negotiations between his/her government and the
criminal syndicates. A number of incidents of this type of kidnapping abound in the literature.
The Boko Haram terrorist group in the north eastern Nigeria have in different occasions
abducted school children in Chibok and Dapchi of Borno and Yobe states respectively.
Notable individuals in the country such as the former president Olusegun Obasanjo have
served as mediators between the group and the government on the negotiations table. The
group has often negotiated for the swap of the abducted children with their imprisoned
members. Thus, the political and ideological kidnapping tends to be more pervasive in
countries with extremist militant groups or insurgents who often pick up arms against their
government. One of the most popular terrorist groups which engaged in this type of
kidnapping is the Al-Qa’ida which has kidnapped so many notable individuals and
demanded a swap of its imprisoned members as a term for the release of the victims.
OSAC (2019) identified virtual kidnapping as the fifth type of kidnapping which, as the name
implies, entails the use of the victim’s details and daily routine by the criminals to claim
having him with them through the use of an accomplice who pretends to be the hostage by
crying and screaming for help from the family of the victim. This way the family of the victims
would be compelled to send the demanded ransom – which is often not much so as to enable
the family send the money in time. Meanwhile, the presumed victim might be elsewhere

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engaged in his activities ignorant of what transpired between his family and the criminals.
Virtual kidnapping is often targeted at individuals who live far away from members of their
families such as foreign students, those who work abroad or those in transit. It is a scam that
exploits panic, fear and urgency (USSS, 2016). The modus operandi of the virtual kidnappers
varies across space and time. In this type of kidnapping, the victim receives a call informing
him/her about the kidnapping of their loved one thereby demanding a payment in order to
secure his/her release. As part of the plan, a co-conspirator is hired to play the role of the
victim through screaming and crying so as to make them believe that the kidnapping is real.
Hence, the FBI has severally issued warnings concerning the growth of this scam known as
virtual kidnapping.
Okoli and Agada (2014) also identified and described the following types of kidnapping:
bride, express and tiger kidnappings. By bride kidnapping, the authors refer to a situation
where a bride or bridegroom is taken to an unknown place with the intention to marry
without the consent of his/her parent. Ottuh and Aitufe (2014) also identified this type of
kidnapping as a common practice in traditional nomadic Asian and African societies. This
form of kidnapping was earlier discussed by Yang, Lung, and Huang (2007) as a cultural
dimension of kidnapping, arguing that the bride kidnapping be regarded as cultural practice
of some Asian and African traditional communities where bride is captured against the will
of her parents. It often occurs where the bride’s family refuses to marry out their daughter to
the groom. Consequently, the bride conspires with the groom and goes away to where they
can get married and settle as a couple (Ottuh and Aitufe, 2014). What qualifies this act as
kidnapping is taken away of the bride without the consent of her parents, even when she loves
the groom.
Express kidnapping is a type of kidnapping which is informed by the desire to make a quick
and ‘express’ money through coercing the victim to withdraw from an ATM. It usually does
not last long as the victim usually is set free except if he/she proves uncooperative with the
criminals. Hence, Okoli and Agada (2014) describe this type of kidnapping as being motivated
by some financial interests. Thus, express kidnapping often does not involve huge amount of
money, rather it is informed by the desire of the kidnappers to extort a small ransom that the
victim’s family or business associates can quickly raise in short time (Mohammed, 2008).
However, this type of kidnapping, which mainly occurs in developing Asian and African
countries, is often perpetrated by amateur kidnappers. Instances of this type of kidnapping
abound in the media both print and electronic. For example, the kidnapping of a lady
travelling to Port Harcourt in 2011 and who was released upon payment of a ransom in
hundreds of naira, is an express kidnapping (Ottuh and Aitufe, 2014). The third category
identified by Okoli and Agada (2014) is tiger kidnapping, and it refers to the process of
holding a victim as a hostage with the view of using him/her to commit another crime. A
situation where a bank manager is kidnapped and compelled to issue instruction to his
subordinates to make an illegal transaction exemplifies tiger kidnapping.
Other researchers such as Oladeinde (2017) categorised kidnapping into three: target,
spontaneous and aggravated. However, in spite of the preponderance of the types of
kidnapping, they all target at taking an undue advantage over innocent victims.

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TRAJECTORIES, TYPOLOGY AND IMPLICATIONS OF KIDNAPPING IN NIGERIA 153
5. Tactics and Targets of the Kidnappers
Like other organised crimes, kidnapping involves the use of offensive gadgets, weapons,
technologies and sensitive information by the criminals (kidnappers) in order to forcefully
take away their victims thereby instilling fears and terror in the minds of their relatives.
Kidnappers are usually skilled, tactful and rational as they calculate the costs and benefits of
their actions. Thus, successful kidnapping involves, among other things, availability of
material and human resources, some level of technology, professional training in the use of
sophisticated weapons etc.
As rational actors, kidnappers do have their targets. Numerous factors come into
consideration when determining a potential target of kidnapping depending on the nature
and purpose of the kidnapping operation. While in some instances political factors, religious
course, revenge, prisoners’ swap inform a kidnapping operation, in most cases, however,
ransom is the major determinant of the calibre or category of people to be kidnapped. Thus,
most kidnappers determine their targets based on the victim’s Kidnap Ransom Value (KRV).
KRV can be described as the ‘strategic net worth of a kidnapee, which in essence, makes
him/her a kidnap target’ (Okoli and Agada, 2014). The main motive behind kidnap for ransom
is to abduct a victim who is deemed wealthy enough to pay the ransom, or one who has blood
relations or business associates that can pay the demanded ransom. Okoli and Agada (2014)
concisely identified some determinants of KRV as highlighted in table 2 below:
Table 2: Determinants of Kidnap Ransom Value (KRV)
S/N
Factor
Illustration
1
Personal affluence of victim
This has to do with the material standing of the
target victim
2
Family premium on victim
The fact that the victim is an only child, or the
only
male/female child raises his/her KRV
3
Corporate premium on victim
Business executives and strategic stakeholders
of firms are accorded much value
4
Public stake/relevance
Political office-holders, paramount rulers, etc.
are seen
as possessing high ransom value
5
Social connections/networks
Members of eminent social friendship networks
are also seen as high targets
6
Type of kidnappers involved
Petty kidnappers are likely to accept cheap
ransom
7
The negotiation process
The quality and terms of the negotiation process
is
likely to help in determining the KRV
Source: Adapted from Okoli and Agada (2014).
From table 2 above, it can be understood that the ransom value of a potential victim of
kidnapping is determined by his/her real socioeconomic standing and the kidnappers’
perceived ransom worth of the victim. Thus, on one hand, one may face the risk of being
kidnapped provided they personally own material possession or occupy certain high social

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TRAJECTORIES, TYPOLOGY AND IMPLICATIONS OF KIDNAPPING IN NIGERIA 154
status in the society. On the other hand, one may be a kidnap target because of the net worth
of their relatives and/or business associates/partners. In this regard, families of wealthy
persons, politicians, celebrities, business tycoons among others, regardless of their
socioeconomic status or other socio-demographic characteristics such as age, gender or
religious inclinations are all targets of kidnap for ransom. This is because the ransom being
demanded by the kidnappers can always be raised by the wealthy relatives. Instances where
this type of scenario played out in Nigeria abound. For instance, the kidnap of the wife of the
current governor of the Central Bank of Nigeria in 2016 where a ransom of 1.5 billion naira
was demanded for her release is a good example of KRV (Mutum, 2016). This incident is an
attestation to the fact that kidnap for ransom has become so pervasive in Nigeria that not only
wealthy individuals, who are direct targets, are at risk but also low and medium profile
individuals who are mostly indirect targets.
Furthermore, it is interesting to note that Nigeria has for long time been recognised by the
international community as one of the top countries with high incidents of kidnapping in the
world. For instance, Nigeria ranked as the 8th country on the list of top 10 kidnapping
countries in the late 1990s as shown in tables 3 below:
Table 3: Top 10 kidnapping Countries (1999)
Country
Global ranking
Columbia
1st
Mexico
2nd
Brazil
3rd
The Philippines
4th
Venezuela
5th
Ecuador
6th
Former Soviet Union
7th
Nigeria
8th
India
9th
South Africa
10th
Source: Adapted from Okoli and Agada (2014)
Ten (10) years after, another world ranking of the top 12 kidnapping countries indicated
Nigeria as ranking 11th on the list. Table 4 below shows this ranking:

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TRAJECTORIES, TYPOLOGY AND IMPLICATIONS OF KIDNAPPING IN NIGERIA 155
Table 4: Top 12 Kidnapping Countries in the World (2008)
Country
Global ranking
Mexico
1st
Iraq
2nd
India
3rd
South Africa
4th
Brazil
5th
Pakistan
6th
Ecuador
7th
Venezuela
8th
Columbia
9th
Bangladesh
10th
Nigeria
11th
Haiti
12th
Source: Adapted from Okoli and Agada (2014)
However, a recent ranking conducted by the Constellis (2017) revealed that Nigeria now ranks
2nd on the top 10 kidnap for ransom risk countries in the world. Table 5 below shows the
Constellis (2017) world ranking of top 10 countries at risk of kidnap for ransom:
Table 5: Top 10 Kidnap for Ransom Risk Countries
S/N
Country
Rank
Ransom Demand
Low-medium
profile
individuals
High profile
individuals
Foreign nationals
1
Libya
1st
$100,000-150,000
$150,000-1 million
$ 5 – 8 million
2
Nigeria
2nd
$27,600-276,000
$50,000- 1 million
$200,000-950,000
3
Venezuela
3rd
$450,000 & above
$10 million
Unknown
4
Mexico
4th
$26,300 & above
$211,000 & above
$500,000-1million
5
Yemen
5th
$<100,000
$100,000 & above
$1 – 20 million
6
Syria
6th
$2,000 & above
$20,000 & above
$100,000
7
Philippines
7th
$6,500 & above
$65,000 & above
$108,000-21.5m
8
Iraq
8th
$<65,000
$300,000
$2 – 10 million
9
Afghanistan
9th
$<100,000
$100,000 & above
$20 million
10
Somalia
10th
$<30,000
$30,000 & above
$20 million
Source: Compiled by the author
From table 5 above, it can be seen that Nigeria occupies the second position on the list of the
top 10 world kidnap for ransom risk countries. This can be validated by close examination of
the number of incidents of kidnappings being recorded on daily basis in the country even
while the unreported cases appear to be likely higher. The reason for the upsurge of kidnap
for ransom is not unrelated to numerous socioeconomic factors that bother on the poor living
standard of the poor who constitute the majority of the citizens.

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TRAJECTORIES, TYPOLOGY AND IMPLICATIONS OF KIDNAPPING IN NIGERIA 156
6. Factors Driving Kidnapping in Nigeria
The bourgeoning rate of kidnapping in Nigeria has attracted the attention of several scholars
to research into its causes with a view to proffering some solutions. Even though kidnapping
has been an age long criminal pathology, however, its recent prevalence and new dimensions
are unprecedented in the history of Nigeria. Thus, criminal motivation, primitive
accumulation and vicious capitalist exploitation have been identified by a number of
researchers as drivers of kidnapping (Tzannelli, 2009).
Kidnapping in Nigeria is said to thrive due to the pervasive unemployment, particularly
among the teeming youths. For instance, an empirical study conducted by Ayuba (2020) on
the catalysts of kidnapping in some north western states, Nigeria revealed that kidnapping
has become rampant in the region as a result of lack of employment opportunities for the
youths. Majority of the youths in the region have abandoned agriculture which is its economic
mainstay; they relocated to urban areas in search for nonexistent jobs. It is the pool of these
youths who often engage in political thuggery during electioneering periods and get dumped
by their political masters when the elections are over that take kidnapping as means of
livelihood (Ayuba, 2020). Earlier finding by Chidi (2014) equally identified unemployment
and loss of societal values as drivers of kidnapping in Nigeria. He based his argument on the
fact that the number of graduates being produced by Nigerian tertiary institutions annually
is not proportional to the job opportunities being created. Another factor found promoting
kidnapping in Nigeria is moral decadence particularly among the youths Inyang and Ubong
(2013). A later study by Ayuba (2020) also identified disappearance of core traditional moral
values of respect for elders, communal sense of belonging, love for human lives and hard
work as responsible for the scourge of kidnapping in Nigeria. Related to this is the argument
of Onovo (2010) that the celebration of fraudsters by elites through conferment of traditional
titles is not only an indictment on the societal values but also an encouragement for
kidnapping as a quick evil way to wealth generation.
Poor governance has also been described as a driver of kidnapping in Nigeria. Inadequate
provision of basic amenities such as potable water, good road network, effective healthcare
delivery, quality education at all levels and most importantly government inability to ensure
security of lives and properties have combined to produce an aggressive and frustrated young
adults who eventually become security threat to the society (Ayuba, 2020). Lack of these basic
amenities are but outcomes of the corrupt practices of the political elites over the years
(Ogabido, 2009; Thom-Otuya, 2010; and Arewa, 2013), and which has eroded the confidence
of most people in the Nigerian government.
7. Implications of Kidnapping for National Development
There is no gainsaying that the scourge of kidnapping has already done more harm to the
corporate existence of Nigeria as a nation. Initially, when kidnapping of indigenous oil
workers and expatriates was the order of the day in the oil rich Niger Delta region, people
from other regions were quite aggressive and trade blames with the inhabitants of the region
as constituting a clog in the wheel of progress of the country. Similarly, when the monster
appeared in the north east of the country through the criminal activities of Boko Haram,
particularly with the abduction of Chibok girls and Dapchi school children, the narrative
changed from kidnapping to ruin the nation’s economy in the Niger Delta to kidnapping to

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TRAJECTORIES, TYPOLOGY AND IMPLICATIONS OF KIDNAPPING IN NIGERIA 157
Islamise the nation through the aid of international Islamic groups, thereby taking religious
dimension. In similar vein, when the Fulani herdsmen took over the kidnapping as a business
venture, the image of the country was further being smeared as various ethnic groups
advanced their course of agitations and painted the country’s leadership black by accusing it
of promoting the Fulani ‘jihadist agenda’ because the sitting president is of Fulani extraction.
In all these, the country’s image suffered a lot of damage as it is being portrayed in a bad light
before global community. The effects of these on the country are enormous and have
manifested in the way the country is being regarded by many as one of the headquarters of
kidnapping in the world.
Thus, researchers have made several attempts to highlight some of the serious implications of
kidnapping for national development. One of the consequences of kidnapping is the scaring
away of foreign investors, who are generally regarded as drivers of economic growth in any
country. As earlier pointed out in table 1, a number of foreign nationals have been kidnapped
and a huge amount of money was paid before their release. Hence, the Constellis (2017)
ranked Nigeria as 2nd on the top 10 countries at risk of kidnap for ransom. The implication of
the flight of investors from the country contracts the economy which further worsens the
socioeconomic conditions of the citizens. In line with this argument, Chidi (2014) argued that
the effects of kidnapping go beyond the psychological trauma it brings to the individual
victims and their families as it scares potential economic investors thereby aggravating the
unemployment rate and depriving the government foreign direct investment. Okoli and
Agada (2014) succinctly enumerated the consequences of kidnapping in Nigeria where they
argued that kidnapping does not only constitute a threat to public safety but also depopulate
the nation through loss of lives thereby constituting a clog in the wheel of progress and
development of the country. They further identified a decline in foreign direct investment,
tourism which occurs as a result of the grim picture of the country being created by the
activities of the kidnappers. Thus, several business have been shut down, tourist sites have
been deserted thereby worsening the unemployment and poverty situation in the country.
Therefore, it is not out of place to assert that the spate of kidnapping in Nigeria has largely
contributed in worsening its fragile economic and political structure. The greatest damage
perhaps is the loss of confidence by the majority of the citizens in the capacity of government
to discharge its constitutional mandate of securing their lives and properties.
8. Conclusion and Policy Recommendations
In this study, historical trajectories and typology of kidnapping in Nigeria have been
examined. Even though the phenomenon of kidnapping is not new in Nigeria, the new
dimensions it takes in recent times and its prevalence have become serious issues of national
concern. The study established the existence of different types of kidnapping with kidnap for
ransom being the most prevalent and most trending in Nigeria. This is not unconnected to the
pervasive poverty and unemployment, the quest for criminal accumulation of wealth,
particularly among the teeming youths. Similarly, poor governance manifested in corrupt
practices of public servants and political elites have been described as some of the motivating
factors for kidnapping in Nigeria. Near absence of basic amenities such as good road
networks, effective healthcare facilities, adequate educational facilities, provision of other
essential public services such as electricity, quality potable water supply, equal access to jobs

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TRAJECTORIES, TYPOLOGY AND IMPLICATIONS OF KIDNAPPING IN NIGERIA 158
or employment opportunities among others are all manifestations of political corruption
which creates and promotes criminalities such as kidnapping in Nigeria.
In view of the pervasiveness of kidnapping in Nigeria, the study makes some policy
recommendations with the view of curtailing the phenomenon in Nigeria. As part of the
measures, the state governments should establish and empower local security apparatuses
made up of indigenous people. This is because the indigenous security personnel are more
likely effective in proper policing as they know every nook and cranny of the state. Secondly,
state governments should enact and enforce stiff laws to promptly prosecute kidnappers. This
will serve as deterrent to potential kidnappers in the states. Governments in all other 35 states
and the Federal Capital Territory should emulate the death penalty adopted by Lagos state
and the national assembly. Thirdly, since poverty has been found to play a motivating role in
the rise of kidnapping incidence, poverty alleviation programmes should be designed and
implement effectively by governments at all levels. The federal government’s N-power and
conditional cash transfer programmes should be extended to accommodate more vulnerable
people, and above all effective supervision must be ensured if the programmes are to
transform lives of ordinary Nigerians. Also, as a measure of fighting poverty, local
governments should engage their youths in vocational training since not all parents can afford
tertiary education for their children. Similarly, the state governments should design and scale
up a robust training of youths in ICT and other skills acquisition programmes. This way, the
rate of redundancy and idleness among the youths will be drastically reduced, as the saying
goes: “an idle mind is devil’s workshop”.
Lastly, the federal ministry of agriculture and rural development should double its efforts in
enlightening local farmers on modern techniques of farming so as to enhance their
productivity and boost their harvest. Equally, the federal government through the Ministry
should further subsidise fertilizer for poor local farmers. Once these agricultural policies are
formulated and effectively implemented, both the state and local government should as a
matter of necessity provide minimum basic amenities such as good road network, electricity,
pipe borne water, effective transportation system, healthcare delivery and educational
facilities to the rural communities. These measures will go a long way in discouraging massive
exodus of the youths from rural communities to urban areas.
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